Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1Computers for the next decades?

Computers are integrated

small, cheap, portable, replaceable - no more separate devices

Technology is in the background

computer are aware of their environment and adapt (location awareness) computer recognize the location of the user and react appropriately (e.g., call forwarding, fax forwarding, context awareness))

Advances in technology
more computing power in smaller devices flat, lightweight displays with low power consumption new user interfaces due to small dimensions more bandwidth per cubic meter multiple wireless interfaces: wireless LANs, wireless WANs, regional wireless telecommunication networks etc. (overlay networks)

1.2 Mobile communication

Two aspects of mobility:
user mobility: users communicate (wireless) anytime, anywhere, with anyone device portability: devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the network

Wireless vs. mobile

Examples
stationary computer notebook in a hotel wireless LANs in historic buildings Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

The demand for mobile communication creates the need for integration of wireless networks into existing fixed networks:
local area networks: standardization of IEEE 802.11, ETSI (HIPERLAN) Internet: Mobile IP extension of the internet protocol IP wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of GSM and ISDN

1.3 Applications

Vehicles
transmission of news, road condition, weather, music via DAB personal communication using GSM position via GPS local ad-hoc network with vehicles close-by to prevent accidents, guidance system, redundancy vehicle data (e.g., from busses, high-speed trains) can be transmitted in advance for maintenance

Emergencies
early transmission of patient data to the hospital, current status, first diagnosis replacement of a fixed infrastructure in case of earthquakes, hurricanes, fire etc. crisis, war, ...

1.4 Applications II

Travelling salesmen
direct access to customer files stored in a central location consistent databases for all agents mobile office

Replacement of fixed networks

remote sensors, e.g., weather, earth activities flexibility for trade shows LANs in historic buildings

Entertainment, education, ...

outdoor Internet access intelligent travel guide with up-to-date location dependent information ad-hoc networks for multi user games

1.5 Location dependent services

Location aware services
what services, e.g., printer, fax, phone, server etc. exist in the local environment

Follow-on services
automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to the current location

Information services
push: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket pull: e.g., where is the Black Forrest Cherry Cake?

Support services
caches, intermediate results, state information etc. follow the mobile device through the fixed network

Privacy
who should gain knowledge about the location

Mobile devices
Pager receive only tiny displays simple text messages Sensors, embedded controllers PDA graphical displays character recognition simplified WWW Laptop/Notebook fully functional standard applications

Mobile phones voice, data simple graphical displays

Palmtop tiny keyboard simple versions of standard applications

performance

1.6 Wireless networks in comparison to fixed networks

Higher loss-rates due to interference
emissions of, e.g., engines, lightning

Restrictive regulations of frequencies

frequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all occupied

Low transmission rates

local some Mbit/s, regional currently, e.g., 53kbit/s with GSM/GPRS

Higher delays, higher jitter

connection setup time with GSM in the second range, several hundred milliseconds for other wireless systems

Lower security, simpler active attacking

radio interface accessible for everyone, base station can be simulated, thus attracting calls from mobile phones

Always shared medium

secure access mechanisms important

1.7 Early history of wireless communication

Many people in history used light for communication
heliographs, flags (semaphore), ... 150 BC smoke signals for communication; (Polybius, Greece) 1794, optical telegraph, Claude Chappe

Here electromagnetic waves are of special importance: 1831 Faraday demonstrates electromagnetic induction J. Maxwell (1831-79): theory of electromagnetic Fields, wave equations (1864) H. Hertz (1857-94): demonstrates with an experiment the wave character of electrical transmission through space (1888, in Karlsruhe, Germany, at the location of todays University of Karlsruhe)

1.8 History of wireless communication I

Guglielmo Marconi
first demonstration of wireless telegraphy (digital!) long wave transmission, high transmission power necessary (> 200kw)

Commercial transatlantic connections

huge base stations (30 100m high antennas)

Wireless voice transmission New York - San Francisco Discovery of short waves by Marconi
reflection at the ionosphere smaller sender and receiver, possible due to the invention of the vacuum tube (1906, Lee DeForest and Robert von Lieben)

Train-phone on the line Hamburg - Berlin

wires parallel to the railroad track

1.9 History of wireless communication II

1928 many TV broadcast trials (across Atlantic, color TV, TV news) 1933 Frequency modulation (E. H. Armstrong) 1958 A-Netz in Germany
analog, 160MHz, connection setup only from the mobile station, no handover, 80% coverage, 1971 11000 customers

