Discharge Measurement

Streamflow
• Streamflow is the total runoff
contributed from surface, subsurface
and ground water flow at a stream or
channel network
• Surface flow: that part of flow
contributed from overland flow (before
joining the channel network)
• Sub-surface flow: flow contribution
from vadose zone or soil moisture
zone as interflow
 Streamflow measurement
• Discharge is the volumetric rate at which fluid
passes a given location
– Q = A* V (m3/s)
– Where Q is discharge
– A is cross section area (m2)
– V is velocity in (m/)
• Therefore discharge is measures in m3/s or l/s
• Key reasons for measuring discharge are
– Studies of occurrence of floods
– Studies of occurrence of low flows
– Water availability study (water balance studies)
Streamflow measurement
• Measurement of streamflow
– Velocity- Area methods
– Based on Stage – Discharge relationship
– Dilution method
– W i
Weirs
– flumes
 1. Velocity
y – Area methods
• Velocty area method estimated discharge by using
the following relationship
Q = V av A
• where Q is total stream discharge, Vav is the average flow
velocity and A is the cross sectional area of flow
1. Velocity – Area methods
– for natural channels, flow velocity
y varies with
position in the channel
• flow varies vertically,
y, with maximum velocities
occurring at the surface and minimum velocities at
the channel bed
• flow also varies laterally - flow is generally greatest
at the deepest part of the channel
• Vertical as well as lateral variation of velocity
– a suitable control section must be selected
• channel control - a long straight uniform section of
channel is required
 1. Velocity
y – Area methods
• To account for lateral variation, the cross-section
is divided into suitable cross-sections of a1, a2,
a3, …..
• The veridical velocity variation is accounted by
taking velocity at different depths
– One point
O i t - att 0.6
06h
– Two point method - at 0.2h and 0.8h
– Three point method – at 00.2h,
2h 00.6h
6h and 0.8h
0 8h
– Depth - Integrated velocity measurement – device when
lowered and raised at a constant rate through a vertical section
integrates velocity and provides a means of measuring the
average velocity of the section
 1. Velocity – Area methods

To account for
f variations
i i in
i flow
fl velocity
l i the h channel
h l is
i divided
di id d
into vertical sections. Within each section, average flow velocity
has been found equal
q to the averageg of flows at 0.2 and 0.8 of
the stream depth measured from the surface. For shallow sections,
0.6 of the depth may be used as an approximation of average flow.
1. Velocity – Area methods
 Devices for Flow Velocity Measurement

• Current
C tMMeters
t
– Cups
– Propellers
V = a + b×N
where V = flow velocity; a = starting velocity to
overcome mechanical friction; b = equipment
calibration
lib ti constant;
t t N = revolutions/sec.
l ti /
Electromagnetic Velocity Meter

11
Mechanical velocity meters
• Measure velocity in
one direction at a
point

12
Measuring Velocity in
Big Streams

13
Mean Flow Velocity Estimation
• Velocity Profile
 Measurement of Stream Flow
Discharge - 1
• a. Mid-Section Method
(b) Mean-Section Method

( v 0 .2 + v 0 .8 )
vi =
2
2. Stage – discharge relationship and the
Rating Curve
• For a stable channel, there is a relationship
p
between stream discharge and stage - this
g curve
relation is called the rating

– stage is the water level above a reference

elevation
• reference
f elevation
l ti is i often
ft taken
t k as the
th channel
h l
bed, but not necessarily, as the bed elevation in
alluvial
ll i l channels
h l may change
h
Rating curve
• For natural channels, stage or gauge
height (Y-axis) is plotted against flow (X-
axis)
– the curve is a parabola or other
– curve fitting
– it is essential that the stage measurement be tied
in to some fixed stable benchmark
• changes in bed elevation due to scour or aggradation
are reflected in a curve shift
 1.0
Low Range Site 4
ght (m)

0.8
Gauge Heig

Salt Dilution 2002

WSC 2002
0.6 Ratingg Curve S1
G

(to 12/12/2002)
Salt Dilution 2003
WSC 2003

0.4
0 2 4 6
3
Discharge (m /s)
 Rating curves
• A best estimate of the relationshipp between stage
g
and discharge at a given place in a river.
• The relationship should be on the form Q=C(h-h0)n
or a segmented version of that
that. Q=discharge,
Q=discharge
h=stage

• For a known zero-stage, the rating curve can be

written as y=b+nx,
– where yy=log(Q)
log(Q), xx=log(h-h
log(h h0) and bb=log(C)
log(C).
• How do we estimate the rating curve parameters of
C, b and ho?
Establishing a rating curve
• Least square solution method
– trial and error approach
– Three point dicharge appraoch
• Graphical methods
 Establishing a rating curve
1.LSS method
• Assume Ho and estimate the coefficients
C and n that gives the best r^2 and
minimum standard error
• The LSS equations are given next slide
– Log
L Q Q=log
l C+ nlog
l (H-Ho)
(H H )
–Y = b + nX
• C
Change the value off Ho and evaluate
the Se and r^2
• Continue until you have global
minimum Se and best r^2
 Establishing a rating curve
LSS E
Equations
ti

