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EST 70 No. of Pages 12

Journal of Energy Storage xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Energy storage systems in modern grids—Matrix of technologies and

applications
Omid Palizban* , Kimmo Kauhaniemi
Department of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology, University of Vaasa, Vaasa, Finland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Energy storage technologies are used in modern grids for a variety of applications and with different
Received 9 December 2015 techniques. The range of applications and technologies is very broad, and finding the right storage
Received in revised form 1 February 2016 solution for the job at hand can be difficult. In order to simplify the selection, this paper presents a matrix
Accepted 2 February 2016
of the available technologies and applications. Along with proposing the matrix, the technologies and
Available online xxx
applications of Energy Storage Systems (ESSs) are described thoroughly and are compared on the basis of
many different parameters, such as capacity, storage power, response time, discharge time, and life time.
Keywords:
Moreover, the structure of energy storage, which is constituted of different steps and parts, is
Applications of energy storages
Energy storage system
investigated. Since the implementing of an ESS is expensive, this paper also analyzes the possibility of
Modern grid integrating different types of ESSs and presents a comprehensive diagram to show the ESS technologies
Renewable energy source that can be integrated together in order to provide the needed performance in a cost-optimal way. Finally,
Energy storage technologies the key results of this comprehensive study are summarized in a number of tables.
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. Structure of energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3. Energy storage technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.1. Electrochemical storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2. Mechanical storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.1. Flywheel energy storage (FES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.2. Pumped hydro storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2.3. Compressed air energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.3. Electrical storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.3.1. Double layer capacitor (DLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.3.2. Superconducting magnetic energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.4. Thermal storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Energy storage applications in the power system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.1. Bulk energy applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.1.1. Energy arbitrage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.1.2. Peak shaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.2. Ancillary service applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.2.1. Load following . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.2.2. Spinning reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.2.3. Voltage support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.2.4. Black start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

* Corresponding author at: Department of Electrical and Energy Engineering,

University of Vaasa, Vaasa FI-65101, Finland.
E-mail addresses: omid.palizban@uva.fi (O. Palizban),
Kimmo.Kauhaniemi@uva.fi (K. Kauhaniemi).

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2352-152X/ ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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4.2.5. Frequency regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

4.3. Customer energy management applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.3.1. Power quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.3.2. Power reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.4. Renewable energy integration applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4.5. Location of each application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5. Technologies and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6. The integration of energy storage technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

1. Introduction The second critical issue for storage systems may be the control
of each application and of the optimum storage type. Indeed, in
Power management and stability assurance are critical tasks in implementing an optimum storage project, three different steps
modern grids because of the variables involved in generation and need to be considered:
on the demand side. There are many different methods of
approaching these problems, such as de-loading the operation
Investigating the type and size of the storage system and
of Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) when the generation of power selecting the one that is best for the system.
is greater than demand and load shedding during power shortages
Defining the best control strategy for the application considering
[1–5]. However, the absorption and injection of energy by energy the selected storage system.
storage systems may be the best solution for managing this issue
Investigating the net present value of the storage system.
well [6–9]. Investigations of the challenges and barriers to power
systems indicate that ESSs should aim at the following three In the second step, control methodologies for ESSs can be
targets [10–12]: classified as either central or decentralized and can cover both of
the arrangements. Indeed, the control methodologies of storage

Enhancing the reliability of renewable energy sources; units, and also the power-electronics interfaced DG system with

Improving the resilience of the grid and resolving its issues; them, are investigated in [23–25] for centralized methods and in

