CHAPTER 2

Measurements
and Calculations
BIG IDEA
Scientists use observations
and measurements to
formulate hypotheses and
theories about the world.

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 SECTION 1

Scientific Method Main Ideas

Observation includes making
Key Terms measurements and collecting
scientific method model data.
system theory
hypothesis Hypotheses are testable
statements.
Sometimes progress in science comes about through accidental discoveries. Scientific theories are well-
Most scientific advances, however, result from carefully planned investigations.
established and highly reliable
The process researchers use to carry out their investigations is often called the
scientific method. The scientific method is a logical approach to solving problems explanations.
by observing and collecting data, formulating hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and
formulating theories that are supported by data.

MAIN IDEA
Observation includes making measurements and
collecting data.
Observing is the use of the senses to obtain information. Observation
often involves making measurements and collecting data. The data may
be descriptive (qualitative) or numerical (quantitative) in nature.
Numerical information, such as the fact that a sample of copper ore has a
mass of 25.7 grams, is quantitative. Non-numerical information, such as
the fact that the sky is blue, is qualitative.
Experimenting involves carrying out a procedure under controlled
conditions to make observations and collect data. To learn more about
matter, chemists study systems. The students in Figure 1.1 are doing an
experiment to test the effects absorbed water has on popcorn. A system is
a specific portion of matter in a given region of space that has been selected
for study during an experiment or observation. When you observe a reaction
in a test tube, the test tube is the system.

FIGURE 1.1

Observation in an
Experiment Students observe
whether the volume of popped corn is
greater when the kernels have been
soaked in water prior to popping or
when they have not.

Measurements and Calculations 31

 FIGURE 1.2

Formulating Hypotheses A graph Plant Growth vs. Time

of data can show relationships between
30
variables. In this case, the graph shows
data collected during an experiment
to determine the effect of phosphorus 25 50% phosphorus
fertilizer
fertilizer compounds on plant growth.
25% phosphorus
CRITICAL THINKING 20
fertilizer
Predict Outcomes How would

Growth (cm)
you finish this hypothesis: 15
If phosphorus stimulates
corn-plant growth, then . . .?
10
10% phosphorus
fertilizer
5 no fertilizer

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (days)

MAIN IDEA
Hypotheses are testable statements.
As scientists examine and compare the data from their experiments, they
attempt to find relationships and patterns—in other words, they make
generalizations based on the data. Generalizations are statements that
apply to a range of information. To make generalizations, data are some-
times organized in tables and analyzed using statistics or other math-
ematical techniques, often with the aid of graphs and a computer.
Scientists use generalizations about the data to formulate a hypothesis, or
testable statement. The hypothesis serves as a basis for making predictions
and for carrying out further experiments. Figure 1.2 shows data collected
to test a hypothesis about the effects of phosphorus fertilizer on plant
growth. A good hypothesis, however, doesn’t just predict what is expected
to happen. A good hypothesis gives a possible explanation for the reason
something occurs. It’s not enough to say, “If we add phosphorus to the
soil, plant growth will increase.” A good hypothesis would say, “If we add
phosphorus to the soil, plant growth will increase because phosphorus is
essential for growth processes such as energy transfer and
photosynthesis.”
Hypotheses often are referred to as tentative statements. However,
before a scientist would publicly support a particular hypothesis, the
hypothesis would need to be tested over a wide variety of conditions to
ensure its validity. It’s not uncommon, especially in newer fields of study,
to have several competing hypotheses for a phenomenon, each one
having its own supporters and detractors.

32 Chapter 2
 Controls and Variables FIGURE 1.3
Have you ever opened a package you’ve received in the mail
Controlling Variables Silica gel packets are
to find a packet of what appears to be small beads or crys-
placed in packages in order to absorb excess moisture
tals? Most likely, this is a package of silica gel (Figure 1.3), that could harm the contents of the package.
which is a desiccant. Desiccants are materials that remove
moisture from the air. In packaging, they help insure that the
contents of the package aren’t exposed to excessive amounts
of moisture that could damage them. While the sender can’t
control the weather conditions the package will pass
through on its way to its recipient, the desiccant can help
ensure the moisture inside the package doesn’t vary greatly.
The silica gel helps control a variable.
Testing a hypothesis also requires the control of variables.
During testing, scientists attempt to control all external
conditions that possibly could have an effect on the outcome
of an experiment. Any conditions they cannot control or
allow to change are known as variables. Any change
observed, therefore, has a greater likelihood of being due
to the effects of the variable being tested. If testing reveals that
the predictions were not correct, the hypothesis on which the
predictions were based must be discarded or modified.

Repetition and Replication FIGURE 1.4

Just one prediction, or even several correct predictions, does Replication Exact measurements and instructions
not make a hypothesis strong. It’s also important that the allow recipes to be replicated many times.
same experiments continue to get the same results and that
what one scientist claims his or her experiments show can
be verified by others. These considerations are known as
repetition and replication.
Repetition is the expectation that an experiment will give
the same results when it is performed under the same
conditions. Sometimes an experiment can give inaccurate or
unusual results. This could happen for many unknown and
unforeseeable reasons. It does not necessarily mean the
scientist has not done the experiment well. However,
repeating the experiment provides a check on its accuracy
and prevents scientists from jumping to unwarranted
conclusions. Results from multiple trials ensure that the
©Rob Walls/Alamy Images; ©PhotoCuisine/Alamy Images

scientist is using the most accurate and complete data.

Replication is the idea that experiments should be
reproducible by other scientists. Any scientist in the world
should be able to perform the same experiment and get
similar results. Replication is a major reason that scientists
publish detailed notes on how they performed their trials.
Recipes exist for much the same purpose (Figure 1.4). Providing exact
amounts of ingredients and specific mixing and heating instructions
greatly increases the chances that a cake made today tastes like one made
last week. The chance that a cake made by one baker will taste similar to
one made by another also is increased.

Measurements and Calculations 33

 MAIN IDEA
Scientific theories are well-established and highly
reliable explanations.
A hypothesis is an explanation for why a certain outcome should be
expected. Hypotheses can be supported by evidence, but they cannot be
proven to be true. They can only be disproved when they fail to account
for what is observed. Remember that it is possible that several hypotheses
could account for the same observation equally well.
However, when a hypothesis or group of related hypotheses has
survived repeated testing over a reasonable period of time, it can form the
basis for a scientific theory. A theory is a broad generalization that explains a
body of facts or phenomena. Theories also encompass a wider area,
explaining a greater number of observations in more-general terms.

Theories in Chemistry
Only about a hundred years ago, there was still some confusion over how
to explain the kinetics of some chemical reactions, especially those
occurring at low pressures. Some scientists believed these only could be
caused by background radiation that “energized” the molecules. This
“radiation hypothesis” had a relatively short life in the history of
chemistry. It was quickly abandoned for the collision theory, which states
that reactions occur when reacting atoms and molecules collide in the
right orientation and with sufficient energy.
FIGURE 1.5
The collision theory explains a great deal about chemical
The Collision Theory For centuries, the mortar reactions. For example, it explains why substances that have
and pestle have been used to grind up substances been ground up, as in Figure 1.5, react more vigorously than
to encourage a faster reaction, even before chemists those that haven’t been. The greater surface area means more
had formulated the collision theory. of the reactant molecules can come into contact (collide) with
one another, providing a greater opportunity for them to react.
Heating also increases a reaction’s rate because the increased
energy results in faster-moving molecules. Faster-moving
molecules produce increased collisions with greater energy
and so a greater chance for reaction.
As theories change, discarded theories can still provide
insight into scientific phenomena. For example, there is some
evidence that suggests that radiation causes some reactions at
low pressures, where collisions between molecules are not so
frequent. However, experiments have yet to provide conclusive
evidence that radiation plays a role in reactions, so this idea is
©Charlie Winters/Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

not currently widely accepted.

Even widely accepted theories do not necessarily account
for all observations. Theories represent merely the best,
most-consistent explanations scientists have found to explain
a variety of observations.

34 Chapter 2
FIGURE 1.6

The Scientific Method The scientific method is not a single, fixed process.
Scientists may repeat steps many times before there is sufficient evidence to formulate
a theory. You can see that each stage represents a number of different activities.

STAGES IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

FORMULATING TESTING
OBSERVING THEORIZING
HYPOTHESES • predicting
• collecting data • constructing PUBLISH RESULTS
• analyzing data • experimenting
• measuring models • communicating
• classifying • communicating
• experimenting • predicting
• inferring • collecting data
• communicating • communicating
• predicting • measuring

Not supported—revise Results confirmed by other scientists—

or reject hypothesis validate theory

Theories and Models

After formulating what they feel to be strong theories or even hypotheses,
scientists typically try to explain the phenomena they are studying by
constructing a model. A model in science is more than a physical object; it is
often an explanation of how phenomena occur and how data or events are
related. Models may be visual, verbal, or mathematical. One important
model in chemistry is the atomic model of matter, which states that matter
is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
Figure 1.6 attempts to summarize the steps of the scientific method
from observing phenomena to hypothesizing to theorizing. Don’t be
fooled by what’s depicted as a very linear process. Most scientists will
agree that their actual work is rarely this simple. Hypotheses are formed
and rejected, and scientists can spend months, even years, following a
hypothesis that eventually is proven false. The important thing to take
away from the above is the constant questioning. Scientists are always
asking questions, always testing, and always attempting to gather more
support for their ideas, regardless of how strong they may seem.

SECTION 1 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas 4. How are models related to theories and
hypotheses?
1. What is the scientific method?
2. How do hypotheses and theories differ? Critical Thinking
3. Once scientists have agreed upon a theory, will 5. INTERPRETING CONCEPTS Suppose you
that theory ever change? Are all scientific theo- had to test how well two types of soap work.
ries perfect? Describe your experiment by using the terms
control, variable, reproducible, and repetition.