Q=C(H-H0)n
Log Q=log C+ n Log (H-Ho)

y = b + nx
Linear equation
Establishing
g a rating
g curve

• 2. Three point discharge method

g values are selected from
• Three discharge
H-Q curve and in such a way that Q1/Q2 =
Q2/Q3
• Ho is determined from this relation as

H1 H 2 − H 2
Ho =
H1 + H 3 − 2H 2
 Examples of rating curve equation
Code River Station Period a b Ho r2
1002Gilgel Abbay Merawi Mar 59/Jun 62 33.49 1.979 0.25 0.989
Dec 62/Jul 84 34.58 2.069 0.25 0.994
Aug 84/Feb 94 35.61 2.04 0.2 0.997

1003Koga Merawi 1959/1981 13.41 2.029 0.5 0.964

except Sep/Dec 69 0.3 0.964
1982/1995 19.98
19 98 2.239
2 239 0 15
0.15 0 99
0.99
1005Ribb Addis Zemen Aug 59/Sep 71 7.23 1.908 0.65 0.946
Nov 71/Dec 75 3.48 2.046 0.75 0.961
1976/1977 3.04 2.194 0.8 0.981
1978/1979 3.5 2.102 1.15 0.995
1980/1981 2.48 2.288 1.15 0.976
1981/1983 3.85 2.069 1.55 0.974
1984/1985 3 49
3.49 1 754
1.754 18
1.8 0 953
0.953
1986/1988 4.39 1.976 2 0.977
1988/1990 1.29 2.6 2.1 0.899
1990/1994 0.54 3.305 2.2 0.974
1006Gumara Bahir Dar 59/66 14.9 1.683 0.55 0.956
67/68 5.8 2.373 0.1 0.965
69/95 8.7 1.929 -0.15 0.947
 Requirement
q of a ggood H- Q site
• The river reach must be stable and fairly straight on both u/s
and d/s for a length of 0.75 to 1km
• H-Q relation should always be uniform – site is subjected to
shift control
• Easily accessible during all the time of the year
• The site should be sensitive to all H-Q
• Back water and tidal effects should be minimum
• Site should be away from bridge
• When a tributaryy jjoins, the site should be located 0.8 km u/s
and d/s of their confluence
• Disturbance due to animals should be minimum
• Site
S should have stable and high banks to contain floods f
• Rock outcrops and vegetal growth at the reach should be minimum
Requirement of a good H
H- Q site
• Islands should not be p present at the ggauging
g g station
• Cross section of the entire reach of the river should be fairly
inform
• Cross currents, vortex and eddies formation, reverse slope in
parts of the channel bed should be abscent at the site
• Velocity at all points are parallel to one another and at straight
angle to the x-section of the stream
• The velocity is greater than 0.15m/s
• The depth of the flow is greater than 0.3m
• No aquatic growth
• Straight and stable reach
 Example
• The rating curve of a current meter used for measuring
velocity in a small river is given as V=0.62N+0.032 m/s,
where N is the rev/sec. calculate the discharge of the river
from the following data. Velocity is measured at the mid of
the sections

Dist from bank

bank, 0 2 5 8 12 15 18 21 23 24
m
Depth, m 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 1.9 1.4 1.1 0.5 0
N at 0.6d
0 6d 0 60 90 120 150 140 100 80 50 0
Time, sec 0 150 140 140 160 140 140 140 140 0
Dist. from N at Time, N/T Vel. Mean width Depth, Mean Segm
bank, m 0.6d sec (m/s) (m/s) vel. d d ent q
0
2
 Network design
g
• There is no definite relation or rule to the number
of stations to establish
• A basin should have two types of stations
• i – the
th base
b or permanentt stations:
t ti
– For which long term data for the important tributaries and the
main rivers are always collected
• ii – auxiliary or secondary station:
– To collect short term data and form network
– The stations should be located at existing or potential dam site,
flood forecasting purpose
– Data from this station are correlated with data frim primary
stations to extend the record
Measuring Q for small channels
• Weirs and flumes
– a weir is an engineered structure that is built
into a channel to control the stage - discharge
relationship
– used in small channels where the measurement
error in relation to the total flow would be
unacceptable,
p , and/or where suitable natural
control does not exist
– discharge is related to head over the weir crest
using a simple mathematical formula
Weirs

32
Example of a weir formula
– for example, a sharp crested V-notch weir (a
type commonly used in research on small
creeks) has the following formula:
θ
Q = 4.28C h " 52
w tan
2
where θ is the angle of the notch, h is the head
"
C
over the weir crest and w is a weir coefficient
(approximately 0.32 for SI units) that varies
slightly
li htl with
ith head
h d andd notch
t h angle.
l
 Weirs
• Have a more definite relationship between stage and flow
• Higher accuracy than velocity X-sections
• Only can be used for smaller streams