B-Netz in Germany
analog, 160MHz, connection setup from the fixed network too (but location of the mobile station has to be known) available also in A, NL and LUX, 1979 13000 customer in D

NMT at 450MHz (Scandinavian countries) Start of GSM-specification

goal: pan-European digital mobile phone system with roaming

Start of the American AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System, analog) CT-1 standard (Europe) for cordless telephones

1.10.History of wireless communication III

1986

C-Netz in Germany

analog voice transmission, 450MHz, hand-over possible, digital signaling, automatic location of mobile device Was in use until 2000, services: FAX, modem, X.25, e-mail, 98% coverage

Specification of DECT
Digital European Cordless Telephone (today: Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications) 1880-1900MHz, ~100-500m range, 120 duplex channels, 1.2Mbit/s data transmission, voice encryption, authentication, up to several 10000 user/km2, used in more than 50 countries

Start of GSM
in D as D1 and D2, fully digital, 900MHz, 124 channels automatic location, hand-over, cellular roaming in Europe - now worldwide in more than 200 countries services: data with 9.6kbit/s, FAX, voice, ...

1.11History of wireless communication IV

1994

E-Netz in Germany

GSM with 1800MHz, smaller cells As Eplus in D (1997 98% coverage of the population)

HiperLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network)

ETSI, standardization of type 1: 5.15 - 5.30GHz, 23.5Mbit/s recommendations for type 2 and 3 (both 5GHz) and 4 (17GHz) as wireless ATMnetworks (up to 155Mbit/s)

Wireless LAN - IEEE802.11

IEEE standard, 2.4 - 2.5GHz and infrared, 2Mbit/s already many (proprietary) products available in the beginning

Specification of GSM successors

for UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) as European proposals for IMT-2000

Iridium
66 satellites (+6 spare), 1.6GHz to the mobile phone

History of wireless communication V

1999 Standardization of additional wireless LANs IEEE standard 802.11b, 2.4-2.5GHz, 11Mbit/s Bluetooth for piconets, 2.4Ghz, <1Mbit/s Decision about IMT-2000 Several members of a family: UMTS, cdma2000, DECT, Start of WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) and i-mode First step towards a unified Internet/mobile communicaiton system Access to many services via the mobile phone 2000 GSM with higher data rates HSCSD offers up to 57,6kbit/s First GPRS trials with up to 50 kbit/s (packet oriented!) UMTS auctions/beauty contests Hype followed by disillusionment (50 B$ payed in Germany for 6 licenses!) 2001 Start of 3G systems Cdma2000 in Korea, UMTS tests in Europe, Foma (almost UMTS) in Japan

1.12 Areas of research in mobile communication

Wireless Communication
transmission quality (bandwidth, error rate, delay) modulation, coding, interference media access, regulations ...

Mobility
location dependent services location transparency quality of service support (delay, jitter, security) ...

Portability
power consumption limited computing power, sizes of display, ... usability ...

1.13 Influence of mobile communication to the layer model Application layer Transport layer Network layer Data link layer
service location new applications, multimedia adaptive applications congestion and flow control quality of service addressing, routing, device location hand-over authentication media access multiplexing media access control encryption modulation interference attenuation frequency

Physical layer

Wireless Transmission
1.14Frequencies for mobile communication

VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio

simple, small antenna for cars deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections

SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication

small antenna, beam forming large bandwidth available

Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range

some systems planned up to EHF limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules (resonance frequencies)
weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc.

1.15 Signals I
physical representation of data function of time and location signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data classification
continuous time/discrete time continuous values/discrete values analog signal = continuous time and continuous values digital signal = discrete time and discrete values

signal parameters of periodic signals: period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift
sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier: s(t) = At sin(2 ft t + t)

1.16 Signals II

Different representations of signals

amplitude (amplitude domain) frequency spectrum (frequency domain) phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in polar coordinates)

Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier transformation Digital signals need
infinite frequencies for perfect transmission modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)

1.17Antennas: isotropic radiator

Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of wires to space for radio transmission Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or z horizontally) y z Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna
y x x

ideal isotropic radiator

1.18 Antennas: simple dipoles

Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths /4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole shape of antenna proportional to wavelength /
4 / 2

Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y x y z z x

simple dipole

side view (xy-plane) Gain: maximum power inside view (yz-plane) the main lobe compared to the the direction of top view (xz-plane) power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)