Realizing the benefits of smart grids and optimizing generation [26–31] for decentralized methods. Moreover, the control strategy
to suit demand. is comprehensively discussed by the authors in [32,33].
In recent years, there has been much interest in investigations
Indeed, by storing energy when it is easily available and into technologies and applications of ESS. Researchers have
dispatching it during shortages, the combination of energy storage produced comprehensive reviews in this area, such as those by
technology and RESs can help to stabilize power output while also Tan et al. [17], Carnegie et al. [34], Bradbury et al. [35], and
enhancing the reliability of RESs. Moreover, energy storage can Cavanagh et al. [36] The first objective of the present paper is thus
increase the resilience of systems during weather variations, to cover the first step by creating a matrix of different storage
natural disasters, and so on [13–16]. technologies and their applications. Such a matrix may be
In fact, determining the best arrangement of ESS can be the first beneficial in allowing industry and researchers to quickly
critical issue in designing a system. From this point of view, storage determine the optimum storage technique for a given application.
systems may be either distributed or aggregated. In distributed The second objective of this paper is to analyze the possibility of
arrangements, the energy storage systems are connected via integrating different ESS technologies. Indeed, such an analysis can
individual power electronic interfaces to each RES. In this method, help to obviate the high cost of storing energy in certain
each storage system has responsibility for the control and applications.
optimization of the power output of the source to which it is The present paper is organized as follows: The structure of
connected [17–19]. The aggregated model operates so that the energy storage is discussed in Section 2. The energy storage
whole system—for example, a microgrid (MG)—is supported technologies and applications are investigated in Sections 3 and 4,
through a central energy storage system. Depending on the respectively. A comparison of these two issues and the matrix
arrangement, such a system may be connected to the DC bus either appear in Section 5. The possibility of integrating ESS is discussed
directly or through a power-electronic interface [20–22]. in Section 6. Finally, the conclusion is presented in Section 7.

Fig. 1. Energy equilibrium in ESS.

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2. Structure of energy storage be considered. Finally, the discharge steps can be obtained:
Est
To store the generated power, it is necessary to convert it into hdish ¼ ð5Þ
Edisch
other forms of energy, such as chemical or mechanical energy. As


was presented by Gazarian[37], and based on the above Moreover, the total energy storage efficiency htotal
st is shown in
definitions, energy storage consists of three different steps: charge: Eq. (6) [37].
absorbing electrical energy from sources; storage: converting
Eout
electrical energy to other types of energy and storing it and htotal
st ¼ ¼ hch  hst ðtÞ  hdisch ð6Þ
discharge: injecting the stored electrical energy back into the Egenerate
system. Moreover, storage systems can be divided into three In these equations and Fig. 1, the losses of energy are shown by
different parts: central storage, the repository in which the energy DEloss and the energy losses during storage, charge, and discharge
is stored after conversion; power transformation, the interface
are presented asDEst ,DEch and DEdisch respectively. The stored
between the central storage and the power system with
energy in the central part, represented by Est andEst , is the existing
bidirectional transfer; and control, which uses sensors and other
energy from this part.Egenerate ,Eout ,Ech , and Edisch are the generated,
measuring devices to determine the level of charge or discharge of
output, charging, and discharging energy respectively. The
the stored energy. Since energy storage is not an ideal energy
efficiencies of charging, discharging, and storage are represented
source, but just a repository of energy, there are always losses at
byhch,hdisch , and, hst .
each step of the storage process. The energy generated by the
sources given the energy delivered to the system during shortages
3. Energy storage technologies
is described by Eq. (1),
Egenerate  DEloss ¼ Eout ð1Þ As mentioned earlier, energy storage can be achieved by
converting electrical energy into another form. A complete
And the energy losses in this process are explained by Eq. (2).
classification of ESS types is presented in Fig. 2.
DEloss ¼ DEch þ DEst þ DEdisch ð2Þ
3.1. Electrochemical storage
Indeed, a significant parameter in electrical storage is the
efficiency of each step. Taking into account Fig. 1, which shows the In this technology, the chemical energy contained in the active
energy flow in a storage system, the efficiency of the charge step material is converted directly into electrical energy [38,39].
can be calculated as Batteries are an advanced technique for storing electrical energy
Est in electrochemical form. The possibility of using batteries in a wide
hch ¼ ð3Þ range of different sizes is the main advantage of this technique
Ech
[40,41].
The storage period can be expressed as Indeed, the operational voltage and current levels are generated
Est through series or parallel connections of cells [43]. A simplest
hst ðtÞ ¼ ð4Þ equivalent circuit of a battery and an explanation of its operation is
Est
presented by Patel [42], and shown in Fig. 3. The operating point is
Regarding Eq. (4), it should be noted that the energy losses, and the intersection of the source line, which has the terminal voltage
also the efficiency of the storage, depend on the storage time; for drop ðV b Þ, and the load line ðV L Þ. The quantity of electrical charge in
this reason, the time t between charging and discharging need to the cell from the fully charged state to the discharged state is called

Fig. 2. Classification of ESS Technologies.

