--

INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS

1.1 DEFINITIONS
A composite material is defined as a material system which consists of a
mixture or a
combination of two or more distinctly differing materials which are insoluble in each
other and differ
in fonn or chemical composition.
Thus, a composjte material is labelled as any material consisting of two or more
phases. Many
combinations of materials may, therefore, be termed as composite materials, such
as concrete, mortar,
reinforced rubbers, conventional multiphase alloys, fibre reinforced plastics, fibre
reinforced metals
and similar fibre impregnated materials. ·
Two-phase composite materials are classified into two broad categories: particulate
composites
and fibre reinforced composites. Particulate composites are those in which partic
les having various
shapes and siz.es are dispersed within a matrix in arandom fashion. As the distrib
ution of particles is
random and as the particles are of varying shapes and sizes, these composites are
treated as quasi-
homogeneous and quasi-isotropic. Examples of particulate composites are mica flakes
reinforced with
glass (non-metallic particles in a non-metallic matrix), aluminium particles
in polyurethane rubber
(metallic particles in a non-metallic matrix), lead particles in copper alloys (meta
llic particles in a
metallic matrix) and silicon carbon particles in aluminium (non-metallic partic
les in a metallic
matrix).
Particulate composites are used for electrical applications, welding, machine parts
and other
purposes. Particulate composites made of tungsten and molybdenum particles disper
sed in silver and
copper matrices are used for electrical contact applications as well as electrodes
welding. Lead
particles mixed with copper alloy and steel improve machinability. In machine
parts where high
surface hardness is required particulate matrix is formed by mixing tungsten
carbide particles in a
cobalt matrix. Titanium carbide in cobalt or nickel is very much suited for
high temperature
applications.
Fibre reinforced composite materials consist of fibres of significant strength
and stiffness
embedded in a matrix with distinct boundaries between them. Both fibres and matrix
maintain their
physical and chemical identities, yet their combination performs a function which
cannot be done by
each constituent acting singly. Fibres of fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) may be short
or continuous. It
appears obvious that FRP having continuous fibres is indeed more efficient.
Classification of FRP composite materials into four broad categories has been done
according to
the matrix used ll.lJ They are polymer matrix comp6sites, metal matrix composites,
ceramic matrix
composites and carbon/carbon composites [Table 1.1 ]. Polymer matrix composites
are made of
thermoplastic or thermoset resins reinforced with fibres such as glass, carbon or boron
. Metal matrix
composites consist of a matrix of metals or alloys reinforced with metal fibres
such as boron or
carbon. Ceramic matrix composites consist of ceramic matrices reinforced with ceram
ic fibres such as
 ~
..
.,"'""" ,...~~ alumina or . . . . The are mainly effectiv -
......~"'-·"·-
s1hco~ nitnde: e
f y phite carbon matrix for high ~mperature
Ca rbon/ca rbon co mp reinforce
··- . . os ite s consh1st
fil'ft's. ln add1t1on to t hc 8 ho ~ there are ot er otypgra es
f composites as well. Th e d with graphite
o flake composite s
~~ <'fa matrix reinforced ·~ .
1 . h be f different types such 1 fl k
as g ass a es, mi.ca
fta lu and metal flakes. The ':" ~ fl8:"e s ~h ~ ;: .s th~oughout the matri
x provid
d1s~but1on o t el
huaier 10 mo ist u~ gas and ch~~1cal tra ns ~r t. 'tably be used for obtainin e a considerable
cl«1rical resistanee or conduc t ca~ sut . g high thermal and
ttVl~. _. _. _
· . '
. .
.
Table l l Classification of .
FRP composite ma ten.a1s (I.I ]
Matrix tvn e Fibre Matrix
E-glass Ep ox y
S-glass Polyimide
Polymer - Carbon (graphite)
Po lye ste r
· Aramid (Kevlar)
,',.
' Thermoplastics
Boron Polysulfone
Boron Al um ini um
. Borsil
Metal Ma gn esi um
Carbon (graphite) • . ,, ,, Tit an ium
Silicon carbide . .. Co pp er .
Alumina
.. Silicon carbide
..
Silicon car bid e
Ceramic Alumina
.. · · Al um ina
Silicon·nitride ..
· Glass-ceramic
I Carbon Silicon nitride
Carbon ·
Ca rbo n
In-filled or skeletal composite
s or continuous three:..dim
laXJlld material Laminar comp ensional str uc ~a l ma tri x
osites consist of thin layers is filled by a
Of all the types of compos of different ma ten als bo nd
ed together.
ites discussed above, •the
composites or filamentary type mo st · im po rta nt is the . fib
re reinforced
deal with fibre reinforced polymcomposites - this is from the application po int of vie w. Th
er matrix ~omposite mater is bo ok will
ials;
IJ. HISTORY OF FIBRE
RE IN FO RC ED CO M PO
SI TE S . ··
For millenniums, fibre had
been used as reinforceme
construction. There are Bibli nt for ma kin g co mp on en
cal references dating ba ck ts of structural
mud bricks and composite to 2000 b. c. or earlier, to the
bows found in Egypt an str aw reinforced
through to the 'da ub and d Mongolia.' Th e de ve lop
wattle' construction of bu me nt ca n be traced
Japanese Samurai warriors ildings in Eu ro pe in the
used laminated metals in M idd le Ages. The
material properties. In the nin their swords in or de r to
ob tai n the desirable
r~~ in reinforced masonryete enth century, iron rods we
construction. Asbestos fib
re us ed as rei nf or ce me nts
for masonry
resms m the early part of thi res were us ed for rei nf or ce
s century. Th e process of me nt in phenolic
the late 1930s and the develop obtaining strong glass fib
ment of the first commerc res wa s developed in
later._The first glas~,fibre bo ial unsaturated po lym er res
t~ttcs ~ -
A ~n t wmdmg _was mven
at was built at the time of
to tfe ~ more _or less
the Second W or ld W ar in
at the_ .same time in electr
ins ca me a little
1942. Reinforced
ica l co mp on en
fib ~ composites stem
ted m 1946 and incorpora ts
ted into missile .applicatio an d aircrafts .