Measurements and Calculations 35

why it matters

Models in
Chemistry

S
eeing is believing, but much of science deals
with objects and events that cannot be seen.
Models help explain the unseen, from the
structures of far-off galaxies to the probable look and
feel of subatomic particles. Models, however, must be
based on observations. And how exactly do you model
something as small as atoms or molecules?
Scientists developed the atomic theory to account for the The enzyme is known as phosphoglycerate kinase, or
behavior of matter they could not see directly. At first, atoms PGK. Scientists thought that to perform its metabolic
were modeled as tiny billiard balls. Then, the models function, a PGK molecule opened and closed like a door
became increasingly complex, until they included nuclei and hinge. The researchers used their supercomputer model to
electron clouds. These models give an idea of what atoms look at PGK’s structure and to simulate changes to its
and molecules look like and can help predict their reactions. cellular environment to study how PGK functioned. The
Today, however, supercomputers are creating very model showed that, instead of a hinge structure, PGK has
detailed atomic models that are unsurpassed in their ability two lobes with a narrow connecting region between them,
to help scientists make predictions about molecular behavior like a partly-sliced sandwich roll. The model also let
in chemical reactions. Scientists feed information about the scientists simulate what happens when PGK catalyzes the
chemical behavior of a molecule into the supercomputer, formation of ATP during cellular glycolysis. The models
which produces the model. The scientists can then showed that PGK binds to the substrates it needs. Then the
manipulate the model’s orientation and the conditions under lobes close, correctly positioning the substrates for the rest
which it exists. They can even highlight certain parts of the of the reaction—a process that could not be observed
model at different times to study different aspects of the directly. Scientists also discovered that PGK was much more
molecule. Then they can test hypotheses about matter and active in cell conditions than in a diluted test tube
how it behaves in a way they can see and discuss. environment. The computer modeling led the researchers to
change their ideas about the structure of PGK and how it

©Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, University of Oxford/Photo Researchers, Inc

Computer modeling can be especially useful for studying
functions in a cellular environment.
the complex molecules, such as enzymes, found in living
organisms. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze cellular Although new modeling techniques promise models that
reactions. Scientists use x-ray crystallography, NMR include more detail, one thing is worth remembering. All
spectroscopy, and amino acid sequencing to study the models are still only our best guess of the unknown using
structure of proteins outside cells. However, enzymes carry empirical evidence—that is, evidence we can see. While the
out their functions inside cells, where the environment is atomic model of tiny billiard balls was too limiting, thinking
crowded with organelles and ongoing, nearly instantaneous of models as “right” or “wrong” misses the point of building
reactions. Computer models can be used to simulate this and using them. Good models are not always the “right”
dynamic intracellular environment. For example, in 2010, ones. Good models are any models that help explain what
two scientists at the University of Houston used computers we observe and help us make predictions.
to build a three-dimensional model of an enzyme linked to
Questions
both Alzheimer’s disease and cancer.
1. How have you used models in science classes?
2. How did these models help you understand concepts?

36
 Section 2

Units of Main Ideas

Measurement
Scientists worldwide use SI
measurements.

Prefixes added to SI base units

Key Terms indicate larger or smaller
quantity derived unit conversion factor quantities.
SI volume dimensional analysis
weight density
SI base units combine to form
derived units.

Measurements are quantitative information. A measurement is more than just a Conversion factors change one
number, even in everyday life. Suppose a chef wrote a recipe, listing quantities unit to another.
such as 1 salt, 3 sugar, and 2 flour. Cooks could not use the recipe without
more information. They would need to know whether the numbers 1, 3, and 2
represented teaspoons, tablespoons, cups, ounces, grams, or some other unit for
salt, sugar, and flour, respectively.
Measurements represent quantities. A quantity is something that has
magnitude, size, or amount. A quantity is not the same as a measurement. For
example, the quantity represented by a teaspoon is volume. The teaspoon is a
unit of measurement, while volume is a quantity. A teaspoon is a measurement
standard in this country. Units of measurement compare what is to be measured
with a previously defined size. Nearly every measurement is a number plus a unit.
The choice of unit depends on the quantity being measured.
Many centuries ago, people sometimes marked off distances in the number
of foot lengths it took to cover the distance. But this system was unsatisfactory
because the number of foot lengths used to express a distance varied with the size
of the measurer’s foot. Once there was agreement on a standard for foot length,
confusion as to the actual length was eliminated. It no longer mattered who made
the measurement, as long as the standard measuring unit was correctly applied.

Main Idea 
Scientists worldwide use SI measurements.
Scientists all over the world have agreed on a single measurement system
called Le Système International d’Unités, abbreviated SI. This system was
adopted in 1960 by the General Conference on Weights and Measures.
SI now has seven base units, and most other units are derived from these
seven. Some non-SI units are still commonly used by chemists and are
also used in this book.
SI units are defined in terms of standards of measurement. The
standards are objects or natural phenomena that are of constant value,
easy to preserve and reproduce, and practical in size. International
organizations monitor the defining process. In the United States, the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) plays the main
role in maintaining standards and setting style conventions. For example,
numbers are written in a form that is agreed upon internationally. The
number seventy-five thousand is written 75 000, not 75,000, because the
comma is used in other countries to represent a decimal point.

Measurements and Calculations 37

 Main Idea 
Prefixes added to SI base units indicate larger or
smaller quantities.
The seven SI base units and their standard abbreviated symbols are listed
in Figure 2.1. All the other SI units can be derived from these seven
fundamental units.
Prefixes added to the names of SI base units are used to represent
quantities that are larger or smaller than the base units. Figure 2.2 lists SI
prefixes using units of length as examples. For example, the prefix centi‑,
abbreviated c, represents an exponential factor of 10 –2, which equals
1/100. Thus, 1 centimeter, 1 cm, equals 0.01 m, or 1/100 of a meter.

Mass
As you learned in the chapter “Matter and Change,” mass is a measure of
the quantity of matter. The SI standard unit for mass is the kilogram. The
standard for mass defined in Figure 2.1 is used to calibrate balances all
over the world. A kilogram is about 2.2 pounds on the surface of Earth.

Figure 2.1

SI Base Units
Quantity Unit Unit
Quantity symbol name abbreviation Defined standard

length l meter m the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second

mass m kilogram kg the unit of mass equal to the mass of the international prototype of
the kilogram

time t second s the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation correspond-
ing to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground
state of the cesium-133 atom

temperature T kelvin K the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the

triple point of water

amount of n mole mol the amount of substance of a system that contains as many
substance elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of
carbon-12

electric I ampere A the constant current that, if maintained in two straight parallel
current conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and
placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these
conductors a force equal to 2 × 10 –7 newton per meter of length

luminous Iv candela cd the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits
intensity monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and that
has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian

38 Chapter 2
 The gram, g, which is 1/1000 of a kilogram, is more useful for measur-
ing masses of small objects, such as flasks and beakers. One gram is about
the mass of a paper clip. For even smaller objects, such as tiny quantities
of chemicals, the milligram, mg, is often used. One milligram is 1/1000 of
a gram, or 1/1 000 000 of a kilogram.

Mass versus Weight

Mass is often confused with weight. Remember that mass is a measure of CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING
the amount of matter. Weight is a measure of the gravitational pull on matter. Apply  The gravity on the moon is
Mass is determined by comparing the mass of an object with a set of 1/6 of Earth’s gravity. What would
standard masses on two sides of a balance. When the masses on each are your weight be on the moon? Would
the same, the sides balance. Unlike weight, mass does not depend on your mass on the moon be different
gravity. Thus, weight changes as gravitational force changes, while mass from your mass on Earth? Explain.
does not change.
Mass is measured on instruments such as a balance, and weight is
typically measured on a spring scale. Taking weight measurements
involves reading the amount that an object pulls down on a spring. As the
force of Earth’s gravity on an object increases, the object’s weight in-
creases. The weight of an object on the moon is about one-sixth of its
weight on Earth.

Figure 2.2

SI Prefixes
Prefix Unit abbreviation Exponential factor Meaning Example

tera T 1012 1 000 000 000 000 1 terameter (Tm) = 1 × 1012 m

giga G 109 1 000 000 000 1 gigameter (Gm) = 1 × 109 m

mega M 106 1 000 000 1 megameter (Mm) = 1 × 106 m

kilo k 103 1000 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 m

hecto h 102 100 1 hectometer (hm) = 100 m

deka da 101 10 1 dekameter (dam) = 10 m

100 1 1 meter (m)

deci d 10 –1 1/10 1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 m

centi c 10 –2 1/100 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 m

milli m 10 –3 1/1000 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 m

micro µ 10 –6 1/1 000 000 1 micrometer (µm) = 1 × 10 –6 m

nano n 10 –9 1/1 000 000 000 1 nanometer (nm) = 1 × 10 –9 m

pico p 10 –12 1/1 000 000 000 000 1 picometer (pm) = 1 × 10 –12 m

femto f 10 –15 1/1 000 000 000 000 000 1 femtometer (fm) = 1 × 10 –15 m

atto a 10 –18 1/1 000 000 000 000 000 000 1 attometer (am) = 1 × 10 –18 m

Measurements and Calculations 39

 Figure 2.3

Metric Length  The meter is the

SI unit of length, but the centimeter
is often used to measure smaller
distances. What is the length in cm
of the rectangular piece of aluminum
foil shown?

Length
The SI standard unit for length is the meter. A distance of 1 m is about the
width of an average doorway. To express longer distances, the kilometer,
km, is used. One kilometer equals 1000 m. To express shorter distances,
the centimeter, as shown Figure 2.3, is often used. The centimeter is about
the width of a paper clip. From Figure 2.2, on the previous page, you can
see that one centimeter equals 1/100 of a meter.

Main Idea 
SI base units combine to form derived units.
Many SI units are combinations of the quantities shown in Figure 2.1.
Combinations of SI base units form derived units. Derived units are pro-
duced by multiplying or dividing standard units. For example, area, a
derived unit, is length times width. If both length and width are ex-
pressed in meters, the area unit equals meters times meters, or square
meters, abbreviated m2. Some derived units are shown in Figure 2.4. The
last column of Figure 2.4 shows the combination of SI units used to obtain
derived units. Figure 2.5, on the next page, shows a speedometer measur-
ing speed, another example of a derived unit.
Figure 2.4

Derived SI Units
Quantity Quantity symbol Unit Unit abbreviation Derivation

area A square meter m2 length × width

volume V cubic meter m3 length × width × height

_ kg mass  ​ 
density D kilograms per cubic meter ​    ​  ​ _
m3 volume
_ g mass   ​
molar mass M grams per mole ​    ​  ​ __
  
mol amount of substance
3
​ __ volume   ​
molar volume Vm cubic meters per mole _ ​  m   ​    
mol amount of substance
_ kg
energy E joule (J) ​     ​  force × distance
m2/s2

40 Chapter 2
 Some combination units are given their own names. For example, Figure 2.5
pressure expressed in base units is the following:
Using Derived Units to
kg/m•s2 Measure Speed  The speed
The name pascal, Pa, is given to this combination. You will learn more that registers on a car’s speedometer
about pressure in the chapter “Gases.” Prefixes can also be added to represents distance traveled per hour
express derived units. For example, area can be expressed in cm2, square
CRiticaL ThiNKING
centimeters, or mm2, square millimeters.
Apply  What derived SI units
are used to express speed?
Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. The derived
SI unit of volume is cubic meters, m3. One cubic meter is equal to
the volume of a cube whose edges are 1 m long. Such a large unit is
inconvenient for expressing the volume of materials in a chemistry
laboratory. Instead, a smaller unit, the cubic centimeter, cm3, is
often used. There are 100 centimeters in a meter, so a cubic meter
contains 1 000 000 cm3.