1.19 Antennas: directed and sectorized

y x

y z

z x

directed antenna

Often used for microwaveview (yz-plane) or base stations for mobile phones side view (xy-plane) side connections top view (xz-plane) (e.g., radio coverage of a valley)
z z

sectorized antenna

top view, 3 sector

top view, 6 sector

1.20 Antennas: diversity

Grouping of 2 or more antennas

multi-element antenna arrays

Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with largest output

diversity combining

/ / combine output power to produce gain /4 4 2 cophasing needed to avoid cancellation + ground plane

/ 2

/ 2

/ 2

1.21Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range
communication possible low error rate

Detection range
detection of the signal possible no communication possible
sender transmission distance detection interference

Interference range
signal may not be detected signal adds to the background noise

1.22 Signal propagation

Propagation in free space always like light (straight line) Receiving power proportional to 1/d in vacuum much more in real environments (d = distance between sender and receiver) Receiving power additionally influenced by fading (frequency dependent) shadowing reflection at large obstacles refraction depending on the density of a medium scattering at small obstacles diffraction at edges

shadowing

reflection

refraction

scattering

diffraction

1.23 Multipath propagation

Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction

Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts

1.24 Effects of mobility

Channel characteristics change over time and location

signal paths change different delay variations of different signal parts different phases of signal parts quick changes in the power received (short term fading)
power

Additional changes in
distance to sender obstacles further away slow changes in the average power

long term fading

received (long term fading)

short term fading

Media Access

Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks? Example CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if a collision occurs (original method in IEEE 802.3)

Problems in wireless networks

signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver it might be the case that a sender cannot hear the collision, i.e., CD does not work furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is hidden

1.25 Motivation - hidden and exposed terminals

Hidden terminals
A sends to B, C cannot receive A C wants to send to B, C senses a free medium (CS fails) collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails) A is hidden for C

Exposed terminals A B C B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)

C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use but A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not necessary C is exposed to B

1.26 Motivation - near and far terminals

Terminals A and B send, C receives

signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance the signal of terminal B therefore drowns out As signal C cannot receive A

If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal B would drown out terminal A already on the physical layer Also severe problem for CDMA-networks - precise power control needed!

1.27 Access methods SDMA/FDMA/TDMA

SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)

segment space into sectors, use directed antennas cell structure

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a receiver permanent (e.g., radio broadcast), slow hopping (e.g., GSM), fast hopping (FHSS, Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a receiver for a certain amount of time

The multiplexing schemes presented in chapter 2 are now used to control medium access!

1.28 FDD/FDMA - general scheme, example GSM

f
960 MHz
124

935.2 MHz 915 MHz

1 20 MHz 124

200 kHz

890.2 MHz

1.29 TDD/TDMA - general scheme, example DECT

417 s 1 2 3 downlink 11 12 1 2 3 uplink 11 12 t

1.30 Aloha/slotted aloha

Mechanism

random, distributed (no central arbiter), time-multiplex Slotted Aloha additionally uses time-slots, sending must always start at sender A slot boundaries
sender Aloha B sender C t collision

collision

Slotted Aloha sender A

sender B sender C t

1.31DAMA - Demand Assigned Multiple Access

Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted Aloha (assuming Poisson distribution for packet arrival and packet length) Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
a sender reserves a future time-slot sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without collision reservation also causes higher delays typical scheme for satellite links

Examples for reservation algorithms:

Explicit Reservation according to Roberts (Reservation-ALOHA) Implicit Reservation (PRMA) Reservation-TDMA

1.32Access method DAMA: Explicit Reservation

Explicit Reservation (Reservation Aloha):

two modes:
ALOHA mode for reservation: competition for small reservation slots, collisions possible reserved mode for data transmission within successful reserved slots (no collisions possible)

it is important for all stations to keep the reservation list consistent at any point in time and, therefore, all stations have to synchronize from time to time

collision

Aloha

reserved

Aloha

reserved

Aloha

reserved

Aloha

1.33Access method DAMA: PRMA

Implicit reservation (PRMA - Packet Reservation MA):
a certain number of slots form a frame, frames are repeated stations compete for empty slots according to the slotted aloha principle once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot is automatically assigned to this station in all following frames as long as the station has data to send competition for this slots starts again as soon as the slot was empty in the last frame
reservation ACDABA-F ACDABA-F AC-ABAFA---BAFD ACEEBAFD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 frame1 A C D A B A frame2 A C frame3 A frame4 A A B A B A F B A F D t collision at reservation attempts F time-slot

frame5 A C E E B A F D

1.34Access method DAMA: Reservation-TDMA

Reservation Time Division Multiple Access
every frame consists of N mini-slots and x data-slots every station has its own mini-slot and can reserve up to k data-slots using this mini-slot (i.e. x = N * k). other stations can send data in unused data-slots according to a roundrobin sending scheme (best-effort traffic)
N mini-slots N * k data-slots e.g. N=6, k=2

reservations other stations can use free data-slots for data-slots based on a round-robin scheme