~~~!': from the .development of
l{i70- 19 65 period. ~ first
the first boron an d the n
application of advanced co
n in the 1950s.
hig h strength carbon
0. Kevlar or aram1d fibres mp os ites to aircraft- componen
were d~veloped in 1973 by ts
Du Pont. Fr om the l 970s
, the
 lntrodrJctlnn to Composite Materials 3

are.a of application of comro~ites has exranded in many directions. Among them are aerospace
structures, automotive, sports equipmen~ biomedical products, high performance vessels and many
other areas. The current empha~is is on the development of metal matrix, ceramic matrix and
carbM/carb on rompositcs .

1.3 CONSTITI1ENT MATERIALS

1be major constituents of a fibre reinforced composite material are reinforcing fibre, matrix,
roupling ager,~ coatings and fillers. ibres are the rincipal load carrying members while the matri
~-hich surrounds it, keeps them in ro er ocat1on and correct onentation · . Matrix acts as e
medium by which the 1s transferred through t e I res y means o . s ear stress. Matrix protects
the fibre from environmental damages caused by elevated temperature and humidity. Coupling agents
and coatings applied to the fibres improve their wettings with the matrix and also facilitate bonding
~ the fibre-matrix interface. The major purpose of using fillers in some polymeric matrices is to
reduce cost and achieve a better dimensional stability.

13.l Fibres
Materials in fibre form are stronger and stiffer than that used in a bulk form. There is a likely
presence of flaws in bulk material which affects its strength while internal flaws are mostly absent in
the case of fibres. Further, fibres have strong molecular or crystallographic alignment and are in the
shape of very small crystals. Fibres have also a low density which is advantageous.
Fibre is the most important constituent of a fibre reinforced composite material. They also
occupy the largest volume fraction of the composite. Reinforcing fibres as such can take up only its
tensile load. But when they .are used in fibre reinforced composites, the surrounding matrix enables
the fibre to contribute to the major part of the tensile, compressive, flexural or shear strength and
stifiness ofFRP composites.
Tensile stress-strain curves of a few typical fibres are presented in Fig. 1.1. They are linear up
to failure for all reinforcing fibres. Further, the strains at the failure of the fibres are exceedingly low.
Fibres exhibit brittle mode at failure. They are, however, prone to damage while handling as well as
during contact with other surfaces. Properties of some important fibres are presented in Table 1.2.

800 S-glall
High

l Bon,n
Ml'lngth
cart>on Arlmld

"o
X
p

0,
e,
400
~Ii
moduu .

I 200

I 0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Tensile strain (%)
Fig. 1.1 Stress - strain curve of fibres
 • trtl ped strand mat (CSM)d or
.
"'" mid .'iln« n es-chop be directly use in
N,\_,..,c...,..,.,11r M,,r,r .
· ale or H •
combination of!:;?!~), t~e)' canemulsion or powder
4 --
!IN1 rithtr as • sin~
stra ds to short Iengthsfibres
(J
boundl with an
Fl"-"~ 11·. Ry chorrin~ n · domly-oriented 900 pjm , fibre fabrics are
'Wl"'fft "";,. \\\. R). ('SM ronsists of ~;M vary from 300 1 ° 19
Typical glass-on conventional
'P'~'-"r lamin•"':'~;ion, weights of
·-~ In ~• C(\I\, • I ced yams' fibres or dfilfiamll
I
e(ncr~sswise) yamss and fill yams
rp yam . are
h
~I~
""-' • tcd of inter a . ) ams an the wa in weave 1s t e
A ftitiric is ~=ing warp (l~gthw;: u~derstand the ~•!nidirectional. I yarn and under
manu.ficluffll
_ , ~ looms.
~ ~
the weave of afabric :e plain, twill, lenod woven over one
lar weave patterns ar this one warp en .
~ . The pop! textile weave. In ' '(able in biased form.

the ncx
~ andmost
oklc!l and com~s repeated.
the process
. .al is of plain weave ~
· d· They are
d is balance alsow1~thva•equal distribution of
· ed
are also obtain 2 (IJJ.
Fibre orientation of WR may . Weights of WR vary from 200 to 900 g/m
WCMD IOVUl8 malffl be ± 45• direction. They
I and ± 45° directions. •
fibres in 000° [I 1-1.2)
Table t.2 Raw ti bre properties
,• Coefficient
1·
Typical Tensile Tensile Ultimate of thermal
diameter Specific modulus . strength elongation expansion
Fibre gravity GPa(Msi)' 0Pa (Ksi)
(µm) % 10-61° C
GIIII
~ 10 2.54 72.4 (10.5) 3.45 (500) 4.8 s.o
~ 10 2.49 86.9 J12.6J 4.30J6251 5.1 2.9
'Al1mid
Kevlar49 11.9 1.45 131 (19) 3.62 (525) 2.8 -2.2
Kevlar 149 11.9 1.47 179_!2~ 3.45J50~ 1.9
'Carbon
T-300 7 l.76 231 (33.5) 3.65 (530) 1.4 -0.SS
8 1.80 395 (57) 2.48 (360) 0.7
10 2.15 758J.J 101 2.45J35~ 0.32
Boron . 0.93 400J6(!! , 3.4J5001 - -
• ,nega pound per 1quare inch

1.3.1.1 GJ.., jibrn

The DIOII common fibre used in polymeric fibre reinforced composites is the glass fibre. The
maia advlllllage of the glass fibre is its low cost Its other .advantages are its high tensile strength, low
ci-ical resistance and excellent insulating properties. Among its disadvantages are its low tensile
modul111, IOllleWbat high apecific gravity, high degree of hardness and reduction of tensile strength
due to abrasion during handling. Moisture decreases the glass fibre strength. Glass fibres are
IUICcpliblc to IUllaincd loada, as they cannot withstand loads for long periods.