​  100 cm
1 m3 × _ ×_
 ​  ​  100 cm ​  100 cm
 × _
 ​   = 1 000 000 cm3
 ​ 
1m 1m 1m
When chemists measure the volumes of liquids and gases, they often
use a non-SI unit called the liter. The liter is equivalent to one cubic
decimeter. Thus, a liter, L, is also equivalent to 1000 cm3. Another non-SI
unit, the milliliter, mL, is used for smaller volumes. There are 1000 mL in
1 L. Because there are also 1000 cm3 in a liter, the two units—milliliter
and cubic centimeter—are interchangeable. Figure 2.6 shows some of
these different volume measurements.

Figure 2.6

Comparing Liquid Volumes  One liter contains 1000 mL of liquid, and 1 mL is

equivalent to 1 cm3. A small perfume bottle contains about 15 mL of liquid. There are
about 5 mL in 1 teaspoon. The volumetric flask (far left) and graduated cylinder (far right)
are used for measuring liquid volumes in the lab.

1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3

1L
15 mL
1L 1 cm3 1000 cm3 15 mL

Measurements and Calculations 41

Figure 2.7 Density
A piece of cork is lighter than a piece of lead of the same size. Liquid
Relative Densities  Density
is the ratio of mass to volume. Both mercury, as shown in Figure 2.7, is heavier than the same volume of water.
water and copper shot float on In other words, different substances contain different masses per volume.
mercury because they are less dense This property is called density. Density is the ratio of mass to volume, or
than mercury. mass divided by volume. Density is expressed by the equation

critical thinking
Density density = ​  _mass  ​  ​  m ​ 
 or D = _
Explain Using Figure 2.8, explain
volume V
where a diamond would be in the
layers in the graduated cylinder in
The quantity m is mass, V is volume, and D is density.
Figure 2.7.
The SI unit for density is derived from the units for mass and volume—
the kilogram and the cubic meter, respectively—and can be expressed as
kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3. This unit is inconveniently large for the
density measurements you will make in the laboratory. You will often see
water density expressed in grams per cubic centimeter, g/cm3, or grams per
copper milliliter, g/mL. The densities of gases are generally reported either in
shot kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3, or in grams per liter, g/L.
Density is an intensive physical property of a substance. It does not
mercury depend on the size of a sample, because as the mass of a sample in-
creases, its volume increases proportionately. The ratio of mass to volume
is constant. Therefore, density is one property that can help to identify a
substance. Figure 2.8 shows the densities of some common materials. As
you can see, cork has a density of only 0.24 g/cm3, which is less than the
density of liquid water. Because cork is less dense than water, it floats on
water. Lead, on the other hand, has a density of 11.35 g/cm3. The density
of lead is greater than that of water, so lead sinks in water.
Note that Figure 2.8 specifies the temperatures at which the densities
were measured. That is because density varies with temperature. Most
objects expand as temperature increases, thereby increasing in volume.
Because density is mass divided by volume, density usually decreases
with increasing temperature.
Figure 2.8
Densities of Some Familiar Materials
Solids Density at 20°C (g/cm3) Liquids Density at 20°C (g/mL)

cork  0.24* gasoline  0.67*

butter  0.86 ethyl alcohol  0.791
ice  0.92† kerosene  0.82
sucrose  1.59 turpentine  0.87
bone  1.85* water  0.998
diamond  3.26* seawater  1.025**
copper  8.92 milk  1.031*
lead  11.35 mercury  13.6
† measured at 0°C ** measured at 15°C
* typical density

42 Chapter 2
 Density of Pennies

Procedure 5. Review your data for any large Materials

1. Using the balance, determine differences between trials that • balance
the mass of the 40 pennies could increase the error of your • 100 mL graduated cylinder
minted prior to 1982. Repeat results. Repeat those • 40 pennies dated between 1962
this measurement two more measurements. and 1982
times. Average the results of • 40 pennies dated after 1982
6. Use the average volume and
the three trials to determine the • water
average mass to calculate the
average mass of the pennies. Safety
average density for each group
2. Repeat step 1 with the 40 of pennies. Wear safety
goggles and
pennies minted after 1982.
7. Compare the calculated an apron.
3. Pour about 50 mL of water into average densities with the
the 100 mL graduated cylinder. density of copper, listed in
Record the exact volume of the Figure 2.8.
water. Add the 40 pennies
minted before 1982. Discussion
CAUTION: Add the pennies 1. Why is it best to use the results
carefully so that no water is of three trials rather than a
splashed out of the cylinder. single trial for determining the
Record the exact volume of the density?
water and pennies. Repeat this 2. How did the densities of the
process two more times. two groups of pennies com-
Determine the volume of the pare? How do you account for
pennies for each trial. Average any difference?
the results of those trials to
determine the average volume 3. Use the results of this investi-
of the pennies. gation to formulate a hypoth-
esis about the composition of
4. Repeat step 3 with the 40 the two groups of pennies.
pennies minted after 1982. How could you test your
hypothesis?

Density
Sample Problem A  In an experiment to identify an unknown gas, it is found that 1.82 L
of the gas has a mass of 5.430 g. What is the density of the gas in g/L?

Analyze Given: mass (mgas) = 5.430 g

volume (Vgas) = 1.82 L
least number of significant figures = 3 (in 1.82 L)
Unknown: density (Dgas) = ? g/L numerical result
density (Dgas) = ? g/L rounded result

PLAN ​  mass  ​ 
density = _
volume
5.430 g
Solve density = _
​  = 2.983516484 = 2.98 g/L
 ​ 
 
1.82 L

Continued
Measurements and Calculations 43
 Density (continued)

CHECK YOUR Density is given in units of mass per unit volume. The mass had three significant
WORK figures, so the answer was rounded to three significant figures. The units are
correct for density.

Answers in Appendix E

1.  Calculate the density of a block of metal with a volume of 12.5 cm3 and mass of 126.0 g.
2.  Copper has a density of 8.96 g/cm3. What is the mass of a piece of copper with a volume of
2.62 cm3?
3.  What is the volume of a sample of liquid mercury that has a mass of 76.2 g, given that the
density of mercury is 13.6 g/mL?

Main Idea 
Conversion factors change one unit to another.
A conversion factor is a ratio derived from the equality between two different
units that can be used to convert from one unit to the other. For example,
suppose you want to know how many quarters there are in a certain
number of dollars. To figure out the answer, you need to know how
quarters and dollars are related. There are four quarters per dollar and
one dollar for every four quarters. Those facts can be expressed as ratios
in four conversion factors.
4 quarters 1 dollar  ​  0.25 dollar ​  1 quarter
_
​  = 1 ​ _
 
 
 ​ = 1 ​ __ = 1 ​ _ 
  =1
 ​ 
1 dollar 4 quarters 1 quarter 0.25 dollar
Notice that each conversion factor equals 1. That is because the two
quantities divided in any conversion factor are equivalent to each other—
as in this case, where 4 quarters equal 1 dollar. Because conversion factors
are equal to 1, they can be multiplied by other factors in equations without
changing the validity of the equations. You can use conversion factors to
solve problems through dimensional analysis. Dimensional analysis is
a mathematical technique that allows you to use units to solve problems
involving measurements. When you want to use a conversion factor
to change a unit in a problem, you can set up the problem in the
following way.
quantity sought = quantity given × conversion factor
For example, to determine the number of quarters in 12 dollars, you
would carry out the unit conversion that allows you to change from
dollars to quarters.
number of quarters = 12 dollars × conversion factor
Next, you need to decide which conversion factor gives you an answer in
the desired unit. In this case, you have dollars, and you want quarters. To
eliminate dollars, you must divide the quantity by dollars. Therefore, the
conversion factor in this case must have dollars in the denominator and
quarters in the numerator: 4 quarters/1 dollar.

44 Chapter 2
Thus, you would set up the calculation as follows:
? quarters = 12 dollars × conversion factor
4 quarters
= 12 dollars × _​  = 48 quarters
 ​ 
 
1 dollar
Notice that the dollars have divided out, leaving an answer in the desired
unit—quarters.
Suppose you had guessed wrong and used 1 dollar/4 quarters when
choosing which of the two conversion factors to use. You would have an
answer with entirely inappropriate units.
2
​  1 dollar  ​ 
? quarters = 12 dollars × _ =_​  3 dollars ​
  
4 quarters quarter
It is always best to begin with an idea of the units you will need in your
final answer. When working through the Sample Problems, keep track of
the units needed for the unknown quantity. Check your final answer
against what you’ve written as the unknown quantity.

Deriving Conversion Factors

You can derive conversion factors if you know the relationship between
the unit you have and the unit you want. For example, from the fact that
deci- means “1/10,” you know that there is 1/10 of a meter per decimeter
and that each meter must have 10 decimeters. Thus, from the equality
1 m = 10 dm, you can write the following conversion factors relating
meters and decimeters.
0.1 m ​ 
​  1 m  ​   and ​ _
_ 10 dm
   and  ​ _  ​
  
10 dm 1 dm 1m
The following sample problem illustrates an example of deriving
conversion factors to make a unit conversion. When there is no digit
shown in the denominator, you usually can assume the value is 1.

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Sample Problem B  Express a mass of 5.712 grams in
Learn It! Video
milligrams and in kilograms. HMHScience.com

Analyze Given: 5.712 g

Unknown: mass in mg and mass in kg
The equality that relates grams to milligrams is
1 g = 1000 mg

PLAN The possible conversion factors that can be written from this equality are
_ 1000 mg 1g
​   ​  and ​ _    ​ 
1g 1000 mg

Continued
Measurements and Calculations 45
 Solve To derive an answer in mg, you’ll need to multiply 5.712 g by 1000 mg/g.
1000 mg
5.712 g × _
​   ​ =
  5712 mg
1g
The kilogram problem is solved similarly.
1 kg = 1000 g
Conversion factors representing this equality are
1 kg 1000 g
​ _   ​ and _
​   
 
 ​
1000 g 1 kg
To derive an answer in kg, you’ll need to multiply 5.712 g by 1 kg/1000 g.
1 kg
5.712 g  × ​ _   ​ = 0.005712 kg
1000 g

CHECK YOUR The first answer makes sense because milligrams is a smaller unit than grams
WORK and therefore there should be more milligrams. The second answer makes
sense because kilograms is a larger unit than grams and therefore there should
be fewer kilograms.