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systems are much more popular in industry [66–68]. FES systems

have low maintenance, long life cycles of up to 20 years, no carbon
emissions, no toxic components, and very fast response. However,
they suffer from high rates of self-discharge (3–20% percent per
hour), low storage capacity, and high cost. The available range of
energy storage for a FES system is 0.2–25 kWh; however, this is
expected to increase to 200 Wh/kg and 30 kW/kg respectively over
the next few decades [42]. The energy stored by a flywheel (E) can
be calculated using (8). This equation shows that the total mass of
Fig. 3. Equivalent circuit of a battery and its operating point [42]. the flywheel (m) and the angular velocity (v) squared have a direct
impact on the energy stored by this device. In this equation, the
the capacity of the battery. Moreover, the state of charge (SoC) is radius of flywheel is shown by (r).
the ratio between remaining capacity and the full charge, equal to 1
100% for full charge and 0% for full discharge. The variation in SoC E ¼ mr2 v2 ð8Þ
2
ðdSoCÞ is based on time and its relation to capacity ðC i Þ is outlined
As presented by Östergård [69], a model of a general FES system
in Eq. (7).
consists of two voltage source converters (VSC), an electrical
idt machine, a step-up transformer, and a main network. Indeed, the
dSoC ¼
Ci frequency decreases as the flywheel slows down. For this reason,
the generation of AC power by the FES system should be converted
to DC (constant frequency)—hence the use of the VSCs, for two
Z
idt back-to-back converters. The controller operation of these con-
SoC ¼ SoC  ð7Þ
CðiÞ verters varies depending on the requirements of the FES
application. For example, control of both active and reactive
Lead–acid batteries [44,45] are available in large quantities and
power may be needed for a FES system connected to an AC grid.
in a variety of sizes and designs. They have high performance and
possess the highest cell voltages of all aqueous electrolyte battery
technologies. For MGs (especially when large), they are the most 3.2.2. Pumped hydro storage
economic option [38,46]. Despite their suitability for a wide range Electrical energy may be stored through pumped-storage
of applications, they cannot equal the storage capacity of pumped hydroelectricity, in which large amounts of water are pumped
hydro [47]. Nickel–Cadmium (NiCd) [48,49] and Nickel–Metal to an upper level, to be reconverted to electrical energy using a
Hydride (NiMh) [50–52] batteries are much more expensive to generator and turbine when there is a shortage of electricity. The
implement than lead-acid batteries, but they provide good charge infinite technical lifetime of this technique is its main advantage
retention and energy density. They also have a long life cycle. [70], and its dependence on topographical conditions and large
Lithium-ion batteries [53] have rapid charge capability and high land use are the main drawbacks [43,71]. Pump storage projects
energy density. They need no maintenance during operation, and throughout the world are significantly contributing to balancing
their energy loss is very low (5% per month). On the other hand, the massive increase in future volatile regenerative energy
their performance decreases at high temperatures and protective production (wind and solar). The technology is well-established
circuitry is needed [54–56]. Sodium sulfur (NaS) is a type of and commercially available on a large scale (sized up to 4000 MW),
electrochemical energy storage [57,58] that needs to operate at and the efficiency of the storage type is usually around 70–85%.
high temperature (350  C/623 K) in order to ensure that the sodium [37]. The energy stored by this technique can thus be calculated
is liquid. This condition leads to some difficulty and increases the through (9); the general equation for the output power (P) is
cost of implementation [48,59,60]. However, the energy efficiency shown in Eq. (10) [47].
is high and these systems have very flexible operation [60]. Finally, In these equations, Q is the volume flow rate passing the turbine
flow batteries are another type of storage method; this is a class of ½m3 =S,r is density of the water ½kg=m3 , and h is the hydraulic
electrochemical energy storage that uses ions dissolved into liquid efficiency of the turbine ½%. Gravitational acceleration and height
electrolytes [61–63]. There exist both redox and hybrid flow are shown by g ½m=s2  and h [m] respectively.
batteries. Hybrid flow batteries include zinc–bromine models,
while vanadium batteries are a good example of the redox type. W ¼ mgh ð9Þ
This method is characterized by its long life cycle (around 40 years)
and its adaptability: increasing the tank sizes and adding more
electrolytes allows the capacity to be increased [47,64,65]. P ¼ Qhhgr ð10Þ
However, further development is still needed; these batteries
are expensive to use and an external power is also required to 3.2.3. Compressed air energy storage
operate [36]. Compressing air to a pressure of around 70 bar is used to store
electrical energy in the technology called compressed air energy
3.2. Mechanical storage storage (CAES). The method is, however, very expensive. In
practice, large volumes of cheap natural storage, such as aquifers,
Electrical energy can also be stored in the form of mechanical salt caverns, and hard rock caverns, are used. An expansion turbine
energy. Some major methods of this type are described in the and generator are used to reconvert the compressed air to
following: electrical energy [67]. CAES systems have typical capacities of
about 50–300 MW and can store energy for longer than other
3.2.1. Flywheel energy storage (FES) methods—typically for more than a year—due to the very low
This technique employs the mechanical energy of a spinning losses involved. Like the pumped hydro method, CAES systems are
rotor to store energy. There are two types of FES: low speed (under capable of storing large amounts of energy. The efficiency of CAES
10,000 rpm) and high speed (above 10,000 rpm). Low-speed is also similar to that technique (at around 70%). Moreover, the