the lowest cost among
Two typea allfibres
of glass arc .used
cornmercaal fibres.
in FRP industries. They are £-glass and S-glass. £.glass has

MgO~t' !'o~fs1':i: ::~ ':~f c;_mpoaition is 65~ SiOz, 25% A'2O and JO~
sreater and 1he modulus of elasticity is 20¾ high than~ The tensile strength of S-glass 3 is 33 ¼
:ien~ ~
S-glass are its high slraigth-to-weight ratio •its er .
its high fatigue limit In spite of its high c'oa~
t of E-slasa. The Pl1ncipa1 advantages of
~lation at elevated temperatures and
such as rocket DIOrtars. lllam 8PJ>hca11on area ia in llerospace components
 lntrodt1ctton to Compruitt Materia/J 5

I.3.1.2 C•mtNt flbrn

Carron fihrt.S are characteri~ed by a combination of high strength, high stiffness and light
-."tight. Ca~ fih""8 are produced by polymeric fibre percusors or pitch fibre percuson.
The ldvanta~ of carbon fibres are their very high tensile strength-to-weight ratio, high tensile
m<'<lu1us-to-~ight ratio, very low coefficient of thermal expansion and high fatigue strength .. The
disadvantages are their low impact resistance and high electrical conductivity. Due to the high cost,
tht use of carbon fibres is justified only in weight critical structures, that is, mostly applied to
aerospace industry.
C'-arbon fibres are categorised into two types: high strength and high modulus. The high modulus
type is more expensive as it requires higher production temperature while the high strength variety is
more popular.
Carl,on fibres are commercially available within a wide range of tensile modulus: from 207 GPa
(30 x 1()6 psi) to 802 GPa (125 x 106 psi). In general, low modulus fibres have many advantages over
high modulus fibres such as having lower specific gravity, lower cost, higher tensile and compressive
strengths and higher ultimate strains.
Until relatively recently, the fabrics for use with resin matrices have been two-dimensional
ct imped weaves with warp and fill yams going over and under one another in a manner similar to
classical forms of clothing materials. Modem advances have been made-in a number 2-f directions
which include the following
I. Multi-dimensional weaving
2. 3-D weaving to provide greater transverse strength
3. Crimpless weaves with secondary yams knitted to hold together collimated straight primary
yams in one or more unidirectional plies
These advancements are mainly related to carbon fibres.

1.3.1.3 Artllnidjibra
The first significant group of polymeric reinforcement fibres is polyaramid fibres developed as
Kevlar by Du Pont 11 •41 • Kevlar aramid is made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and is
essentially an aromatic organic compound. The advantages of aramid fibres are their low density,
high tensile strength and low cost. Of all the available commercial fibres, it has the highest tensile
strength-to-weight ratio. Glass-fibre composites weigh 65% more than composites made of aramid
fibres of equivalent stiffness.
Characteristics of Kevlar 49 are its high strength and stiffness, light weight, vibration damping,
resistance to damage, fatigue and stress ruptures. ·
These is another variety of aramid fibre available - Kevlar 29 - which is of low density and
high strength. Kevlar 29 is used in ropes, cables and coated fabrics for inflatables.
The principal disadvantages of aramid fibres are their low compressive strength and the
difficulty in cutting or machining. These fibres have complex anisotropic structure·due to which local
crumpling and fibrillation of individual fibre takes place. This further reduces the strength in ··
· compression and bending. For structures or structural components where compression and bending
are predominant such as in a shell, aramid fibres can be used only when it is hybridized with glass or
carbon fibres. ·
A more advanced variety of Kevlar fibre is Kevlar 149. Of all commercially available aramid
fibres, it has the highest tensile modulus as it has 40% higher modulus than Kevlar 49. The strain at
failure for Kevlar 149 is, however, lower than that of Kevlar 49.
 - . . - ~ ttf<"wttftt'drt" Aln'" lnl., nnd
!." ~~ ~~ ::! .::: :.:. ...: ::: ::: .:.: .::: ~~ --- --- --- --- --- --- ....
.~m1r h1rt'.,

Af9mid fi~ aWT ro1'11it"f' 1h11n E-(ZIA~~, hut are chea

....
per than carh on fibre s.
l .~.1 .4 "4s. MfR t,n
~ filwff •~ char acttr ittd by their very high
ten~ile mod ulus , the range_ of whic h is 379- 4
t.tPI,~~---Nhc IO" f'!'i). Boro n fibre s have relative~y _large diam eters
~nd due to this t~ey are capable of
14
•iltl! llllnd in, la~ rom r~si ve stres s and prov 1dmg
ex~ell_ent resis tance to buck Jmg. B_oron fibres
~ a -.. ~ly and in fact are costl ier than most varie
~ ties of carb on fibre s. The appli catio n area
«'ft-( ,mn fi~ at r-acx nt is restr icted to . d .
aero spac e m ustr1es on Iy.
c~ to~ oute r surface of the boro n layer, a state of biax ial com pres
1hr ~ less 9e115itive to mech anica l dam age. The sion exist s, whic h makes
adve rse radio activ ity of boro n fibre s with metals is
reduced ~ • chem ical vapour depo sitio n of silico n carb ide
on boro n fibre s, whic h prod uces borosic
fibres.