34
Sharp Crested rectangular Notch Weirs
Sharp-Crested

• Q = Cd LH3/2
• Q = discharge cfs
• Cd = coefficient
• L = Width off notch
t h ffeett
• H = Depth of flow feet
•

35
Flumes
• Have relationship between stage and
flow defined byy hydraulics
y of the
flume
• Higher accuracy than velocity X-X
sections
• Only can be used for smaller streams
• Measure water surface at two points
i flume
in fl to
t calculate
l l t flow
fl
36
Flumes

37
Dilution Gauging

• A solution of a stable tracer is injected into the

stream at either constant rate or all at once
• Useful for small streams and streams with lots of
boulders, wood, or other roughness elements
• Some limitations on the size of the stream to be
measured
• Is suitable for mountainous streams

38
 Dilution Gauging
g g
• Computation requires:

– Th
The rate
t off iinjection
j ti should
h ld be
b known
k
– The concentration of the tracer in the injected
solution
l ti should
h ld be b known
k
– The concentration of the tracer in the stream after
it has been mixed should be known
–
40
 Constant Injection

• Inject tracer with a known concentration (C1)

at a known flow rate (Q1) into the stream and
Co iss initial
t a co
concentration
ce t at o of
o the
t e streamflow
st ea ow
• Measure the stream concentration (Co) after
complete mixing at d/s section
• Calculate the stream flow
– Q2 = q1(C1-Co)/(C2 – Co)
– If the initial concentration of the tracer in the
streamflow
t fl is i insignificant
i i ifi t then
th Q2 = (q( 1C1)/(C2)
41
Constant Injection

42
Measurement of discharge under
difficult condition
• Unstable channels
• Tid l reaches
Tidal h
• Flood measurement
• Weed growth in stream channels
 Measurement of discharge under
difficult condition
1. Unstable channels
– Characterized by a systematic shift of the bed, high silt
concentration and presence of various types of debris
– This is hindrance for operation
p of ppermanent ggauging
g g
station/structure
– How do y you minimize this pproblem?
• By selecting midway along a uniform and straight section of
the channel away from any obstruction such as bridge, etc.
• The
Th greatest channel
h l bank
b k is
i obtained
b i d where
h theh channel
h l has
h
narrow width
• If the method stage discharge method is used used, the
velocity distribution varies periodically, therefore,
updated
p rating
g curve should be utilized
• E.g of unstable channel Is Ribb river
• On small streams where there is no transport of
large stones and debris
– Portable or permanently installed flumes can be used –
artificial improvement of the channel
1. Mountain Streams
– Characterized by high flow velocity
– Shallow and uneven beds blocked by boulders
and debris
– Transverse and uneven water surface slopes
– Transport of stones and debris
– Mostly the dilution methods can be convenient
– Improvement of the channel my be requires
 Measurement of unsteady flows
• Measurements of discharged during floods:
– Flood measurements should best be done from bridges,
cableways or boats.
– For large
g rives with no bridges
g or cableways,
y , large
g
vessels or ferries ca be used
 Assignment V
1. A common salt dilution of concentration 200 mg\l was added to a stream
at a constant rate of 0.2 cm3/s. concentration of this salt in the stream
water was measured as 0.05 ppm. Estimate the stream discharge
2. The following data are observed in a stream by a current meter. The
current meter rating equation is given as V = 0.33 + 0.03N (N= is no. of
revolution per second). Calculate river discharge
Distance from bank, m 0 3 5 7 9 12 15 18 21 23 25 27

Depth, m 0 0.6 1.2 2.05 2.35 2.1 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.0 0.4 0

No. of rev at 0.6d 0 90 95 135 142 125 115 110 95 90 76 0

Time, sec 0 184 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125.4 125 0

3. Stage discharge data at site are given below. Find the stage
corresponding to zero discharge.

Stage m
Stage, 25 9
25.9 26 89
26.89 27 91
27.91 29 06
29.06 31 35 52
35.52 34 4
34.4 35 38
35.38 36 42
36.42 38 01
38.01 39 05
39.05 39 55
39.55

Discharge, 8.9 23 36 47 120.8 285.3 380 456 533 590 680 690
m3/s
 Assignment V
4. If you are required to measure discharge under difficult conditions
(such as mountainous rivers), describe the hydraulic condition of
the reaches and suggestion how you can proceed to measure
discharge?
5. Your organization wants to establish a rating curve for newly
established gauging station in remote reach of Beles River. Show
clearly the procedure to establish the rating curve. The discharge
of the river is above 100 m3/s and the river has a depth of 2 to 5
m depending on the seasons. How long it take to create a working
rating curve and Why? ?