1.35MACA - collision avoidance

MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses short signaling packets for collision avoidance
RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from a receiver with a short RTS packet before it sends a data packet CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as soon as it is ready to receive

Signaling packets contain

sender address receiver address packet size

Variants of this method can be found in IEEE802.11 as DFWMAC (Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC)

1.36MACA examples

MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals

A and C want to send to B A sends RTS first C waits after receiving CTS from B
RTS CTS A B CTS C

MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals

B wants to send to A, C to another terminal now C does not have to wait for it cannot receive CTS from A
A

RTS CTS B

RTS

1.37MACA variant: DFWMAC in IEEE802.11

sender
idle packet ready to send; RTS RxBusy ACK wait for the right to send time-out; RTS data; ACK time-out data; NAK RTS; CTS

receiver
idle

time-out NAK; RTS wait for ACK

CTS; data wait for data RTS; RxBusy

ACK: positive acknowledgement NAK: negative acknowledgement

RxBusy: receiver busy

1.38Polling mechanisms

If one terminal can be heard by all others, this central terminal (a.k.a. base station) can poll all other terminals according to a certain scheme
now all schemes known from fixed networks can be used (typical mainframe - terminal scenario)

Example: Randomly Addressed Polling

base station signals readiness to all mobile terminals terminals ready to send can now transmit a random number without collision with the help of CDMA or FDMA (the random number can be seen as dynamic address) the base station now chooses one address for polling from the list of all random numbers (collision if two terminals choose the same address) the base station acknowledges correct packets and continues polling the next terminal this cycle starts again after polling all terminals of the list

1.39MA (Inhibit Sense Multiple Access)

Current state of the medium is signaled via a busy tone

the base station signals on the downlink (base station to terminals) if the medium is free or not terminals must not send if the medium is busy terminals can access the medium as soon as the busy tone stops the base station signals collisions and successful transmissions via the busy tone and acknowledgements, respectively (media access is not coordinated within this approach) mechanism used, e.g., for CDPD (USA, integrated into AMPS)

1.40Access method CDMA

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
all terminals send on the same frequency probably at the same time and can use the whole bandwidth of the transmission channel each sender has a unique random number, the sender XORs the signal with this random number the receiver can tune into this signal if it knows the pseudo random number, tuning is done via a correlation function

Disadvantages:
higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium and start receiving if there is a signal) all signals should have the same strength at a receiver

Advantages:
all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed huge code space (e.g. 232 ) compared to frequency space interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated

1.41CDMA in theory
Sender A
sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: 0= -1, 1= +1) sending signal As = Ad * Ak = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)

Sender B
sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: 0= -1, 1= +1) sending signal Bs = Bd * Bk = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)

Both signals superimpose in space

interference neglected (noise etc.) As + Bs = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)

Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A

apply key Ak bitwise (inner product)
Ae = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) Ak = 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 = 6 result greater than 0, therefore, original bit was 1

receiving B
Be = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) Bk = -2 + 0 + 0 - 2 - 2 + 0 = -6, i.e. 0

1.42CDMA on signal level I

data A key A key sequence A data key signal A

Ad

0 1

1 0

0 1

1 0

0 1

0 1

1 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 1

0 0

1 0

1 0

0 1

0 1

1 0

1 0

Ak

As

Real systems use much longer keys resulting in a larger distance between single code words in code space.