J ..l..1..5 Ge» a ·cJib, a
C-eramic fibres are main ly used in appl icati on areas d~al
ing with elev ated temp eratu re. Exam ples
of ccnm ic fibres are silic on carb ide (SiC ) and alum
inium oxid e (A}i0 3). In meta l matr ices where
boron fibre s exhi bit adve rse radio activ ity, both
the abov e cera mic fibre s are foun d suitable.
c.ontinuous ceramic fibre bas an adde d adva ntag e
in that they have prop ertie s such as high strength,
high elast ic mod ulus with high temp eratu re capa biliti
es and are free from envi ronm enta l attac k.
1.3~ Pely aeri c Matr b:
Polymers aR divid ed into two broa d categ ories
: therm opla stic and therm oset. Ther mop lastic
polymcr5 ~ thos e whic h are heat softe ned, melt ed
and resha ped as man y time s as desi red But a
det mouet poly mer cann ot be melt ed or resha ped by
the appl icati on of heat or pres sure .
Depe ndin g on the parti cular therm opla stic mate rial
used , therm opla sti~ matr ix com pone nts can,
bowever, be used over a wide rang e of temp eratu
re - from I 00°C to 300° C. The adva ntag es of
tbtaa.oplasti.c matr ices are their impr oved fract ure
toug hnes s over the therm oset matr ix and their
p:tM ea 1of much lowe r cost in the manu factu
ring of finis hed comp osite s.
~ are various reaso ns why therm oplas
tic poly mers are not used for the manu factu re of
f'llP,. Som e of them are ment ione d here. Perh aps the
grea test draw back of the therm opla stic poly mer
i6 tbal it can be used only at ambi ent temp eratu re;
A signi fican t prob lem is enco unte red whil e mixi ng
fibrom maaeria1 with a therm oplas tic matr ix due to
the high visco sity of the latte r at norm al
~ - To make matte r& wors e, therm oplas tic
poly mers exhi bit cons idera ble strai n at relat ively
low lll'CM ia. How ever, in the chem ical indu stry, they
are used in a rang e of prod ucts due to their
prup cny of chem ical inert ness, toug hnes s and pleas
ing appe aran ce.
tibri Tr~~ twna lly, tbermoset poly mers (also calle d
resin s) are wide ly iJsed as a matr ix mate rial for
;.~e mfo r~ ~~ ite s in itruc tural comJ>?1ite comp
onen ts. The weto ut from simp le mixi ng of
...... ~ .. ~~ u. good . Ther mose t poly mer, impr
---.. Ulaau VIIQ(a UPi th • ove therm al stabi lity and chem ical resis tance . The
........ lh. . ~ are ear •.ama•ted stora ge hfe •
at low temp
-•& ~ IIUlll'ax an fjw · · · th eratu re the cons idera ble time wast age
dw=.e " ' - f . ncata ?n an_ e mou ld and low •
·n-• 0 matr1cea are gJVen an Tabl es 1.3 and 1.4.valu e of strai ns to failure. The prop ertie s of both
FOi' the Pl&IPOK of a aimp le clus fi •at·
( 1.) P • ac aon, we may d' ·
. 1v1de the th"rm osets into five categ ories
olyeat.er resin (ii) epox .· ("")
~ •. Y resin , m · 1
vmy . . . .
re&an. ester resm , (1v) phen olic resin and (v) high
-
lnfn,,/"' f /1m 11, (,',,mpr,t/11! Mt1tl!fv1/1 1

. . - ...... ....... . . _ _....

rmrc-ntra __ .. _ __ _ 'I h,.rm1~ 11m,1 pi,ly~•. . --
~

.J~ 11Jr,_,,". ~ ~ myl e111,,,-~ _ 1·,p-1•1. _ ft"-!..-A tll_

Sf'C"('iflc 11T1vhy I. I - U 1.12 1.2 Lli
Tffl•ik- mndulu■ (<lP1) 1.1 - U 3. 4 l-6 1
f'nl1111nn '• rtlin 0J r, . QJ 7 .
Tffl11ilt 1ttl'C't\tr1h (Mr,1) 40 - 90 6' - 9<) 3, - IYJ ~, - 1s
Cnmy,rN11ivt llttn1J1h (Mr,11) 90 - 250 127 211)
Elnn,atinn (%)
""' - 211'
2.5 1- 5 J- U 2
C'ntff. of lhtrm1I exr,1n1lnn (IO't'C) 60 - 200 53 4~- 1() .
W1ter 1hilnrption {°lo)
0.1- 0J . (},I - (J,4
.

1.31.1 Pol)int,r min.,

The most commonly used resin in glass reinforced plastic oonistrU<.,1ion is the polyester r~in and
they have exhibited good performance. An unsaturated polyester rcKin is formed by the reaction of li)
a saturated difunctional acid, (ii) an unsaturated difunctional acid and (iii) a difunctional glycol.
Compound (i) is usually an aromatic acid. (e.g.,phthalic acid ) whilfrt (ii) it u~ually aliphatic and
component (iii) may be aromatic or aliphatic. These three components react toge1:her to form a
polyester resin. The resin is dissolved in a vinyl monomer, usually sterene to form a syrupy liquid.