Answers in Appendix E

1.  Express a length of 16.45 m in centimeters and in kilometers.

2.  Express a mass of 0.014 mg in grams.

Section 2 Formative ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas 4. Write conversion factors for each equality. 
a. 1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
1. Why are standards needed for measured
quantities? b. 1 in. = 2.54 cm
c. 1 µg = 0.000 001 g
2. Label each of the following measurements by the
d. 1 Mm = 1 000 000 m
quantity each represents. For instance, a mea-
surement of 10.6 kg/m3 represents density.  5. a. What is the density of an 84.7 g sample of an
a. 5.0 g/mL f. 325 ms unknown substance if the sample occupies
b. 37 s g. 500 m2 49.6 cm3?
c. 47 J h. 30.23 mL b. What volume would be occupied by 7.75 g of
this same substance?
d. 39.56 g i. 2.7 mg
e. 25.3 cm 3 j. 0.005 L
Critical Thinking
3. Complete the following conversions. 
6. INFERRING CONCLUSIONS  A student
a. 10.5 g = ____ kg converts grams to milligrams by multiplying
1g
b. 1.57 km = ____ m by the conversion factor ​ _______ ​. Is the student
    
1000 mg
c. 3.54 µg = ____ g performing this calculation correctly? 
d. 3.5 mol = ____ µmol
e. 1.2 L = ____ mL
f. 358 cm3 = ____ m3
g. 548.6 mL = ____ cm3

46 Chapter 2
Chemistry EXPLORERS
Classical Ideas
About Matter FIRE

T
he Greeks were among the many ancient peoples
Hot Dry
who sought to understand the nature of matter. One
group of Greek philosophers, called the atomists,
believed that matter could be broken down into pieces of a
AIR EARTH
minute size. These pieces, called atoms or atomos, which
means “indivisible,” possessed intrinsic, unchanging qualities.
Another group of Greeks believed that matter could be divided
an infinite number of times and could be changed from one Wet Cold

type of matter into another.

Between 500 and 300 BCE, the Greek philosophers Leucippus WATER
and Democritus formulated the ideas that the atomists held.
Leucippus and Democritus believed that all atoms were This diagram shows Aristotle’s belief about
the relationship between the basic elements
essentially the same but that the properties of all substances
and properties.
arose from the unique characteristics of their atoms. For
example, solids, such as most metals, were thought to have
uneven, jagged atoms. Because the atoms were rough, they
could stick together and form solids. Similarly, water was Aristotle (384–322 BCE), a student of Plato, elaborated on the
thought to have atoms with smooth surfaces, which would mc06sec02clc050a
earlier ideas about elements. He argued that in addition to the
allow the atoms to flow past one another. Though atomists did 2nd pass
four elements that make up all matter, there were four basic
not have the same ideas about matter that we have today, they 7/17/04properties: hot, cold, wet, and dry. In Aristotle’s view, the four
did believe that atoms were constantly in motion, even in Nanda Patelelements could each have two of the basic properties. For
objects that appeared to be solid. example, water was wet and cold, while air was wet and hot.
He thought that one element could change into another
Some Greek philosophers who studied matter between 700 element if its properties were changed.
and 300 BCE described matter in a way that differed from the
way atomists described it. They attempted to identify and For more than 2,000 years, Aristotle’s classical ideas
describe a fundamental substance from which all other matter dominated scientific thought. It was not until the 1700s that
was formed. Thales of Miletus (640–546 BCE) was among the the existence of atoms was shown experimentally and that the
first to suggest the existence of a basic element. He chose incredible intuition of the atomists was realized.
water, which exists as liquid, ice, and steam. He interpreted
water’s changeability to mean that water could transform Questions
into any other substance. Other philosophers suggested
1. In Aristotle’s system of elements, fire opposes water. Why
that the basic element was air or fire. Empedocles
do you think Aristotle chose this relationship?
(ca. 490–ca. 430 BCE) focused on four elements: earth, air,
fire, and water. He thought that these elements combined 2. Use the ideas of the atomists to describe the atoms of the
in various proportions to make all known matter. physical phases of matter—solid, liquid, and gas.

47
 Section 3
Main Ideas
Using Scientific
Measurements
Accuracy is different from
precision.

Significant figures are those

measured with certainty, plus Key Terms
one estimated digit. accuracy significant figures inversely proportional
precision scientific notation
Scientific notation is used to percentage error directly proportional
express very large or very small
numbers.
If you have ever measured something several times, you know that the results can
Sample problems are guides to vary. In science, for a reported measurement to be useful, there must be some
indication of its reliability or uncertainty.
solving similar types of
problems.
Main Idea 
Variables that are directly
proportional increase or
Accuracy is different from precision.
decrease by the same factor. The terms accuracy and precision mean the same thing to most people.
However, in science, their meanings are quite distinct. Accuracy refers
Quantities are inversely to the closeness of measurements to the correct or accepted value of
proportional if one decreases in the quantity measured. Precision refers to the closeness of a set of
value when the other increases. measurements of the same quantity made in the same way. Thus,
measured values that are accurate are close to the accepted value.
Measured values that are precise are close to one another but not
necessarily close to the accepted value.
Figure 3.1 on the facing page can help you visualize the difference
between precision and accuracy. Several darts thrown separately at a
dartboard may land in various positions, relative to the bull’s-eye and to
one another. The closer the darts land to the bull’s­-­eye, the more accu-
rately they were thrown. The closer they land to one another, the more
precisely they were thrown. Thus, the set of results shown in Figure 3.1a is
both accurate and precise: the darts are close to the bull’s­-­eye and close to
each other. In Figure 3.1b, the set of results is inaccurate but precise: the
darts are far from the bull’s­-­eye but close to each other. In Figure 3.1c, the
set of results is both inaccurate and imprecise: the darts are far from the
bull’s­-­eye and far from each other. Notice also that the darts are not evenly
distributed around the bull’s­-­eye, so the set, even considered on average,
is inaccurate. In Figure 3.1d, the set on average is accurate compared with
the third case, but it is imprecise. That is because the darts are distributed
evenly around the bull’s­-­eye but are far from each ­other.

Percentage ­Error
The accuracy of an individual value or of an average experimental value
can be compared quantitatively with the correct or accepted value by
calculating the percentage error. Percentage error is calculated by subtract-
ing the accepted value from the experimental value, dividing the difference by
the accepted value, and then multiplying by ­100.

48 Chapter 2
 Figure 3.1

Comparing Precision and Accuracy

Darts within small area

(a)  Darts within small area
(b)  Darts within large area (d) Darts within large area
(c) 
= High precision = High precision = Low precision = Low precision

  Area centered on bull’s-eye   Area far from bull’s-eye   Area far from bull’s-eye   Area centered around bull’s-eye
= High accuracy = Low accuracy = Low accuracy = High accuracy (on average)

Percentage Error

Valueexperimental – Valueaccepted
Percentage error = ​  ___
   
  
 ​×100
Valueaccepted

Percentage error has a negative value if the accepted value is greater

than the experimental value. It has a positive value if the accepted value
is less than the experimental value. The following sample problem
illustrates the concept of percentage ­error.
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Sample Problem C  A student measures the mass and volume of a
substance and calculates its density as 1.40 g/mL. The correct, or
accepted, value of the density is 1.30 g/mL. What is the percentage error
of the student’s ­measurement?

Valueexperimental – Valueaccepted
SolVE Percentage error = ​  ___
        ​ × 100
Valueaccepted

1.40 g/mL – 1.30 g/mL

= ​ ​ ___
       ​ × 100 = 7.7%
1.30 g/mL

Answers in Appendix E

1.  What is the percentage error for a mass measurement of 17.7 g, given that the correct value
is 21.2 g?
2.  A volume is measured experimentally as 4.26 mL. What is the percentage error, given that
the correct value is 4.15 mL?

Measurements and Calculations 49

 Error in ­Measurement
Some error or uncertainty always exists in any
measurement. The skill of the measurer places
limits on the reliability of results. The conditions of
measurement also affect the outcome. The mea-
suring instruments them­selves place limitations
on precision. Some balances can be read more
precisely than others. The same is true of rulers,
graduated cylinders, and other measuring ­devices.
When you use a properly calibrated measuring
device, you can be almost certain of a particular
number of digits in a reading. For example, you can tell that the nail in
Figure 3.2 is definitely between 6.3 and 6.4 cm long. Looking more closely,
you can see that the value is halfway between 6.3 and 6.4 cm. However, it
is hard to tell whether the value should be read as 6.35 cm or 6.36 cm. The
hundredths place is thus somewhat uncertain. Simply leaving it out
would be misleading, because you do have some indication of the value’s
likely range. Therefore, you would estimate the value to the final ques-
tionable digit, perhaps reporting the length of the nail as 6.36 cm. You
Figure 3.2 might include a plus­-o ­ r­-m
­ inus value to express the range, for example,
6.36 cm ± 0.01 c­ m.
Significant Figures  The length of
this nail is between 6.3 cm and 6.4 cm.
Main Idea 
critical thinking Significant figures are those measured with certainty,
Apply  Suppose you record the nail’s
length as 6.36 cm. Which part of this plus one estimated digit.
measurement is uncertain? In science, measured values are reported in terms of significant figures.
Significant figures in a measurement consist of all the digits known with
certainty plus one final digit, which is somewhat uncertain or is ­estimated. For
example, in the reported nail length of 6.36 cm discussed above, the last
digit, 6, is uncertain. All the digits, including the uncertain one, are
significant, however. All contain information and are included in the
reported value. Thus, the term significant does not mean certain. In any
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correctly reported measured value, the final digit is significant but not
Chemistry certain. Insignificant digits are never reported. As a chemistry student,
HMHScience.com you will need to use and recognize significant figures when you work with
measured quantities and report your results and when you evaluate
Significant Figures
measurements reported by ­others.

Determining the Number of Significant ­Figures

When you look at a measured quantity, you need to determine which
digits are significant. That process is very easy if the number has no zeros,
because all the digits shown are significant. For example, in a number
reported as 3.95, all three digits are significant. The significance of zeros
in a number depends on their location, however. You need to learn and
follow several rules involving zeros. After you have studied the rules in
Figure 3.3, use them to express the answers in the sample problem
that ­follows.

50 Chapter 2
Figure 3.3

Rules for Determining Significant Zeros

Rule Examples

1. Zeros appearing between nonzero digits are a.  40.7 L has three significant ­figures.
significant. b.  87 009 km has five significant ­figures.

2. Zeros appearing in front of all nonzero digits are not a.  0.095 897 m has five significant figures.
significant. b.  0.0009 kg has one significant ­figure.

3. Zeros at the end of a number and to the right of a decimal a.  85.00 g has four significant ­figures.
point are ­significant. b.  9.000 000 000 mm has ten significant figures.

4. Zeros at the end of a number but to the left of a decimal a. 2000 m may contain from one to four significant figures,
point may or may not be significant. If a zero has not been depending on how many zeros are placeholders. For
measured or estimated but is just a placeholder, it is not measurements given in this text, assume that 2000 m
significant. A decimal point placed after zeros indicates has one significant ­figure.
that they are significant. b. 2000. m contains four significant figures, indicated by the
presence of the decimal ­point.