1.43CDMA on signal level III

data A

1
As + Bs

Ad

Ak

(As + Bs) * Ak integrator output comparator output

1.44CDMA on signal level IV

data B

Bd

As + Bs

Bk

(As + Bs) * Bk integrator output comparator output

1.45CDMA on signal level V

As + Bs

wrong key K

(As + Bs) *K

integrator output comparator output

(0)

(0)

1.46SAMA - Spread Aloha Multiple Access

collision Aloha has only a very low efficiency, CDMA needs complex receivers to be 1 0 1 able sender A to receive different senders with individual codes at the same narrow 0 1 1 band time sender B Idea: use spread spectrum with only one single code (chipping sequence) send for a for spreading for all senders accessing according to aloha shorter period with higher power spread the signal e.g. using the chipping sequence 110101 (CDMA without CD) t Problem: find a chipping sequence with good characteristics

1.47Comparison SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA

Approach Idea

seg cell

Module 2 Wireless Telecommunication Systems

2.1GSM: Overview

GSM
formerly: Groupe Spciale Mobile (founded 1982) now: Global System for Mobile Communication Pan-European standard (ETSI, European Telecommunications Standardisation Institute) simultaneous introduction of essential services in three phases (1991, 1994, 1996) by the European telecommunication administrations (Germany: D1 and D2) seamless roaming within Europe possible today many providers all over the world use GSM (more than 200 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, America) more than 1.2 billion subscribers in more than 630 networks more than 75% of all digital mobile phones use GSM (74% total) over 200 million SMS per month in Germany, > 550 billion/year worldwide (> 10% of the revenues for many operators) [be aware: these are only rough numbers]

2.2Performance characteristics of GSM

Communication
mobile, wireless communication; support for voice and data services

Total mobility
international access, chip-card enables use of access points of different providers

Worldwide connectivity
one number, the network handles localization

High capacity
better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers per cell

High transmission quality

high audio quality and reliability for wireless, uninterrupted phone calls at higher speeds (e.g., from cars, trains)

Security functions
access control, authentication via chip-card and PIN

2.3 Disadvantages of GSM

There is no perfect system!! no end-to-end encryption of user data no full ISDN bandwidth of 64 kbit/s to the user, no transparent B-channel reduced concentration while driving electromagnetic radiation

2.3 Disadvantages of GSM

There is no perfect system!! no end-to-end encryption of user data no full ISDN bandwidth of 64 kbit/s to the user, no transparent B-channel reduced concentration while driving electromagnetic radiation abuse of private data possible roaming profiles accessible high complexity of the system several incompatibilities within the GSM standards

2.4 GSM: Mobile Services

GSM offers
several types of connections
voice connections, data connections, short message service

multi-service options (combination of basic services)

Three service domains

Bearer Services Telematic Services Supplementary Services

bearer services MS TE R, S MT Um GSM-PLMN transit network (PSTN, ISDN) tele services source/ destination network TE (U, S, R)

2.5 Bearer Services

Telecommunication services to transfer data between access points Specification of services up to the terminal interface (OSI layers 1-3) Different data rates for voice and data (original standard)
data service (circuit switched)
synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s asynchronous: 300 - 1200 bit/s

data service (packet switched)

synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s asynchronous: 300 - 9600 bit/s

Today: data rates of approx. 50 kbit/s possible will be covered later!

2.6Tele Services I
Telecommunication services that enable voice communication via mobile phones All these basic services have to obey cellular functions, security measurements etc. Offered services
mobile telephony primary goal of GSM was to enable mobile telephony offering the traditional bandwidth of 3.1 kHz Emergency number common number throughout Europe (112); mandatory for all service providers; free of charge; connection with the highest priority (preemption of other connections possible) Multinumbering several ISDN phone numbers per user possible

2.7 Tele Services II

Additional services
Non-Voice-Teleservices
group 3 fax voice mailbox (implemented in the fixed network supporting the mobile terminals) electronic mail (MHS, Message Handling System, implemented in the fixed network) Short Message Service (SMS) alphanumeric data transmission to/from the mobile terminal (160 characters) using the signaling channel, thus allowing simultaneous use of basic services and SMS (almost ignored in the beginning now the most successful add-on!)

2.8 Supplementary services

Services in addition to the basic services, cannot be offered standalone Similar to ISDN services besides lower bandwidth due to the radio link May differ between different service providers, countries and protocol versions Important services
identification: forwarding of caller number suppression of number forwarding automatic call-back conferencing with up to 7 participants locking of the mobile terminal (incoming or outgoing calls)...