Table 1.4 Typical properties o_f some structural thcrmopla1;tic re1iru (J J J

Youna'1 Ten1ile Tcn1ile Heat

MalCriaJ so· modulu1 yield 1tre11 fai lure distortion c«imaua
11train (%) temp. l"C)
GPa MPa
ABS (acrylonitrilt butadiene UM:d in l(JfJIC wnaJl ~ e.g..
styrene
I.OS 3 35 so 100 surfboard,;
PET (polydhylenc UICd rnamly in iojemon
I.JS 2.8 80 80 75
thalate mouWin · ible
Low~ cough, Wala-
HOPE (hip .....ity
0.95 1.0 30 600- 1200 60 resiJtant., creep and fal1pe-
polyclbylcnc)
I ible
Tough. faliguc-ftlllllllll
PA (polyamidc, nylon 6/6) 1.15 2.2 75 60 75
IU able to mot~ effectJ
Good impact and fatigue
PC (polycad,onaac' 1.2 2.3 60 JOO 130
rttistant
Tuugh. lcmpenbR and fn
PES (polyerhenulphone) 1.35 2.8 84 60 203 rn illant; UICld iD wwpa
co
PEI I etherimide 1.3 3.0 IOS 60 200 11Pl'..S
PEEK (polyetherethcr u PES
ketone I.J 3.7 92 50 140
• specific gravity

The main advantage, of polye11ter resins are their reasonable cost and ease widl wlllicl
be used,
1.3 .2.2 Epoxy resin,
~poxy_rcsins are mostly used in aerospace structures for hiah perfo
used m marine structures, rarely though, as cheaper varietie1 of re1i111 other
111111111111117

A M,rl,m,111 11/ Cmnpn,11, Mnt,rlnl• and ,ftrur.tur~,

The nten1ive uae of epoxy re1in1 in indu1try i1 due to: (I) the eue with which it can be p r ~,
(2) nceJlent mechanical propertiet in compositet and (3) high hot and ~et •tr~gth PfOJ)ertie,
(l~C). Performance or epoxies i• superior to polye1ter re1in1 due to their iuperior mechanical
pmpertia and better rniatance to degradation by water and other aolventl.
The chemittry of the epoxy retin componentl i1 1uch that it 1ive1 • better adhetion to
mnfon:ina fibre than polyester retina,
I.l .2J n,,,,
atn rn/111
Bein1 • combination of the principles of both epoxy and polyester re.•i~ c~emiStry, vinyl e!ter
~ins have • cloae resemblance to polyester re1in1, but hat a chemical •1~ilanty to epoxy resin"·
Vi~I ester min i1 superior to polyester resin because it offer• greater.re915t8nce to water. _These
m1ns provide superior chemical resi,tance and ,uperior retention properties of strength and stiffness
at elevated temperature.
In construction and marine industries, vinyl ester resins have been widelr used in boat
construction. The application of vinyl ester is limited mainly in the USA to small high performance
hulls such u racing canoes and speed boatt.
Vinyl eater resins are between polyester resins and epoxies from the cost point of view·
1.3.2.4 Pheno/k re1l111
The main characteristics of phenolic resins are their excellent fire resistance properties. As such,
they are now introduced in high temperature application areas. The recently developed cold-cure
varieties of phenolic resins are used for contact moulding of structural laminates.
Phenolic resins have inferior mechanical properties to both polyester resins and epoxy resins,
but have higher maximum operating temperature, much better flame retardant and smoke and toxic
p, emiuion characteristics, Due to the above advantages, phenolic resins are the only matrix used in
aircraft interior and other locations of public occupancy.
Phenolic resins are increasingly used in internal bulkheads, decks and furnishings in ships.
1.3.2.5 High perfo111111nu rnl111
Attempts are on for the dev~loprnent of ~trices w_ith better properties at elevated temperatures.
It hu been observed that proces11ng characten1t1c1 detenorate with the increase of thermal stability.
The general chemical approach i~ to devise resins which incorporate aromatic, hetero-cyclic, and
ladder polymer elements. The most highly developed systems are bismaleimide (BMI) and polimide
(Pl).

J.3.3Prepep
!!~e
and
fibre, a,e : : : : ;,;:;;:;:: ::i:e
and matrix were available ~mm~rcially as one entity, it avoids the procurement of fibre
1
res•.~~ ICI _u • binder lo • :-;fll laid out fibre system. These
1 1
euy to handle and can be;t be used in ::u,•~~:•ona or woven · • D~e to its tacky texture, it is
ho.yever, have a limited shelf life. The manufacir:f c~n;:lex geom~trical s~npes. The prepegs,
which they need to be stored in freezers, n °
ese matenals specify the condition at
J,J.4 Flllen ••d Other Addldvet
Piller, may be added to the I ·. ·
reduction of eott, (b) increue of m':t!,:(~)":,tr::C,[orfo~e or. more of the following reasons: (a)
surface. ' n . 0 viscosity and (d) production of a smoother
 lntrnductlon to CompoJite Material! 9
The ffl<\St common filler in polyester and vinyl ester resins is calcium carbonate. It not only
ft'duces the cost, but also lessens mould shrinkage. Examples of other fillers are clay, mica and glass
microspheres. Although fillers increase the modulus of an unreinforced matrix, they also tend to
ttduce its strength and impact resistance.
The impact strength and crash resistance of brittle thermosetting polymers can be improved by
mixing them with small amounts of elastic elastomeric toughners.
In addition to fillers and toughners, colourants, flame retardants and ultraviolet absorbers may be
added to the matrix. Toughners are used for improving impact strength. Typical examples of
toughners arc silicon, rubber and butadiene styrene. The purpose of the colourant is to obtain the
required colour. Typical examples are titanium dioxide, barium sulphate, magnesium carbonate and
cadmium reds and yellows. Addition of flame retardants give tire retardant properties to the
composites. Typical examples are red phosphorous, antimony trioxide, butyl acid phosphate and
aluminium hydroxide. To prevent discolourisation of the composite from exposure to sunlight,
ultraviolet absorbents are used. Typical examples are acetyl salicyclic acid and benzotriamles
hydroxphenyl.