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response time of the method is very high, but the technology is still 3.4. Thermal storage
not fully developed [47].
The thermal storage method is based on converting the energy
3.3. Electrical storage to ice or hot water. There are many different approaches to use such
thermal energy storage, a comprehensive review of which is
Electric double-layer capacitors and superconducting magnetic presented in Refs. [74–76]. The most common version of a thermal
energy storage (SMES) are electrical storage types discussed in the energy storage system stores ice during the night and use the water
following: to cool an air conditioning system during the day, thus reducing the
use of power from the main grid or microgrid. On the other hand,
3.3.1. Double layer capacitor (DLC) the heat storage method can also use water to store heat energy
In double-layer capacitor storage—which is also called ultra- and inject this energy into the system whenever it is needed [34].
capacitor or super-capacitor storage—the dielectric gap between There are many other thermal methods, such as geothermal energy
two conductors is employed. This technique has a high energy systems, solar thermal energy conversion systems, and phase-
storage capability due to its high power ability [72]. As presented in changing materials, which are discussed in more detail in Refs.
Ref. [37], based on a simple series RC circuit and the total energy [77–79].
which can be stored in a capacitor by this technique is calculated
with (11). In fact, the energy stored in a capacitor is divided into 4. Energy storage applications in the power system
two different parts: one part is retained in the capacitor, while the
other is converted to heat and is wasted. The electrical energies The principle of system control that classifies loads by priority
stored in capacitors must be used very quickly, because the self- and employs load shedding is not suitable for achieving high
discharge rate of this method of energy storage is around 5% per reliability in modern systems. Hence, one benefit of ESSs may be
day [54]. In this equation, Qis the charge stored in the capacitor [C], that they result in improved reliability for these systems. Akhil
V q is voltage across the capacitor [V], and C is its capacitance [F]. et al. [79] and Eyer et al. [80] have presented different applications
Z that can be provided with ESS. The applications of ESS to MG are
Q
CV 2 classified into four different groups, which are shown in Fig. 4 and
W¼ V q dq ¼ ð11Þ
0 2 discussed in the following.

3.3.2. Superconducting magnetic energy storage 4.1. Bulk energy applications

The SMES technique involves a cryogenic refrigerator, a
superconducting coil, a helium vessel, and a power conditioning Bulk energy is a key application for integrating a large amount
system which is presented by Salameh in Ref. [73]. In this method of variation in modern grids. The two major types are represented
the voltage is stored in the superconducting coil after being in the following:
switched to DC by an AC–DC convertor. The temperature of the coil
is kept low in order to avoid resistive loss. With this method, the 4.1.1. Energy arbitrage
current is stored in the coil until it is injected into the system. The Energy generation is very expensive, and storing the energy can
responsibility of the power conditioning system is to control the both increase the efficiency of a system and optimize it
stored energy and to inject power into the system. economically. Storage of energy when the price is low and selling
A simple diagram of an SMES system is usually equal to the energy at peak times when electricity is expensive is the main goal
series RL circuit. Hence, the principle of the mathematical model is of the application. In a MG with RESs, the application also stores
similar to the double layer capacitor (DLC), and the amount of energy when the amount generated exceeds demand and inject
energy stored by SMES per coil volume [J/m3] can be calculated by power during shortages [81].
Eq. (12) [37]. In this equation, B is the magnetic flux density [T] and
m is the permeability [H/m]. 4.1.2. Peak shaving
The principle of peak shaving is very similar to energy arbitrage.
1B2 The difference is that peak shaving is installed to cover the peak
W¼ ð12Þ
2m load, and does not have an economic target, as energy arbitrage
does [82]. The application helps to improve the system design,
based on a normal capacity and supporting the peak demand

Fig. 4. Classification of ESS applications.