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Sample Problem D  Determine the number of significant HMHScience.com
figures in the following measurements:
a.  30 040 ­g
b.  0.663 k­ g
c.  20.05 ­mL
d.  1500. m ­ g
e.  0.0008 ­m

Solve Determine the number of significant figures in each measurement using the
rules listed in Figure 3.3.
a.  30 040 g
By rule 1, the zeros between 3 and 4 are significant, but the final zero is not,
so there are 4 significant figures.
b.  0.663 kg
The zero to the left of the decimal point is not significant, so there are
3 significant figures.
c.  20.05 mL
By rule 1, the zeros between 2 and 5 are significant. so there are
4 significant figures.
d.  1500. mg
By rule 4, the zeros are significant because they are immediately followed
by a decimal point, so there are 4 significant figures.
e.  0.0008 m
By rule 2, the zeros are not significant, so there is 1 significant figure.

Continued
Measurements and Calculations 51
 Significant Figures (continued)
Answers in Appendix E

1.  Determine the number of significant figures in each of the f­ ollowing.

a.  640 c­ m3
b.  200.0 m ­ L
c.  0.5200 g­
d.  1.005 k­ g
e.  10 000 ­L
f.  20.900 ­cm
2.  Suppose the value “seven thousand centimeters” is reported to you. How should the
number be expressed if it is intended to contain the f­ ollowing?
a.  1 significant ­figure
b.  4 significant ­figures
c.  6 significant ­figures

Rounding
When you perform calculations involving measurements, you need to
know how to handle significant figures. This is especially true when you
are using a calculator to carry out mathematical operations. The answers
given on a calculator can be derived results with more digits than are
justified by the m
­ easurements.
Suppose you used a calculator to divide a measured value of 154 g by a
measured value of 327 mL. Each of these values has three significant figures.
The calculator would show a numerical answer of 0.470948012. The answer
contains digits not justified by the measurements used to calculate it. Such
an answer has to be rounded off to make its degree of certainty match that
in the original measurements. The answer should be 0.471 g­ /mL.
The rules for rounding are shown in Figure 3.4. The extent of rounding
required in a given case depends on whether the numbers are being
added, subtracted, multiplied, or d
­ ivided.

Figure 3.4

Rules for Rounding Numbers

If the digit following the last digit to then the last digit should: Example (rounded to three significant
be retained ­is: ­figures)

greater than ­5 be increased by 1 42.68 g ―⟶ 42.7 ­g

less than 5 stay the ­same 17.32 m ―⟶ 17.3 ­m

5, followed by nonzero digit(s) be increased by 1 2.7851 cm ―⟶ 2.79 ­cm

5, not followed by nonzero digit(s), be increased by 1 4.635 kg ―⟶ 4.64 ­kg

and preceded by an odd digit (because 3 is ­odd)

5, not followed by nonzero digit(s), and stay the same 78.65 mL ―⟶ 78.6 mL
the preceding significant digit is even (because 6 is e­ ven)

52 Chapter 2
Addition or Subtraction with Significant ­Figures
Consider two mass measurements, 25.1 g and 2.03 g. The first measurement,
25.1 g, has one digit to the right of the decimal point, in the tenths place.
There is no information on possible values for the hundredths place. That
place is simply blank and cannot be assumed to be zero. The other
measurement, 2.03 g, has two digits to the right of the decimal point. It
provides information up to and including the hundredths ­place.
Suppose you were asked to add the two measurements. Simply
carrying out the addition would result in an answer of 25.1 g + 2.03 g =
27.13 g. That answer suggests there is certainty all the way to the
hundredths place. However, that result is not justified, because the
hundredths place in 25.1 g is completely unknown. The answer must
be adjusted to reflect the uncertainty in the numbers a­ dded.
When adding or subtracting decimals, the answer must have the same
number of digits to the right of the decimal point as there are in the
measurement having the fewest digits to the right of the decimal point. CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING
When you compare the two values 25.1 g and 2.03 g, the measurement Analyze  Suppose you measure the
with the fewest digits to the right of the decimal point is 25.1 g. It has only classroom once using a piece of rope
one such digit. Following the rule, the answer must be rounded so that it you know to be 10 m long and again
has no more than one digit to the right of the decimal point. The answer with a measuring tape marked in m, cm,
should therefore be rounded to 27.1 ­g. and mm. You then take the average of
When working with whole numbers, the answer should be rounded so the two measurements. Which would de-
that the final significant digit is in the same place as the leftmost uncer- termine the number of significant figures
tain digit. For example, 5400 + 365 = 5800, having 2 significant figures. in your answer? Explain your answer.

Multiplication and Division with Significant ­Figures

Suppose you calculated the density of an object that has a mass of 3.05 g
and a volume of 8.47 mL. The following division on a calculator will give a
value of ­0.360094451.

mass  ​  3.05 g
density = ​  _ =_​  = 0.360094451 g/mL
  ​ 
volume 8.47 mL
The answer must be rounded to the correct number of significant figures.
The values of mass and volume used to obtain the answer have only three
significant figures each. The degree of certainty in the calculated result is
not justified. For multiplication or division, the answer can have no more
significant figures than are in the measurement with the fewest number
of significant figures. In the calculation just described, the answer,
0.360094451 g/mL, would be rounded to three significant figures to
match the significant figures in 8.47 mL and 3.05 g. The answer would
thus be 0.360 ­g/mL.

Measurements and Calculations 53

 Significant Figures

Sample Problem E  Carry out the following calculations. Express each answer to the
correct number of significant figures.
a.  9.66 cm – 4.5204 c­ m
b.  1.6 g/L × 7.68 L
­

Solve Carry out each mathematical operation. Follow the rules in Figures 3.3 and 3.4
for determining significant figures and for ­rounding.
a.  The answer is rounded to 5.14 cm, because for subtraction
there should be two digits to the right of the decimal point, to
match 9.66 cm.
b.  The answer is rounded to 12 g, because for multiplication
there should be two significant figures in the answer, to
match 1.6 ­g/L.

1.  What is the sum of 1.0566 µm and 0.09425 µm?

2.  Calculate the quantity 47.6 mL - 1.733 mL.
3.  Calculate the area of a rectangular crystal surface that measures 1.34 µm by 0.7488 µm.
(Hint: Recall that area = length × width and is measured in square units.)
4.  Polycarbonate plastic has a density of 1.2 g/cm3. A photo frame is constructed from two
3.0 mm sheets of polycarbonate. Each sheet measures 28 cm by 22 cm. What is the mass of
the photo frame?

Conversion Factors and Significant ­Figures

Earlier in this chapter, you learned how conversion factors are used to
change one unit to another. Such conversion factors are typically exact.
That is, there is no uncertainty in them. For example, there are exactly
100 cm in a meter. If you were to use the conversion factor 100 cm/m to
change meters to centimeters, the 100 would not limit the degree of
certainty in the answer. Thus, 4.608 m could be converted to centimeters
as ­follows.

​  100mcm
4.608 m × _  = 460.8 cm
 ​ 

The answer still has four significant figures. Because the conversion
factor is considered exact, the answer would not be rounded. Most exact
conversion factors are defined, rather than measured, quantities.
Counted numbers also produce conversion factors of unlimited
precision. For example, if you counted that there are 10 test tubes for
every student, that would produce an exact conversion factor of 10 test
tubes/student. There is no uncertainty in that f­ actor.

54 Chapter 2
 Main Idea 
Scientific notation is used to express very large or
very small numbers.
In scientific notation, numbers are written in the form M × 10n, where the
factor M is a number greater than or equal to 1 but less than 10, and n is a
whole number. For example, to put the quantity 65 000 km in scientific
notation and show the first two digits as significant, you would write:
6.5 × 104 ­km
Writing the M factor as 6.5 shows that there are exactly two significant
figures. If, instead, you intended the first three digits in 65 000 to be
significant, you would write 6.50 × 104 km. When numbers are written in
scientific notation, only the significant figures are ­shown.
Suppose you are expressing a very small quantity, such as the length
of a flu virus. In ordinary notation, this length could be 0.000 12 mm. That
length can be expressed in scientific notation as f­ ollows.
0.000 12 mm = 1.2 × 10 –4 mm
Move the decimal point four places to the right, ­and multiply
the number by 10 –­4.
1. Determine M by moving the decimal point in the original number to
the left or the right so that only one nonzero digit remains to the left of
the decimal ­point.
2. Determine n by counting the number of places that you moved the
decimal point. If you moved it to the left, n is positive. If you moved it
to the right, n is ­negative.

Mathematical Operations Using Scientific Notation

1. Addition and subtraction  These operations can be performed only
if the values have the same exponent (n factor). If they do not,
adjustments must be made to the values so that the exponents are
equal. Once the exponents are equal, the M factors can be added or
subtracted. The exponent of the answer can remain the same, or it
may then require adjustment if the M factor of the answer has more
than one digit to the left of the decimal point. Consider the example
of the addition of 4.2 × 104 kg and 7.9 × 103 kg. We can make both
exponents either 3 or 4. The following solutions are p
­ ossible.

 4.2  × 104 kg
+0.79 × 104 ­kg
4.99 × 104 kg rounded to 5.0 × 104 kg

or
42 × 103 kg
+7.9  × 103 kg
49.9 × 103 kg = 4.99 × 104 kg rounded to 5.0 × 104 kg
Note that the units remain kg t­ hroughout.

Measurements and Calculations 55

Figure 3.5

Significant Figures and

Calculators  When you use a
scientific calculator to work problems
in scientific notation, don’t forget
to express the value on the display
to the correct number of significant
figures and show the units when you
write the final answer.

2. Multiplication The M factors are multiplied, and the exponents are

added ­algebraically.
Consider the multiplication of 5.23 × 106 µm by 7.1 × 10 -2 µm.
(5.23 × 106 µm)(7.1 × 10 –2 µm) = (5.23 × 7.1)(106 × 10 –2)
= 37.133 × 104 µm2 (adjust to ­two
significant digits)
= 3.7 × 105 µm2
N
 ote that when length measurements are multiplied, the result is area.
The unit is now µm2.
3. Division The M factors are divided, and the exponent of the
denominator is subtracted from that of the ­numerator. The
calculator keystrokes for this problem are shown in Figure 3.5.
5.44 × 107 g
__
​       ​  5.44 ​  × 107–4 g/mol
 ​ = _
8.1 × 104 mol 8.1
= 0.6716049383 × 103 (adjust to two
significant digits)
= 6.7 × 102 g/mol
Note that the unit for the answer is the ratio of grams to ­moles.

Main Idea 
Sample problems are guides to solving similar
types of problems.
Learning to analyze and solve such problems requires practice and a
logical approach. In this section, you will review a process that can help
you analyze problems effectively. Most sample problems in this book are
organized by four basic steps to guide your thinking in how to work out
the solution to a problem.