1.4 LAMINAANDLAMINATE
A lamina or a ply is formed by a combination of a large number of fibres in a thin layer of •
matrix. Fibres in the lamina may be continuous or discontinuous, arranged in a specific direction or
in
a random orientation. A unidirectional lamina ·is one where the fibres in a lamina run parallel to one
another in a particular direction. It is natural that discrete fibre composites will have lower strength
and modulus than continuous fibre composites. However, with the random orientation of the fibre, it
is possible to obtain nearly equal mechanical and physic~l properties in all directions in the plane of
the lamina. The thickness ·of the lamina ranges from 0.1-1 mm. The standard thickness of a
unidirectional ply is 0.125 mm whereas typical thickness of the woven ply is 0.25 mm.
The principal coordinate axes of an orthotropic lamina are shown in Fig. 1.2. The three principal
axes are: axis I, the longitudinal axis in the direction of fibre, axis 2, the transverse axis in the
direction normal to the fibre and axis 3 in the direction normal to the plane of the lamina.
A laminate is formed by stacking several laminas (Fig, 1.3). It is the most common fonn of fibre ~
reinforced composites. It is made of a desired. thickness so as to enable it to support a given load and
maintain a given deflection. Fibre orientation of each lamina and stacking sequence of various layers
can be varied to obtain a wide range of physical and mechanical properties of composites.

1.5 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FRPS

Traditional structural materials like steel and aluminium are considered as isotropic. The
properties of the fibre reinforced composites are, however, strongly dependent on the direction of
measurement. For example, properties such as the tensile strength and the tensile modulus in a
unidirectional FRP attain maximum values in the longitudinal direction of fibres. At any other angle
of measurement, mechanical properties attain lower values, being minimum· at perpendicular to the
·longitudinal direction of fibres. Similar angular dependence is observed for other physical and
mechanical properties such as the coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity and strength.
Bi- or multidirectional reinforcement gives a more balanced set of properties. Although the
magnitude of these properties are lower than the longitudinal properties of unidirectional composites,
they represent a considerable advantage over common structural materials on a unit weight basis.
 L
2 (Tran~vef'!le)

"' I (Longitudinal)
Fig. 1.l Principal coordinate axes of a lamina

The design of metal structures is more or less straight forward, but not so for FRPs which exhibit
diffamt p.opertid in different directions. But due .to this anisotropy,. properties of the FRP can be
laiknd ID meet the design requirement This flexibility enables the designer to selectively reinforce a
lll1lcllft in die direction of major stressesi inc~ its stiffiless in a preferred direction and produce
llnlCIUns wida an codlicient of thermal expansion.

Fie ~-3 Laminate construction

l.6 WHY FRPS 1 ·
. The development of advanced fib . .. . .
biggest tecbnical revolution after the ;~;:::1i~mpF~bsite m~terials has been considered as the
• I re remforced c .
. omposites possess high
 Introduction to Compo1ite Material., I )

strength and stiffness. Some of these materials perform equally weJI or better than many traditional
metallic materiels. ln addition, fatigue strength-to-weight ratios as well as fatigue damage tolerance of
many composite laminates are excellent.
Coefficients of thermal expansion for many fibre reinforced composites are much lower than
those of metals. As such composite structures exhibit a better dimensional stability over a wide range
of temperature variation. However, differences in thermal expansion between metals and composite
materials may create undue thermal stresses when they are used in conjunction, for example, in an
attachment
I

Fibre reinforced composites possess high internal damping. This leads to a better vibrational
energy absorption within the material, and results in reduced transmission of noise, vibration and
harshness (NVH).
In unfavourable environments, metals are usually susceptible to corrosion. The non-corroding
behaviour of fibre reinforced composites is an added advantage. Cracks and flaws in metals grow
during the service life of the structure. Though they are easy to detect, their repair work may not be
simple. Damage of composite structures is usually internal in nature and can be detected only by
sophisticated non-destructive testing. Protective coatings are applied on the surface of composite
structures to take care of likely damages on the surface. Many polymer matrix composites absorb
moisture from the surroundings which creates dimensional changes as well as adverse internal
stresses in the material. ·
A significant advantage of the FRP construction is its low maintenance cost.
The cost of raw materials of composite structures such as fibres and auxiliary materials are high
in fabrication and assembly operations. Though composite structures are much lighter, their tooling
costs are also less and they usually possess less number of parts. In conventional structural materials,
though the cost of raw materials is less, more often the cost involved with tooling, machinery and
assembly is high, thus offsetting the initial advantage.
_ Structures made of fibre reinforced composite are lighter than those made of conventional
materials. In space vehicles, reduction in weight is linked to-fuel ·savings. Spacecraft may have weight
savings as much as 40 percent if fibre reinforced composite structures are used.
1.7 MICROMECHANICS AND MACROMECHANICS
Micromechanics deals with the deformation and stress in the basic constituents of a structure. It
deals with local failures such as matrix failure, fibre failure and interface/interphase failure. As such
the constituent materials are examined on a microscopic scale without recourse to their internal
structure.
Macromechanics deals with the behaviour of the composite material presumed as homogeneous
and the effects of the composite material are detected only as average apparent properties of
composites. In macromechanics, properties along the length and perpendicular to the fibre direction
are considered.

1.8 PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Various types of composite materials are possible by choosing different constituents mixed in
different proportions. Mechanical, thermal and electrical properties of some typical composite
laminates are given in Table 1.5. It can be seen from Table 1.5 that composites have higher specific
modulus and higher specific strength than steel.