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through the ESS. The peak shaving application is usually installed 4.2.4. Black start
at the consumer, whereas energy arbitrage is used on the supply Unplanned events can lead to interruptions in power through-
side [80,83]. out the whole system or in a single part [87]. The result of this may
be a black out [88], compromising the stability of the system [89–
4.2. Ancillary service applications 91]. The system is restored through a process called a black start,
the responsibilities of which are power management, voltage
In modern grids, providing support to the system during the control, and balancing. In this application, the energy storage
transmission of power from its generation to the consumer can be system generates active power that can be used for energizing
referred to as an ancillary service and involves adjustments and distribution lines or as start up power for large power plants [79].
flexible reserves. The different approaches to this application are
discussed below:
4.2.5. Frequency regulation
Frequency control is crucial in power systems for dealing with
4.2.1. Load following
the many small variations that occur. The energy storage system in
As compared to generation types, ESSs have a rapid response to
a frequency regulator serves power systems by correcting the
changes in load [84]. Since the load can undergo frequent
frequency deviations to within the permissible limits—for example
variations, energy storage is more suitable for load-following
to 0.1 Hz in Nordel (North of Europe) or 0.2 Hz in UCTE
applications. In fact, in this application, the responsibility of energy
(Continental Europe) [92–94]. As mentioned in Refs. [95,96], there
storage is to create a balance between the generation part and the
are three types of frequency regulation: primary, secondary, and
load [85]. Another reason for supporting load changing using
tertiary. These are shown in Fig. 5. The responsibility of the primary
energy storage is so that the system can cover both sides of the
reserve control is to create a balance between generation and
variations, following the load both up and down [80].
demand and to restore the frequency within 5–30 s for the
generator control [39,95–97]. The secondary reserve has two
4.2.2. Spinning reserve objectives: it serves as a backup for primary regulation and
As mentioned by Gonzalez et al. in Ref. [58], the spinning ensures that the frequency is set to 50 Hz, while also avoiding any
reserve is a part of the capacity of the source that is not used in imbalance in the interconnection. This control level reacts to the
normal operation. However, the source can cover a power shortage primary control reserves for 5–15 min, and should then be ready
in the system by injecting power for specific period. Indeed, the for frequency correction to within the permitted limits [96–98]. In
power shortage thus is covered by sources operating in this extra the last level, Tertiary reserve has the same objective as the
operations mode. Since power generation must continue until the secondary reserve and also aims to balance load, generation, and
backup system reaches its nominal value, the storage system in this sales, thus helping to keep the system synchronized. This reserve
application must be able to discharge over a long time (at least one level is operated manually, and should reach its target in 15–
hour) [83,86]. 60 min, depending on the country [96].

4.2.3. Voltage support

4.3. Customer energy management applications
Stability is an important issue in the power system, and can be
achieved through maintaining the voltage within the permissible
Energy management applications are based on the quality and
limits. As discussed in Ref. [79], the management of reactive power
reliability of power delivery to the consumer which are discussed
is a requirement for achieving this, and can regulate accurately
as follow:
with an ESS as a voltage support resource. As reactive power
cannot reasonably be transferred over long distances, a voltage
4.3.1. Power quality
support application is used locally to manage the problem [79,80].
It is clear that there are some variations in generation and in
energy sources, especially when it comes to RESs, which are
dependent on environmental conditions [99–101]. Indeed, the
fluctuations in power generation systems lead to concerns about
power quality, especially in terms of voltage harmonics and voltage
variation [102]. To manage this problem, energy storage is the first
alternative to cover the variation. The application helps to protect
downstream loads against short-duration events and to improve
the quality of delivered power [83].