2.9 Architecture of the GSM system

GSM is a PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network)

several providers setup mobile networks following the GSM standard within each country components
MS (mobile station) BS (base station) MSC (mobile switching center) LR (location register)

subsystems
RSS (radio subsystem): covers all radio aspects NSS (network and switching subsystem): call forwarding, handover, switching OSS (operation subsystem): management of the network

2.9 Architecture of the GSM system

GSM is a PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network)

several providers setup mobile networks following the GSM standard within each country components
MS (mobile station) BS (base station) MSC (mobile switching center) LR (location register)

subsystems
RSS (radio subsystem): covers all radio aspects NSS (network and switching subsystem): call forwarding, handover, switching OSS (operation subsystem): management of the network

2.10Radio subsystem
The Radio Subsystem (RSS) comprises the cellular mobile network up to the switching centers Components
Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
Base Transceiver Station (BTS): radio components including sender, receiver, antenna - if directed antennas are used one BTS can cover several cells Base Station Controller (BSC): switching between BTSs, controlling BTSs, managing of network resources, mapping of radio channels (Um) onto terrestrial channels (A interface) BSS = BSC + sum(BTS) + interconnection Mobile Stations (MS)

2.11GSM: cellular network

segmentation of the area into cells
possible radio coverage of the cell

cell

idealized shape of the cell

use of several carrier frequencies not the same frequency in adjoining cells cell sizes vary from some 100 m up to 35 km depending on user density, geography, transceiver power etc. hexagonal shape of cells is idealized (cells overlap, shapes depend on geography) if a mobile user changes cells handover of the connection to the neighbor cell

2.12Base Transceiver Station and Base Station Controller

Tasks of a BSS are distributed over BSC and BTS BTS comprises radio specific functions BSC is the switching center for radio channels

2.13 Mobile station

Terminal for the use of GSM services A mobile station (MS) comprises several functional groups
MT (Mobile Terminal):
offers common functions used by all services the MS offers corresponds to the network termination (NT) of an ISDN access end-point of the radio interface (Um)

TA (Terminal Adapter):

terminal adaptation, hides radio specific characteristics

TE (Terminal Equipment):

peripheral device of the MS, offers services to a user does not contain GSM specific functions

SIM (Subscriber Identity Module):

personalization of the mobile terminal, stores user parameters TE TA MT

Functions Management o Frequency hop Management o Mapping of ter Channel codin Rate adaptatio Encryption and
R S Um

2.14Network and switching subsystem

NSS is the main component of the public mobile network GSM

switching, mobility management, interconnection to other networks, system control

Components
Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC) controls all connections via a separated network to/from a mobile terminal within the domain of the MSC - several BSC can belong to a MSC Databases (important: scalability, high capacity, low delay)
Home Location Register (HLR) central master database containing user data, permanent and semi-permanent data of all subscribers assigned to the HLR (one provider can have several HLRs) Visitor Location Register (VLR) local database for a subset of user data, including data about all user currently in the domain of the VLR

2.15Mobile Services Switching Center

The MSC (mobile switching center) plays a central role in GSM

switching functions additional functions for mobility support management of network resources interworking functions via Gateway MSC (GMSC) integration of several databases

Functions of a MSC
specific functions for paging and call forwarding termination of SS7 (signaling system no. 7) mobility specific signaling location registration and forwarding of location information provision of new services (fax, data calls) support of short message service (SMS) generation and forwarding of accounting and billing information

2.16 Operation subsystem

The OSS (Operation Subsystem) enables centralized operation, management, and maintenance of all GSM subsystems Components
Authentication Center (AUC)
generates user specific authentication parameters on request of a VLR authentication parameters used for authentication of mobile terminals and encryption of user data on the air interface within the GSM system

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

registers GSM mobile stations and user rights stolen or malfunctioning mobile stations can be locked and sometimes even localized

Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)

different control capabilities for the radio subsystem and the network subsystem

2.17 Security in GSM

Security services
access control/authentication
user SIM (Subscriber Identity Module): secret PIN (personal identification number) SIM network: challenge response method

confidentiality
voice and signaling encrypted on the wireless link (after successful authentication)

anonymity
temporary identity TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity) newly assigned at each new location update (LUP) encrypted transmission
secret: A3 and A8 available via the Internet network providers can use stronger mechanisms

3 algorithms specified in GSM

A3 for authentication (secret, open interface) A5 for encryption (standardized) A8 for key generation (secret, open interface)