56 Chapter 2
Step 1. Analyze
The first step in solving a quantitative word problem is to read the problem
carefully at least twice and to analyze the information in it. Note any
important descriptive terms that clarify or add meaning to the problem.
Identify and list the data given in the problem. Also identify the
unknown—the quantity you are asked to ­find.

Step 2. Plan
The second step is to develop a plan for solving the problem. The plan
should show how the information given is to be used to find the unknown.
In the process, reread the problem to make sure you have gathered all the
necessary information. It is often helpful to draw a picture that represents
the problem. For example, if you were asked to determine the volume of a
crystal given its dimensions, you could draw a representation of the crystal
and label the dimensions. This drawing would help you visualize the
­problem.
Decide which conversion factors, mathematical formulas, or chemical
principles you will need to solve the problem. Your plan might suggest a
single calculation or a series of them involving different conversion
factors. Once you understand how you need to proceed, you may wish to
sketch out the route you will take, using arrows to point the way from one
stage of the solution to the next. Sometimes you will need data that are
not actually part of the problem statement. For instance, you’ll often use
data from the periodic table.

Step 3. Solve
The third step involves substituting the data and necessary conversion
factors into the plan you have developed. At this stage, you calculate the
answer, cancel units, and round the result to the correct number of
significant figures. It is very important to have a plan worked out in step 2
before you start using the calculator. All too often, students start multiply-
ing or dividing values given in the problem before they really understand
what they need to do to get an ­answer.

Step 4. Check Your Work

Examine your answer to determine whether it is reasonable. Use the
following methods, when appropriate, to carry out the e­ valuation.
1. Check to see that the units are correct. If they are not, look over the
setup. Are the conversion factors correct?
2. Make an estimate of the expected answer. Use simpler, rounded
numbers to do so. Compare the estimate with your actual result.
The two should be ­similar.
3. Check the order of magnitude in your answer. Does it seem
reasonable compared with the values given in the problem? If you
calculated the density of vegetable oil and got a value of 54.9 g/mL,
you should know that something is wrong. Oil floats on water.

Measurements and Calculations 57

 Therefore, its density is less than the density of water. So the value
obtained should be less than 1.0 g­ /mL.
4. Be sure that the answer given for any problem is expressed using the
correct number of significant ­figures.
Look over the following q ­ uantitative Sample Problem. Notice how the
four­-­step approach is used, and then apply the approach yourself in
solving the practice problems that follow.
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Sample Problem F  Calculate the volume of a sample of aluminum
Solve It! Cards
that has a mass of 3.057 kg. The density of aluminum is 2.70 g/cm3.
HMHScience.com

Analyze Given: mass = 3.057 kg, density

= 2.70 g/cm3
Unknown: volume of ­aluminum

PLAN The density unit in the problem is g/cm3, and the mass given in the problem
is expressed in kg. Therefore, in addition to using the density equation,
you will need a conversion factor representing the relationship between
grams and ­kilograms.
1000 g = 1 k­ g
Also, rearrange the density equation to solve for ­volume.

density = ​  _mass  ​  ​  m ​  

 or D = _
volume V

​  m ​ 
V=_
D
3.057 kg  ​ _ 1000 g
Solve V = __
​​   
3
× ​​ 
 ​   = 1132.222 . . . cm3 (calculator answer)
 ​ ​ 
2.70 g/cm kg
The answer should be rounded to three significant ­figures.
V = 1.13 × 103 cm3

CHECK YOUR The unit of volume, cm3, is correct. An order­-­of­-­magnitude estimate would put
WORK the answer at over 1000 cm3.

3  ​ × 1000
​ _
2
The correct number of significant figures is three, which matches that in
2.70 g/cm3.

Answers in Appendix E

1.  What is the volume, in milliliters, of a sample of helium that has a mass of 1.73 × 10 –3 g,
given that the density is 0.178 47 g/L?
2.  What is the density of a piece of metal that has a mass of 6.25 × 105 g and is
92.5 cm × 47.3 cm × 85.4 cm?
3.  How many millimeters are there in 5.12 × 105 kilometers?
4.  A clock gains 0.020 second per minute. How many seconds will the clock gain in exactly six
months, assuming exactly 30 days per month?

58 Chapter 2
 Main Idea 
Variables that are directly proportional increase or
decrease by the same factor.
Two quantities are directly proportional to each other if dividing one by the
other gives a constant value. For example, if the masses and volumes of
different samples of aluminum are measured, the masses and volumes
will be directly proportional to each other. As the masses of the samples
increase, their volumes increase by the same factor, as you can see from
the data. Doubling the mass doubles the volume. Halving the mass
halves the ­volume.
When two variables, x and y, are directly proportional to each other,
the relationship can be expressed as y ∝ x, which is read as “y is propor-
tional to x.” The general equation for a directly proportional relationship
between the two variables can also be written as ­follows.
_ y
​  x  ​ = k

The value of k is a constant called the proportionality constant. Written

in this form, the equation expresses an important fact about direct
proportion: the ratio between the variables remains constant. Note that
using the mass and volume values in Figure 3.6 gives a mass­-­volume ratio
that is constant (neglecting measurement error). The equation can be
rearranged into the following f­ orm.
y = kx
The equation y = kx may look familiar to you. It is the equation for a
special case of a straight line. If two variables related in this way are
graphed versus one another, a straight line, or linear
plot, that passes through the origin results. The data for
aluminum from Figure 3.6 are graphed in Figure 3.7. The
Figure 3.7
mass and volume of a pure substance are directly
proportional to each other. Consider mass to be y and Mass versus Volume  The graph of mass versus
volume to be x. The constant ratio, k, for the two volume shows a relationship of direct proportion. Notice
variables is density. The slope of the line reflects the that the line is extrapolated to pass through the ­origin.
constant density, or mass­-­volume ratio.

Mass vs. Volume of Aluminum

Figure 3.6 120

Mass-Volume Data for Aluminum at 20°C 100

Mass (g) Volume (cm3) m ​  (g/cm3)

​ _
V 80
Mass (g)

54.7 20.1 2.72 60

65.7 24.4 2.69 40

83.5 30.9 2.70 20

0
96.3 35.8 2.69 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Volume (cm3 )
105.7 39.1 2.70

Measurements and Calculations 59

 For aluminum, this value is 2.70 g/cm3 at 20°C. Notice also that the
plotted line passes through the origin (0,0). All directly proportional
relationships produce linear graphs that pass through the ­origin.

Main Idea 
Quantities are inversely proportional if one decreases
in value when the other increases.
Two quantities are inversely proportional to each other if their product is
constant. An example of an inversely proportional relationship is that
between speed of travel and the time required to cover a fixed distance.
The greater the speed, the less time that is needed to go a certain fixed
distance. Doubling the speed cuts the required time in half. Halving the
speed doubles the required ­time.
When two variables, x and y, are inversely proportional to each other,
the relationship can be expressed as f­ ollows.
​  1x ​ 
y∝_

This is read “y is proportional to 1 divided by x.” The general equation for

an inversely proportional relationship between the two variables can be
written in the following ­form.
xy = k
In the equation, k is the proportionality constant. If x increases, y must
decrease by the same factor to keep the product constant.
When the temperature of a sample of nitrogen is kept constant, the
volume (V ) of the gas sample decreases as the pressure (P ) increases, as
shown in Figure 3.8. Note that P × V gives a reasonably constant value.
Thus, P and V are inversely proportional to each other. The graph of this
data is shown in Figure 3.9. A graph of variables that are inversely propor-
tional produces a curve called a hyperbola.

Figure 3.8
Pressure-Volume Data for Nitrogen at
Constant Temperature
Pressure (kPa) Volume (cm3) P×V

100 500 50 ­000

150 333 49 9­ 50
200 250 50 ­000
250 200 50 ­000
300 166 49 ­800
350 143 50 ­050
400 125 50 ­000
450 110 49 ­500

60 Chapter 2
 Figure 3.9
Volume vs. Pressure of Nitrogen
Volume versus Pressure  The graph of volume
600
versus pressure shows an inversely proportional
550
relationship. The curve is called a hyperbola. Note the
difference between the shape of this graph and that of 500

the graph in Figure 3.7. 450

400
critical thinking

Volume (cm 3 )
350
Apply  For this graph, if V ∝ 1/x, what does x
represent? 300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Pressure (kPa)

Section 3 Formative ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas 6. Write the following numbers in scientific
­notation. 
1. The density of copper is listed as 8.94 g/cm3.
a. 560 ­000
Two students each make three density determi-
nations of samples of the substance. Student A’s b. 33 ­400
results are 7.3 g/mL, 9.4 g/mL, and 8.3 g/mL. c. 0.000 ­4120
Student B’s results are 8.4 g/cm3, 8.8 g/cm3, and 7. A student measures the mass of a beaker filled
8.0 g/cm3. Compare the two sets of results in with corn oil. The mass reading averages 215.6 g.
terms of precision and a­ ccuracy.  The mass of the beaker is 110.4 ­g.
2. Determine the number of significant figures. a. What is the mass of the corn oil?
a. 6.002 ­cm d. 7000 ­kg b. What is the density of the corn oil if its volume
b. 0.0020 ­m e. 7000. ­kg is 114 cm3?
c. 10.0500 ­g 8. Calculate the mass of gold that occupies
3. Round 2.6765 to two significant ­figures.  5.0 × 10 –3 cm3. The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3.

4. Carry out the following ­calculations. 9. What is the difference between a graph repre-
senting data that are directly proportional and a
a. 52.13 g + 1.7502 ­g
graph of data that are inversely ­proportional?
b. 12 m × 6.41 ­m
16.25 g Critical Thinking
c. ​ _   ​ 
5.1442 mL
10. app
 lying concepts  The mass of a
5. Perform the following operations. Express each liquid is 11.50 g, and its volume is 9.03 mL.
answer in scientific ­notation.  How many significant figures should its den-
a. (1.54 × 10 -2 g) + (2.86 × 10 -1 g) sity value have? Explain the reason for your
b. (7.023 × 109 g) – (6.62 × 107 g) answer. 
c. (8.99 × 10 -4 m) × (3.57 × 104 m)
2.17 × 10 -3 g
d. ​ __
      ​
5.002 × 10 4 mL

Measurements and Calculations 61

Math Tutor Scientific Notation

Any value expressed in scientific notation, whether large or To write the first part, move the decimal point to the right or
small, has two parts. The first part, the first factor, consists of a the left so that there is only one nonzero digit to the left of the
number greater than or equal to 1 but less than 10. It may have decimal point. The second part is written as an exponent,
any number of digits after the decimal point. The second part which is determined by counting the number of places the
consists of a power of 10. decimal point must be moved. If it is moved to the right, the
exponent is negative. If it is moved to the left, the exponent is
exponent
positive.
6.02 × 10 23
first factor power of ten

Problem-Solving TIPS
• In addition and subtraction, all values must first be converted to numbers that have the same exponent
of 10. The result is the sum or the difference of the first factors, multiplied by the same exponent of 10.
Finally, the result should be rounded to the correct number of significant figures and expressed in
scientific notation.
• In multiplication, the first factors are multiplied, and the exponents of 10 are added.
• In division, the first factors of the numbers are divided, and the exponent of 10 in the denominator
is subtracted from the exponent of 10 in the numerator.