· Fibre properties dictate the stiffness of unidirection~l composites. Figure 1.4 indic~t~s ~e
stress-strain curves of a typical unidirectional composite. The stress-strain curve for alumimurn 18
 7
•
. Uat,rht/., nrrd Stn«-tur,.,
. h f unidim:tional composites,
12 u..-orc...,.._,,,,. of comparison. Forsom higher stren~t othe has
increase of stiffnessional
re.5 For e com posites, . rve for unid im:t
~t Nt in the ftgu tt fur the sa,k• r at failu
4 6 7). The stress-strain cu
ltimate strllin. is gene rally owe
....__
U1C' u
m:u . lowcnng
ltNt 1n .the. strength (curves , ' ,
~ i t e s in general 1s hnear.

2-Sr-----------------;M~a~t~e~r;ia~ll- I
,. I0l1 -TI oh,111inhN11
!. 0 2, s- 9l0H lepo •y
3. Ke'l ler / •P•• Y

-•
~
2 l-S
4 • carb on I •P•• Y
5. Silic en car ltide I Al
b 1. Boren •P••r
I
,,; 7_ GY70 grap hite /epo xy
J
•
I. Slllca11 corb idelc alcM II
olu• inea ilico te

4 5 10
Strain E(%)

Fie- I..C Strcss~strain curves oftyp1cal um'd•treeti'on al composites in the fibre direction
.
. . and ·d
l.9 Al'PLICATION OF COMPOSITES
CommaciaJ and industrial applicati ons of fi~ reinf~n:ed composites an: .di~
The .
..7.t~
and submannes, a1n:rafts and ~ devtces.
Some of these applications are shipl s engi mam 1
vehicles, llllomobiles, robots, civi neering structures and PlllSlhetic
ws
application areas may be broadly classified as follo
I. Marine field
2. ·Aircraft and space
3. Automotive
4. Sporting goods

1.9.J Mariae Field

is !IID Wing steadily since the early l9SO s. Initial

in the mar ine field , ctures
such as lifeboats and pleasure boats. Now
Uoc of COl llpos ites stru
app lica ti- of FRP s wer e limi ted to sma u.craf ts
dred tonn es are regu larly prod uced and USed . Potential applications in the nminc field
ts, and piping Ill Jarae.-le Slructures,
of several hun
from lllllall COl l!pon ents
stru IUCh
ctur e modas rada
ules r
c1. dom
J_ es, mas
rangeersibles and
subm offs hore 3

USed in the COllslruction of boat hulls includin

g
Glass reinforced Plastics (GRP) are extensively
~!" , fishing boats and ""8laiam ..........buUa). a trouble--
The ularity
~
pop
yachts, li~boats, di~ ies , ~- • speed Ill - - -
wnh boat bw l~ hes m C011
tiscost 1tveheti
1petjaest lowcs.cost (in
free performance, low ma1111en
of GRP ance and
 7 1 271
Table 1.5 Properties of some typical unidirectional composite laminalJ. , 1.lo, ·

----
Lonptudinal
Lob. . . . . .
.._.. Fan
W>lume
fraction
Specific
pavity
Young~•
modulm
(0Pa)
Shear
modulm
·(~•)
Tensile
lll'algth
(MPa)
Compressive
strength
(MPa) .
Shear
strength
(MPa)
Specific
Young's
modulm
. Specific
tensile
strength
tbermaJ
expamioa
c:oefficienl
..,...,.
uo-•t'CJ c:oeffi ·-
,----(~) 0.18 I.S 8 3 100 140 75 S.3 67 30 0
~--no1...- 0.43 1.8 30 3.5 750 600 - 16.7 417 - 0
0
0.55 2.10 39 3.8 1080 620 89 15 514 7
0.50 2.00 43 4.5 1280 690 69 21.S 640 s 0
.Carbon lll!ilMmY thin amdulus) 0.62 1.70 300 20 700 650 176 412 - -
Carbon epmy (bip Sllmath) 0.62 1.60 140 15 1500 0 87 937 -0.9 0.01
Kevlar euoxy (1'evlar 149/moxv) 0.60 1.38 87 2.2 1280 335 49 63 927 -2 0
-
Boroaenoxy
0.51
0.50
1.59
2.03
294
201
4.9
S.4
589
1380
491
1600
49
62
140
99
370
680
-0.1
6.1
0
0
Mildlled - 7.8 207 8.0 325 340 190 26.S 42 12 0
 ,,,..ri,.t,.,.. Mntf'rlnh ""'' s,,,11·n1rr.,
.,._.,.., · nf.<' ra ns Fea11ihility
· studie, have
14 lift. .~ · .. d commercial hoverc · .nates in place of steel
~Rr ha.'li N'ffl ~\J\~~~ful Y"~
I rd in .m1htAJ}' an 'd I s/carbon 1am,
ht hy u!ling hybri g a!!
. f GRP
11 .AJ Construction o a
\, ~~t1nt11I ~,,n~
-NI .._,.TNI · in hull
. f h drofoils and r.1a11 t patrol boats
we,g ·
' '' .' . t . he ron'-tn1ct1on o Y k t to be cheaper. . [1 .91
and alum,nmm "" t . th . maintenance wor s ou d mposite construction .
tt\ t,r C\'-"tly hut cir h e advance co
,~I rm,ie . il' raft and power boats av ortation of corrosive
lTltt1-hi~h rrrformancc sa mg ced for special purposes, su~h as tra;:nsiderable savings in
FRP ~Is may be construct . hull or requirement o
. ent of a non-magnetic
cry~ic bulk ~=~r:," CMV), landing craft, fast
~,¢11 for btncr_pc . include mine countermeasure ~es~els _(M CMVs where a hull with
Naval apphcahons ~bfl FR~RP has found a favourable appltcat1on t~ ~·on of magnetic mines.