4.3.2. Power reliability

The principle of power reliability is similar to power quality
[103,104], but power reliability follows power quality in sequence.
This means that the time for restoring power with this application
is longer than the time taken by the power quality application. The
energy storage system in this application should have high
reliability power with the best quality. Moreover, the power
reliability application is under customer control and is installed in
customer locations [105].
Fig. 5. Operating areas of the different levels of frequency control.
4.4. Renewable energy integration applications

There are many fluctuations in the power generated by RESs

which can be covered by ESS. These applications are divided in two

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Fig. 6. Location of each ESS application in power system.

different categories: time shifting and capacity firming. The time- over a short period using an ESS [40]. The output power from RESs
shift application manages the problem through different energy is added to the energy storage and supports the load. This mixing
storage techniques [11]. It stores energy when demand is lower also can help to improve power quality.
than generation, and injects this power into the system during
shortages. In this application, energy storage can be installed 4.5. Location of each application
anywhere in the system, whether near to the source or to the load
[106–108]. The responsibility of the capacity firming application is In optimizing the amount of stored energy, the utilization of the
to smooth the power and voltage output from renewable energy energy storage system is important, as is its application in related

Table 1
Characteristics of energy storage applications in modern grids.

Applications Storage Response Discharge time Cycle Desired life Recommendation grid
power time time
(MW) (years)

Bulk energy Energy arbitrage 500 minutes 10 h 300–400/ 20 MV

yr
Peak shaving 500 6 h 50–250/yr 20 MV
Ancillary service Load following 100 4 h N/A 20 MV, LV
Spinning reserve 100 4 h 5 h N/A 20 HV
Voltage support 10 100 ms 1 h 5000/yr 20 HV
Black start 50 2 h 16 h 10–20/yr 25 HV, MV
Frequency Primary 40 Instantaneous 30 min
t
15 min 8000/yr 15 MV
regulation Secondary 40 minute 1 h
t
30 min MV
Tertiary 100
1 h MV
Customer energy Power quality 10 200 ms 2 h 50/yr 10 HV, MV, LV
management Power reliability 10 minutes 4 h 400/yr 15 MV, LV
Renewable energy Time shift 500 30 min 5 h 4000/yr 15 MV
integration Capacity firming 500 30 min 4 h 300–500/ 20 MV
yr

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Table 2
Characteristics of energy storage technologies in modern grids.

Technologies Capacity Power Response Discharge Maturity Life Efficiency Advantage Disadvantage
(MWh) (MW) time time time (%)
(Years)

Electrochemical Lead–acid 0.25  50 100 millisecond 4 h Demo  Commercial 20 85 Inexpensive Very heavy
High recyclable Limited usable
Reality available energy
Poor energy
density
Lithium-ion 0.25  25 100 1 h Demo 15 90 High capacity
Great stability in
calendar and
cycle life
NaS 300 50 6 h Commercial 15 80 High storage Working only
capacity when the
Inexpensive sodium and
sulfur are
liquids
290  390  C
Vanadium Redox 250 50 10 min 8 h Demo 10 80 Possible to use
for many
different
renewable
energy sources
Mechanical FES 10 20 10 ms 1 h Demo  Mature 20 85 High power Not enough
density safe
Nonpolluting Noisy
High efficiency High speed
operation let to
vibration
PHS small 5000 500 sec  min 6  24 h Mature 70 85 Remote Silt build-up
large 14000 1400 sec  min operation is Impedance to
possible the movement
Low man power of
factor environmental
Relatively low issues
maintenance
CAES underground small 1100 135 15 min 8 h Demo  Commercial 40 85 High power It is not
large 2700 135 15 min 20 h capacity possible to
above ground 250 50 15 min 5 h Demo Low losses(can install
be storage energyeverywhere
for more than a and the
year) location is
Fast startup depend on a
geological
structure
Electrical DLC 0.1  0.5 1 10 ms 1 min Commercial 40 95 High power Low energy
density density
Low resistance Low voltage
high efficiency per cell
Incomplete
capacity
utilization
SMES 1 3 10 10 ms 1 min Commercial 40 95 High power For sizing of
High efficiency high energy
Environmentally storage need to
safe long loop
Cooling system
in needed
expensive
Thermal 350 50 10 min N/A Mature 30 90 Nonpolluting Expensive
Unlimited energy Depend on a
source geological
structure

parts. There are several applications which can be used in different 5. Technologies and applications
parts of a power system. Fig. 6 demonstrates the locations of each
energy storage application in power system, from the point of As aforementioned, there are many different options for using
generation to the customer. energy storage in conventional or modern grids (DG, MG, Smart
grid). As is well known, the choice of energy storage technique
directly depends on the applications [106]. To correctly choose
storage techniques, it is first necessary to distinguish two