Sample Problems
Write 299 800 000 m/s in scientific notation.

The decimal must move to the left 8 places, which indicates a positive exponent.
299 800 000. m/s
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

The value in scientific notation is 2.998 × 108 m/s.

Solve the following equation, and write the answer in scientific notation.

(3.1 × 103)(5.21 × 104)

Multiply the first factors, and then add the exponents of 10.
(3.1 × 5.21) × 10(3+4) = 16.151 x 107 = 16 × 107 = 1.6 × 108

1. Rewrite the following numbers in scientific notation. 2. Solve the following equations, and write the answers
a. 0.0000745 g in scientific notation.
b. 5 984 102 nm a. 1.017 × 103 – 1.013 × 104
b. 9.27 × 104
11.24 × 105

62 Chapter 2
 CorrectionKey=NL-A Co

M AT H T U T O R
Math Tutor Scientific Notation
Answers
Any value expressed in scientific notation, whether large or To write the first part, move the decimal point to the right or
1. a. 7.45 × 10-5 g small, has two parts. The first part, the first factor, consists of a the left so that there is only one nonzero digit to the left of the
b. 5.984102 × 106 nm number greater than or equal to 1 but less than 10. It may have decimal point. The second part is written as an exponent,
2. a. -9.11 × 103 any number of digits after the decimal point. The second part which is determined by counting the number of places the
consists of a power of 10. decimal point must be moved. If it is moved to the right, the
b. 8.25 × 10-2
exponent is negative. If it is moved to the left, the exponent is
exponent
positive.
23
6.02 × 10
first factor power of ten

Problem-Solving TIPS
• In addition and subtraction, all values must first be converted to numbers that have the same exponent
of 10. The result is the sum or the difference of the first factors, multiplied by the same exponent of 10.
Finally, the result should be rounded to the correct number of significant figures and expressed in
scientific notation.
• In multiplication, the first factors are multiplied, and the exponents of 10 are added.
• In division, the first factors of the numbers are divided, and the exponent of 10 in the denominator
is subtracted from the exponent of 10 in the numerator.

Sample Problems
Write 299 800 000 m/s in scientific notation.

The decimal must move to the left 8 places, which indicates a positive exponent.
299 800 000. m/s
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

The value in scientific notation is 2.998 × 108 m/s.

Solve the following equation, and write the answer in scientific notation.

(3.1 × 103)(5.21 × 104)

Multiply the first factors, and then add the exponents of 10.
(3.1 × 5.21) × 10(3+4) = 16.151 x 107 = 16 × 107 = 1.6 × 108

1. Rewrite the following numbers in scientific notation. 2. Solve the following equations, and write the answers
a. 0.0000745 g in scientific notation.
b. 5 984 102 nm a. 1.017 × 103 – 1.013 × 104
b. 9.27 × 104
11.24 × 105

62 Chapter 2

MC_CNLESE817845_C02CA.indd 62 1/25/16 9:42 P

M

62 Chapter 2
 CorrectionKey=NL-A
orrectionKey=NL-A

BIG IDEA Scientists use observations and C H A P T E R S U M M A RY

CHAPTER 2 Summary measurements to formulate hypotheses and
theories about the world.

SECTION 1 Scientific Method KEY TERMS

• The scientific method is a logical approach to solving problems that lend scientific method
themselves to investigation. system
• A hypothesis is a testable statement that serves as the basis for predictions hypothesis
and further experiments, and a theory is a broad generalization that
model
explains a body of known facts or phenomena.
theory
• A theory has a lot of evidence to support it, but it still can change over time.

SECTION 2 Units of Measurement KEY TERMS

• The result of nearly every measurement is a number and a unit. quantity

• The SI system of measurement is used in science. It has seven base units: SI
the meter (length), kilogram (mass), second (time), kelvin (temperature), weight
mole (amount of substance), ampere (electric current), and candela
derived unit
(luminous intensity).
volume
• Weight is a measure of the gravitational pull on matter.
density
• Derived SI units include the square meter (area) and the cubic meter
conversion factor
(volume).
dimensional analysis
• Density is the ratio of mass to volume.
• Conversion factors are used to convert from one unit to another.

SECTION 3 Using Scientific Measurements KEY TERMS

• Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measurement to the correct or accuracy

accepted value. Precision refers to the closeness of values for a set of precision
measurements.
percentage error
• Percentage error is the difference between the experimental and the
significant figures
accepted value that is divided by the accepted value and then multiplied
by 100. scientific notation
• The significant figures in a number consist of all digits known with certainty directly proportional
plus one final digit, which is uncertain. inversely proportional
• After addition or subtraction, the answer should be rounded so that it has
no more digits to the right of the decimal point than there are in the mea-
surement that has the smallest number of digits to the right of the decimal
point. After multiplication or division, the answer should be rounded so that
it has no more significant figures than there are in the measurement that
has the fewest number of significant figures.
• Exact conversion factors are completely certain and do not limit the
number of digits in a calculation.
• A number written in scientific notation is of the form M × 10 n, in which M is
greater than or equal to 1 but less than 10 and n is an integer.
• Two quantities are directly proportional to each other if dividing one by the
other yields a constant value. Two quantities are inversely proportional to
each other if their product has a constant value.

Chapter Summary 63

PM
MC_CNLESE817845_C02CA.indd 63 1/25/16 9:42 PM

Measurements and Calculations 63

 CorrectionKey=NL-A Co

CHAPTER REVIEW
Review
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CHAPTER 2 Interactive Review

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Review Games
Concept Maps
Review Answers
SECTION 1 11. a. What is a derived unit?
1. Quantitative information is
numerical; qualitative information Scientific Method b. What is the SI derived unit for area?

is non-numerical. 12. a. List two SI derived units for volume.

REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS
b. List two non-SI units for volume, and explain how
2. A hypothesis is a testable statement 1. How does quantitative information differ from they relate to the cubic centimeter.
that serves as a basis for making qualitative information?
predictions and carrying out further 13. a. Why are the units that are used to express the
2. What is a hypothesis? How does it differ from a densities of gases different from those used to
experiments. A theory is a broad express the densities of solids or liquids?
theory?
generalization that explains a body b. Name two units for density.
of facts or phenomena. 3. a. What is a model in the scientific sense? c. Why is the temperature at which density is mea-
b. How does a model differ from a theory?
3. a. a visual, verbal, or mathematical sured usually specified?
explanation of how phenomena 14. a. Which of the solids listed in Figure 2.8 will float on
SECTION 2
occur and data are related water?
b. A model, if it is successful, Units of Measurement b. Which of the liquids will sink in milk?

may become part of a theory. REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS 15. a. Define conversion factor.
A theory is much broader than b. Explain how conversion factors are used.
4. Why is it important for a measurement system to have
a model. an international standard?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
4. to have universal agreement and 5. How does a quantity differ from a unit? Use two
avoid confusion 16. What is the volume, in cubic meters, of a rectangular
examples to explain the difference.
solid that is 0.25 m long, 6.1 m wide, and 4.9 m high?
5. A quantity, such as volume or mass, 6. List the seven SI base units and the quantities they
is something with magnitude, size, or represent.
17. Find the density of a material, given that a 5.03 g
amount. A unit, such as liter or gram, sample occupies 3.24 mL. (Hint: See Sample
7. What is the numerical equivalent of each of the Problem A.)
compares what is to be measured to
following SI prefixes?
a previously defined size. a. kilo- d. micro-
18. What is the mass of a sample of material that has a
6. meter, length; kilogram, mass; volume of 55.1 cm3 and a density of 6.72 g/cm3?
b. centi- e. milli-
second, time; kelvin, temperature; c. mega- 19. A sample of a substance that has a density of 0.824 g/mL
mole, amount of substance; ampere, 8. Identify the SI unit that would be most appropriate
has a mass of 0.451 g. Calculate the volume of the
electric current; candela, luminous for expressing the length of the following.
sample.
intensity a. width of a gymnasium 20. How many grams are in 882 µg? (Hint: See Sample
7. a. 1000 or 103 b. length of a finger Problem B.)
c. distance between your town and the closest border
1
b. _ or 10-2 of the next state 21. Calculate the number of milliliters in 0.603 L.
100 d. length of a bacterial cell
c. 1 000 000 or 106 22. The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3.
1 9. Identify the SI unit that would be most appropriate a. What is the volume, in cubic centimeters, of a
d. _ or 10-6 for measuring the mass of each of the following sample of gold that has a mass of 0.715 kg?
1 000 000 b. If this sample of gold is a cube, what is the length
1
e. _ or 10-3
objects.
a. table of each edge in centimeters?
1000
8. a. meter b. coin
23. a. Find the number of kilometers in 92.25 m.
c. a 250 mL beaker
b. Convert the answer in kilometers to centimeters.
b. millimeter or centimeter
10. Explain why the second is not defined by the length
c. kilometer of the day.
d. micrometer
9. a. kilogram
64 Chapter 2
b. gram
c. gram 13. a. Smaller units are used because gases are 16. 7.5 m3
10. Fundamental units must be less dense.
MC_CNLESE817845_C02CA.indd 64 17. 1.55 g/mL 1/25/16 9:41 P
M
unvarying, but day length depends b. g/cm3, g/L 18. 3.70 × 102 g
on Earth’s rotation rate, which is c. Temperature affects volume. 19. 0.547 mL
not constant.
14. a. cork, butter, ice 20. 8.82 × 10-4 g
11. a. a unit that can be obtained
b. mercury 21. 6.03 × 102 mL
from combinations of fundamen-
tal units 15. a. a ratio that is derived from the equality 22. a. 37.0 cm3
between different units that can be used b. 3.33 cm
b. the square meter (m2)
to convert from one unit to another unit 23. a. 9.225 × 10-2 km
12. a. cubic meter, cubic centimeter b. The unit to be changed is multiplied by a b. 9.225 × 103 cm
b. liter = 1000 cm3; milliliter is equal conversion factor that has the desired
to 1 cm3 unit in the numerator and the unit to be
canceled in the denominator.

