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Introductory Statistics (Chapter 2)

This document discusses various methods for organizing and summarizing data, including frequency tables, histograms, bar graphs, and other visual representations. It explains that summarizing data is important because it allows large datasets to be understood more easily and helps assess whether statistical assumptions are met. Frequency tables group data into classes to show how many values fall into each interval. Histograms also display frequency distributions but use rectangles to show frequencies of data within intervals of equal size. Other graphs discussed include bar graphs, pie charts, time series graphs, and stem-and-leaf plots.

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Riezel Pepito
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61 views3 pages

Introductory Statistics (Chapter 2)

This document discusses various methods for organizing and summarizing data, including frequency tables, histograms, bar graphs, and other visual representations. It explains that summarizing data is important because it allows large datasets to be understood more easily and helps assess whether statistical assumptions are met. Frequency tables group data into classes to show how many values fall into each interval. Histograms also display frequency distributions but use rectangles to show frequencies of data within intervals of equal size. Other graphs discussed include bar graphs, pie charts, time series graphs, and stem-and-leaf plots.

Uploaded by

Riezel Pepito
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Pepito, Riezel V.

BSA 4A

Introductory of Statistics
(Introduction of Statistics)

Chapter II: Organizing Data

Why do we always want to summarize our data?


 No one is able to just look at a large data set and summarize it in their head (except
maybe one or two super-geniuses)
 Remember the worth of a picture (chart/graph)
 Every parametric test in statistics (even most nonparametric) are based on
assumptions.
 Summarizing and/or graphing data is a quick and. Effective way to see if our
assumptions are grossly violated.

Frequency Table:

A frequency table partitions data into classes or intervals and shows how many data values
are in each class. The classes or intervals are constructed so that each data value falls into
exactly one class. Displays the data grouped into multiple nonoverlapping intervals, called
classes, which create a partition of the data (each value is included in exactly one class).

 The data is divided into equal nonoverlapping intervals, called classes.


 Each class has an upper and lower class limit and an upper and lower class boundary.
 We count how many values fall into each class.
 The class midpoint is the average of the class limits (or boundaries)

How: Frequency Table (integer values)


1. Decide how many classes: 5-15 (20 max for large data)
2. Find the class width=Largest data value-smallest data value,
Desired # of classes , increase to next whole
number (integer data).
3. Find lower class limits:
a. The first lower class limit is the smallest data value
b. Add the class width to the lower class limit to find the next lower class limit
c. Repeat until all lower class limits are computed
4. Find upper class limits:
a. To find the first upper class limit, subtract 1 from the 2nd lower class limit
b. Add the class width to the upper class to find the next one
c. Repeat until all upper class limits are computed
5. Tally the data into classes. Each data value should fall into exactly into on class
6. Total the tallies to find each class frequency.
7. Compute the midpoints (class marks) for each class
Midpoint = lower class limit + upper class limit
2
8. Find the class boundaries:
a. Lowe class boundary: subtract 0.5 from the lower class limit
b. Upper class boundary: add 0.5 to the upper class limit

How: Relatively Frequency Table


9. Calculate relative frequency:

Rf = class frequency. = f
total of all frequency n
 If we want to compare two samples that have different sample sizes, then we
need to standardized our values.
 One way to do this is to use relative frequencies because their total is always
equal to one (1).

Histogram
A histogram is a display of statistical information that uses rectangles to show the frequency
of data items in successive numerical intervals of equal size. In the most common form of
histogram, the independent variable is plotted along the horizontal axis and the dependent
variable is plotted along the vertical axis. The data appears as colored or shaded rectangles of
variable area.

Relative Frequency Histogram


A relative frequency histogram uses the same information as a frequency histogram but
compares each class interval to the total number of items. It is a type of graph that shows how
often something happens, in percentages.

Distribution Shapes
a. Mound shaped (symmetrical with one peak)
b. Uniform/Rectangular (flat/symmetric)
c. Skewed Left – long tail on left
d. Skewed Right – long tail on right
e. Bimodal – two peaks

Cumulative Frequency Tables and Ogives


 Many time we want to know the number of individuals that have a value below some
level.
 We use the upper boundary and calculate the cumulative frequency to that point.
 Cumulative frequency for a class – the sum of frequencies for that class and all
previous classes.
 Adding that column to a frequency table makes it a cumulative frequency table.
 A graph that displays the cumulative frequencies is an ogive.

Bar Graphs
 If the data is qualitative, we cannot use a histogram (only for a quantitative data)

Bar Graph Features


 Bar graphs can be used for both qualitative and quantitative data.
 Can be vertical or horizontal
 The lengths of the bars can represent either: value, frequency, or percentage.
 Provide a title, a label for each bar, and the other axis.

Examples of Bar Graph:


Clustered Bar Graph - A clustered bar chart is a chart where bars of different graphs are
placed next to each other.
Pareto Chart – a bar graph with the bars in decreasing order, where the height of bar
represents the frequency of an event.

Circle Graphs (Pie Charts)

Pie Chart: the total quantity (100%) is represented by the entire circle and each slice is
represented by a percentage of the area.
Note: pie charts are misleading charts in general. It is never okay to represent a linear
quantity using area; it over exaggerates the difference.

Time Series Graph

Data sets composed of similar measurements taken at regular intervals over time are called
time series.

Time series graph: Put time on the horizontal axis and the variable measured on the vertical
axis. We place dot for each time at the height of the variable and connect the dots.

Time series are often used in economics, finance, sociology, medicine, and any other
situation in which we want to study or monitor a similar measure over a period of time. A
time-series graph can reveal some of the main features of a time series.

Stem and Leaf


Stem and Leaf is and exploratory data analysis technique used to order and group data
without losing the individual values (unlike a frequency table)

Break the digits of each data value into two parts:


 Stem: left group of digits (up to us to choose how many)
 Leaf: remaining digits on the right

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