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important parameters: energy (kWh) and power (kW) [34]. Thus, energy storage techniques, such as their capacity, power, response
to design the ideal ESS, the power and energy of the system should and discharge time, life time, and efficiency. Taking into account
be determined in the first instance. In Table 1, the discharge and the objective of this paper, and the contents of Tables 1 and 2,
response times, as well as the power and desired life cycles, are Table 3has been developed on the basis of [10,34] to provide a
presented for each application separately. Indeed, the important matrix of the relationships between the available energy storage
parameter for energy storage applications is the length of technologies and their application in ESSs. As shown in the matrix,
discharge, which can be divided into three different categories: battery technologies come in different shapes and sizes and can be
second–minute, minute–hour, hours. It is clear that the two first used in many different applications.
categories are related to customer energy management and to the There are three major parameters that are important in defining
ancillary services of energy storage application. The hours category the battery types suitable for an application: the high or low rate
can be used for long-term storage and discharge, such as for bulk service, the response and discharge times, and the environmental
energy, or in renewable energy integration applications [106]. In matching. As shown in Table 3, the battery’s energy storage can
Table 2 presents comprehensive information regarding these support the system in ancillary service and customer energy

Table 3
Technologies vs. applications.

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Fig. 7. Possibility of integrating ESS.

management applications. The technique is also possible for 7. Conclusion

renewable energy integration, such as time shifting and capacity
firming, while the technique cannot support the system in bulk To design an optimum energy storage system, selecting the ESS
energy applications. Another technique that has been described is type most closely related to the application is the most significant
the flywheel; this is used for low-energy applications, emergency issue, but control methodologies should not be neglected either.
devices, and load levelers. It cannot be used on the large scale, but There are many different characteristics of energy storage systems
it may be useful when it gives an economic advantage [73]. The that can help to match the different techniques with applications.
other mechanical energy storage techniques (CAES, PHS) are also This paper provides a matrix of the relations between these, along
suitable for most of the applications expected of customer with a comprehensive diagram of ESS solutions that can be
management and voltage support in ancillary service categories. integrated together. To provide the matrix, storage technologies
Electrical energy storage techniques can be used just for and application have been compared on the basis of many different
emergency devices and applications that need very rapid parameters, such as capacity, storage power, response time,
responses. discharge time, life time, efficiency, cycle life, and maturity.
Electrical energy storage techniques have only a limited number of
potential applications, focusing on power system transient issues,
6. The integration of energy storage technologies
such as improving power quality. On the other hand, electrochem-
ical storage is the most commonly used technique and covers many
The cost of the energy storing process is high. However, because
applications, such as voltage support, black start, and frequency
of the variation in generation and the need to balance power and
regulation. Mechanical storage techniques can also be useful for
regulate voltage and frequency, the use of energy storage systems
bulk energy applications and for supporting renewable integration
is unavoidable in the modern grid. One solution to the problem of
on a large scale. Finally, based on the provided integration of ESS,
the high cost of energy storage may be the integration of different
the integration between thermal, CAES, and PHS is most supportive
technologies for implementing specific application. To cover this
as cover energy arbitrage, peak shaving, and time shifting.
methodology, the characteristics of each technology should be
Moreover, the integration of batteries and FES is another method
analyzed. Table 2 shows specific information on energy storage
that can cover voltage support and power reliability applications.
technologies—namely, the minimum and maximum capacities and
Since the integration of ESS with the aim of reducing the cost
powers, the high and low response rates, and the discharge times.
has been investigated in this paper only from the technical point of
The requirement characteristics for implementation of each
view, analyzing it from the economics side, as well as the issue of
application are shown in Table 1. Finally, the agreement of these
determining the precise energy and cost savings, remains a good
data with each other (shown in Table 3 as a matrix) can be used to
research question for future work.
create a categorization of energy storage systems that can be
integrated together. Based on the results of this work in Tables 1–3,
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