Jlllrol boats and submers1 es. d t avoid the acttva I dd s
ligiblc magnetic signature is requ!red_ in .or er :ea on enclosures, gun enclosures, ru er ,
':!nnona1 developments in naval apphcat1on mclude . p ·1 radomes masts and stacks.
. dock shelters, missiles, blast shields, ladders, deck dram~, ra1 s,
dry d ' n-pressure hull decks. A
fi · · smg planes an no C
FRP is used in submarines for flooded nose_ amngs: hi h s ecific compressive strength. are
specific requirement for an underwater vessel _is that ~ ; ki' ng under fatigue and impact loads
should be exercised while designing to ch_ eck failure ag:~t u~:d /n dffshore operations.
and againsl creep. GRP submersibles have been success y tructure of
. b . .ngs and appendages, supers
Otha marine applications of FRP include su marme cast. . ·1 and water storage
ships. warship radomes, sonar domes, ship's pipi_ng and vent1lat1on systems, 01
tanb, floats and buoys for fishing and mine sweeping purpose. . .
HuJJ-superstructur interaction can be av~ided by using a low modulus matenal like the G~.
The elastic modulus of GRP is less than I00/o that of steel_ ,. while the strength of the GRP 15 ,
comparable with that of steel. · th· ·
GRP sheathing is used to protect wooden hulls from bores, le~ge and rot. Shea mg IS a cover
made by one or two plies of CSM attached by polyester or epoxy resm . .

1.91 Aircraft ud Space .

Optimally an aircraft r~uires a reduction in weight to attain greater speed and increased payload
and fibre-reinforced composite have been found to be ideal for this purpose. No doubt for one of the
most important application areas of FRP is in the field of civil and commercial aircrafts. Carbon fibres
either alone or in the hybridii.ed condition is used for a large number of aircraft components. Carbon
and Kevlar have become the major material used in many wing, fuselage and empennage
components. They are also used in secondary structures such as elevator facesheets, horizontal
stabilizers, upper rudder el al., of many commercial aircrafts.
FRP with epoxy u the resin is used for the manufacture of helicopter blades. One of the main
rea&om why f~ ii used_ for rotor blades is the ability of the material to tailor the dynamic frequency
o~ the ~lade to _au oper,tmg parameters. FRPs are more suitable for blade application than metals, as
with th" matenal, blade, of any shape can be manufactured wilhout any additional cost, an advantage
which doeiornot
machmed bold good for melal blades whose shapes are limited to lhose which can be extended,
rolled.

A miS1ile -lure, when made of FRP is ligh~ and has an increased ran e of action and
pa~I~. A ~•.;d• structure ltWk of FRP reduces the weight of the structure consi!ably In ICBMs
an. o er m1ss1 e systems, graphite composites are used for its h'gh t'ffn · ..
weight. 1 s I ess, strength and nununum

There is a wide variation of temperature in space and as such the

dimensional stability of
 Introduction to Compo.,ite Materials 15

spacecraft components to maintain precise alignment of communication and sensor systems is a major
requirement. Graphite and Kevlar fibres are well suited for space applications because of their high
srecific strength and modulus and low coefficient of thermal expansion. Strength and stiffness of
composites are major considerations for the aircraft whereas stiffness and low coefficient of thermal
expansion are the major requirements for space applications.
Some of the application areas of FRP to spacecraft are antennas, booms, support trusses and
struts. Carbon-epoxy composite tubes are used in constructing truss structures for Low Earth Orbit
(LEO) satellites and interplanetary satellites.
1.9.3 Automotive Field
FRPs have been used in many parts of the car.
The exterior part of the car such as hood or door panels requires sufficient stiffness. The other
requirement is that it should offer maximum resistance to dent formation (damage tolerance). Resins
like polyeurathanes enable the damage tolerance to be limited.to acceptable values. Further, a good
surface finish is highly desirable.
Application of FRPs include the_chassis components as well, such as corvette rear leaf spring
and unileafE-glass reinforced epoxy.
In racing cars, parts of the engines are made of graphite-epoxy. Connecting rods which are
subjected _to fatigue are now made of composites for _better performance. Other parts of the engine
where composites are used are push rods, rocker arms, pistons, cylinder leads and engine blocks. The
advantage of using advanced composi,es in engines is higher speed with the production of more
power and the simultaneous reduction of engine weight.
Use of FRP components in a~torriotive industries is much less than the aircraft industries. For
aircraft components, the basic technique use~ for manufacture is the hand lay-up, whereas in
automotive industries more ·sophisticated ·techniques of fabrication such as compression moulding,
resin transfer moulding, filament winding and pultrusiori are used.

1.9.4 Sporting Goods

Many sporting goods are made of FRPs nowadays. One of the major advantages of using FRP is
the reduction of weight.
Tennis rackets or snow skis are made as a sandwich structure - FRP with carbon or boron fibre
as the skin and the core formed by soft and light urethane foam which enables the structure to have a
weight reduction without any decrease in stiffness.
FRPs enable damping of vibrations. Therefore, shock resulting from the impact of the ball on the
tennis racket which is transmitted to the arm of the player will dampen out at a quicker rate.
Other application areas of fibre reinforced polymers in sports are fishing rods, bicycle frames,
archery bows, sail boats and kayaks, oars, paddles, canoe hulls, racket balls, rackets, javelins, helmets,
golf club staff, hockey sticks, athletic shoe soles and heels, surfboards and many other items.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS ,

LI Isaac M. Daniel and Ori Ishai, Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Oxford
University Press, 1994. .
1.2 P. K. Mallick, Fiber Reinforced Composites, 2nd Edition, Marcel Dekker Inc., USA, 1993.
1.3 C. S. Smith, Design of Marine Structures in Composite Materials, Elsevier Applied Science,
England, 1990.