64 Chapter 2
 CorrectionKey=NL-A
orrectionKey=NL-A

CHAPTER REVIEW CHAPTER REVIEW

SECTION 3
b. The answer can have no more
Using Scientific PRACTICE PROBLEMS significant figures than are in the
Measurements 35. A student measures the mass of a sample as 9.67 g.
measurement with the fewest
REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS Calculate the percentage error, given that the correct number of significant figures.
24. Compare accuracy and precision.
mass is 9.82 g. (Hint: See Sample Problem C.) 31. M × 10n, where M is greater than or
36. A handbook gives the density of calcium as 1.54 g/cm3. equal to 1 but less than 10 and n is a
25. a. Write the equation that is used to calculate Based on lab measurements, what is the percentage whole number
percentage error. error of a density calculation of 1.25 g/cm3?
b. Under what condition will percentage error be 32. a. y/x = k, or y = kx
negative? 37. What is the percentage error of a length measurement b. It increases by the same factor.
of 0.229 cm if the correct value is 0.225 cm?
26. How is the average for a set of values calculated? 33. a. xy = k
38. How many significant figures are in each of the
27. What is meant by a mass measurement expressed in following measurements? (Hint: See Sample b. It decreases by the same factor.
this form: 4.6 g ± 0.2 g? Problem D.) 34. analyze, plan, solve, check your work
28. Suppose a graduated cylinder were not correctly a. 0.4004 mL
calibrated. How would this affect the results of a b. 6000 g 35. -1.5%
measurement? How would it affect the results of a c. 1.000 30 km 36. -19%
d. 400. mm
calculation using this measurement? 37. 2%
29. Round each of the following measurements to the 39. Calculate the sum of 6.078 g and 0.3329 g. 38. a. four
number of significant figures indicated. 40. Subtract 7.11 cm from 8.2 cm. (Hint: See Sample
a. 67.029 g to three significant figures
b. one
Problem E.)
b. 0.15 L to one significant figure c. six
c. 52.8005 mg to five significant figures 41. What is the product of 0.8102 m and 3.44 m?
d. 3.174 97 mol to three significant figures d. three
42. Divide 94.20 g by 3.167 22 mL.
30. State the rules governing the number of significant 39. 6.411 g
43. Write the following numbers in scientific notation.
figures that result from each of the following 40. 1.1 cm
a. 0.000 673 0
operations.
b. 50 000.0 41. 2.79 m2
a. addition and subtraction
c. 0.000 003 010 42. 29.74 g/mL
b. multiplication and division

31. What is the general form for writing numbers in

44. The following numbers are in scientific notation. 43. a. 6.730 × 10-4
Write them in standard notation.
scientific notation?
a. 7.050 × 103 g
b. 5.000 00 × 104
32. a. By using x and y, state the general equation for b. 4.000 05 × 107 mg c. 3.010 × 10-6
quantities that are directly proportional. c. 2.350 0 × 104 mL
b. For two directly proportional quantities, what 44. a. 7050 g
45. Perform the following operation. Express the answer
happens to one variable when the other variable b. 40 000 500 mg
in scientific notation and with the correct number of
increases?
significant figures. c. 23 500 mL
33. a. State the general equation for quantities, x and y, 0.002115 m × 0.0000405 m
that are inversely proportional. 45. 8.57 × 10-8 m2
46. A sample of a certain material has a mass of
b. For two inversely proportional quantities, what
2.03 × 10 –3 g. Calculate the volume of the sample,
46. 2.22 × 10-3 cm3
happens to one variable when the other increases?
given that the density is 9.133 × 10 –1 g/cm3. Use the
34. Arrange in the correct order the following four basic four-step method to solve the problem. (Hint: See
steps for finding the solution to a problem: check Sample Problem F.)
your work, analyze, solve, and plan.

Chapter Review 65

24. Accuracy refers to the closeness of measure- 28. It would introduce error in the measurement
PM
ments to the correct or accepted value.
MC_CNLESE817845_C02CA.indd 65
and any subsequent calculations. 1/25/16 9:41 PM
Precision refers to the closeness of a set of 29. a. 67.0 g
measurements to one another. b. 0.2 L
valueexp. - valueacc.
25. a. % error = ____________
value
× 100 c. 52.800 mg
accepted
d. 3.1 7 mol
b. if the experimental value is lower than 30. a. The answer must have the same number
the accepted value of digits to the right of the decimal point
26. by adding the values and dividing by the as there are in the measurement that has
number of values the fewest digits to the right of the
27. between 4.4 and 4.8 g decimal point.

Measurements and Calculations 65

 CorrectionKey=NL-A

CHAPTER REVIEW CHAPTER REVIEW

47. rewritten numbers: Mixed Review 56. What are ISO 9000 standards? How do they affect
industry on an international level?
1.006 × 102 kg, 9.64 × 101 kg; 47. A man finds that he has a mass of 100.6 kg. He goes
final answer: 4.2 kg on a diet, and several months later, he finds that he
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
has a mass of 96.4 kg. Express each number in
48. 1.4 × 106 m3
scientific notation, and calculate the number of
49. 1.43 g/cm3 57. Performance Obtain three metal samples from your
kilograms the man has lost by dieting.
teacher. Determine the mass and volume of each
50. 9.47 × 10-4 g; 9.47 × 10-7 kg 48. A large office building is 1.07 × 102 m long, 31 m sample. Calculate the density of each metal from your
51. -13.5% wide, and 4.25 × 102 m high. What is its volume? measurement data. (Hint: Consider using the
water-displacement technique to measure the
52. Li = 1.47 × 107 pm3 49. An object has a mass of 57.6 g. Find the object’s volume of your samples.)
Na = 2.70 × 107 pm3 density, given that its volume is 40.25 cm3.
K = 5.44 × 107 pm3 58. Use the data from the Nutrition Facts label below to
50. A lab worker measures the mass of some sucrose as answer the following questions:
Rb = 6.39 × 107 pm3 0.947 mg. Convert that quantity to grams and to a. Use the data given on the label for grams of fat and
Cs = 7.80 × 107 pm3 kilograms. calories from fat to construct a conversion factor
Fr = 8.24 × 107 pm3 that has the units calories per gram.
51. A student calculates the density of iron as 6.80 g/cm3
53. 1.34 × 108 Na atoms by using lab data for mass and volume. A handbook
b. Calculate the mass in kilograms for 20 servings of
54. a. 1.01 g/cm3 the food.
reveals that the correct value is 7.86 g/cm3. What is
c. Calculate the mass of protein in micrograms for
the percentage error?
b. 4% one serving of the food.
d. What is the correct number of significant figures
55. SI is the modern, more-simplified for the answer in item a? Why?
USING THE HANDBOOK
form of the metric system that has
seven base units as its foundation. 52. Find the table of properties for Group 1 elements in
The older metric system was based the Elements Handbook (Appendix A). Calculate the
on standards for length, time, volume of a single atom of each element listed in the
capacity (volume), and mass. Use of table by using the equation for the volume of a sphere.
SI in the United States allows a 4 π • r3
_
3
greater marketability for this
53. Use the radius of a sodium atom from the Elements
country’s goods and services
Handbook (Appendix A) to calculate the number of
throughout the world. sodium atoms in a row 5.00 cm long. Assume that
56. ISO, which is the International each sodium atom touches the ones next to it.
Standards Organization in Geneva, 54. a. A block of sodium that has the measurements
Switzerland, promotes international 3.00 cm × 5.00 cm × 5.00 cm has a mass of
uniformity of standards in the 75.5 g. Calculate the density of sodium.
technical fields. b. Compare your calculated density with the value in
57. Density data for some metals are the properties table for Group 1 elements.
Calculate the percentage error for your density
found in Appendix A. The following determination.
metals are suggested for this activity:
Zn, Fe, W, Mg, Cr, and Pb.
RESEARCH AND WRITING
58. a. 15 Calories (fat)/2 g (fat)
= 8 Cal (fat)/g (fat) 55. How does the metric system, which was once a
b. 0.6 kg standard for measurement, differ from SI? Why was
it necessary for the United States to change to SI?
c. 2 × 106 µg
d. One; the value 2 g limits the
number of significant figures for
these data. 66 Chapter 2

MC_CNLESE817845_C02CA.indd 66 1/25/16 9:41 P

66 Chapter 2
 TEST PREP

Standards-Based Assessment
Record your answers on a separate piece of paper. 6 In 400 bce, the Greek philosopher Democritus first
MULTIPLE CHOICE proposed the idea that all matter was composed of
atoms. Since that time, scientists have learned that,
1 There are 6.02 × 1023 atoms in one mole of carbon.
far from resembling tiny marbles, atoms actually
Using scientific notation, how many atoms are there
have very complex structures. Since it has been
in 2.06 moles of carbon?
changed so many times, why is it referred to as the
A 1.24 × 1022 atomic theory rather than the atomic hypothesis?
B 1.24 × 1023
A It was proposed by two different scientists.
C 1.24 × 1024
B Hypotheses are testable, and theories are not.
D 1.24 × 1025
C Even though the details have been modified, the
idea that matter contains tiny particles called
2 A typical aspirin dosage is described in milligrams.
atoms explains a lot of observations.
Using scientific notation, about how many
D Atoms cannot be seen with the naked eye, and
milligrams of aspirin are in 0.000 325 kilograms?
hypotheses must be observable.
A 3.25 × 10-4 mg
B 3.25 × 10-7 mg 7 A student is investigating factors that might
C 3.25 × 102 mg influence solubility. In one experiment, she places
D 3.35 × 103 mg one sugar cube each into two different glasses of
water at room temperature. She also places a third
3 A student calculates that the volume of his textbook sugar cube into a third glass of water at a higher
is 990.880 cm3. Which of the following is the volume temperature. She notices that the cube in the water
written with 3 significant figures? at the higher temperature dissolves more quickly.
A 991 cm3 Which of the following statements was most likely
B 990.9 cm3 the hypothesis she was testing?
C 990.90 cm3 A Stirring a solution increases the rate at which a
D 991.000 cm3 substance will dissolve.
B Sugar cubes dissolve more quickly in smaller
4 The accuracy of a measurement —
volumes of water than larger ones.
A is how close it is to the true value C Increasing temperature will increase the rate at
B does not depend on the instrument used to which a substance dissolves, because the par-
measure the object ticles have more energy.
C indicates that the measurement is also precise D Stirring a solution increases the rate at which a
D is how close the measurements in a set are to one solute dissolves more than heating a solution.
another

5 A metal sample has a mass of 45.65 g. The volume of

GRIDDED RESPONSE
the sample is 16.9 cm3. What is the density of the 8 A student accurately determines that the distance
sample? between two points on a football field is 105.0 feet. If
there are about 3.28 feet in one meter, about how
A 2.7 g/cm3
many meters is the distance? Express the answer
B 2.70 g/cm3
using the correct number of significant figures.
C 0.370 g/cm3
D 0.37 g/cm3

11 12 1
Test Tip
2
9
10
3
Choose an answer to a question based on
8 4 both information that you already know and
7 6 5
information that is presented in the question.

Standards-Based Assessment 67