2.19DECT

DECT (Digital European Cordless Telephone) standardized by ETSI (ETS 300.175-x) for cordless telephones standard describes air interface between base-station and mobile phone DECT has been renamed for international marketing reasons into Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication Characteristics
frequency: 1880-1990 MHz channels: 120 full duplex duplex mechanism: TDD (Time Division Duplex) with 10 ms frame length multplexing scheme: FDMA with 10 carrier frequencies, TDMA with 2x 12 slots modulation: digital, Gauian Minimum Shift Key (GMSK) power: 10 mW average (max. 250 mW) range: approx. 50 m in buildings, 300 m open space

2.20DECT layers I

Physical layer
modulation/demodulation generation of the physical channel structure with a guaranteed throughput controlling of radio transmission
channel assignment on request of the MAC layer detection of incoming signals sender/receiver synchronization collecting status information for the management plane

MAC layer
maintaining basic services, activating/deactivating physical channels multiplexing of logical channels
e.g., C: signaling, I: user data, P: paging, Q: broadcast

segmentation/reassembly error control/error correction

2.21DECT layers II

Data link control layer

creation and keeping up reliable connections between the mobile terminal and basestation two DLC protocols for the control plane (C-Plane)
connectionless broadcast service: paging functionality Lc+LAPC protocol: in-call signaling (similar to LAPD within ISDN), adapted to the underlying MAC service

several services specified for the user plane (U-Plane)

null-service: offers unmodified MAC services frame relay: simple packet transmission frame switching: time-bounded packet transmission error correcting transmission: uses FEC, for delay critical, time-bounded services bandwidth adaptive transmission Escape service: for further enhancements of the standard

2.22 DECT layers III

Network layer
similar to ISDN (Q.931) and GSM (04.08) offers services to request, check, reserve, control, and release resources at the basestation and mobile terminal resources
necessary for a wireless connection necessary for the connection of the DECT system to the fixed network

main tasks
call control: setup, release, negotiation, control call independent services: call forwarding, accounting, call redirecting mobility management: identity management, authentication, management of the location register

Satellite Systems

2.23 History of satellite communication

1945 Arthur C. Clarke publishes an essay about Extra Terrestrial Relays 1957 first satellite SPUTNIK 1960 first reflecting communication satellite ECHO 1963 first geostationary satellite SYNCOM 1965 first commercial geostationary satellite Satellit Early Bird (INTELSAT I): 240 duplex telephone channels or 1 TV channel, 1.5 years lifetime 1976 three MARISAT satellites for maritime communication 1982 first mobile satellite telephone system INMARSAT-A 1988 first satellite system for mobile phones and data communication INMARSAT-C 1993 first digital satellite telephone system 1998 global satellite systems for small mobile phones

2.24 Applications

Traditionally
weather satellites radio and TV broadcast satellites military satellites satellites for navigation and localization (e.g., GPS)

Telecommunication
global telephone connections backbone for global networks connections for communication in remote places or underdeveloped areas global mobile communication

satellite systems to extend cellular phone systems (e.g., GSM or AMPS)

2.24 Applications

Traditionally
weather satellites radio and TV broadcast satellites military satellites satellites for navigation and localization (e.g., GPS)

Telecommunication
global telephone connections backbone for global networks connections for communication in remote places or underdeveloped areas global mobile communication

satellite systems to extend cellular phone systems (e.g., GSM or AMPS)

2.25 Basics

Satellites in circular orbits

attractive force Fg = m g (R/r) centrifugal force Fc = m r m: mass of the satellite R: radius of the earth (R = 6370 km) r: distance to the center of the earth g: acceleration of gravity (g = 9.81 m/s) : angular velocity ( = 2 f, f: rotation frequency)

Stable orbit
Fg = Fc

r =3

gR 2 (2 f ) 2

2.26 Basics

elliptical or circular orbits complete rotation time depends on distance satellite-earth inclination: angle between orbit and equator elevation: angle between satellite and horizon LOS (Line of Sight) to the satellite necessary for connection
high elevation needed, less absorption due to e.g. buildings

Uplink: connection base station - satellite Downlink: connection satellite - base station typically separated frequencies for uplink and downlink
transponder used for sending/receiving and shifting of frequencies transparent transponder: only shift of frequencies regenerative transponder: additionally signal regeneration

2.27 Orbits I
Four different types of satellite orbits can be identified depending on the shape and diameter of the orbit: GEO: geostationary orbit, ca. 36000 km above earth surface LEO (Low Earth Orbit): ca. 500 - 1500 km MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit): ca. 6000 - 20000 km HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit) elliptical orbits

2.28 Geostationary satellites

Orbit 35,786 km distance to earth surface, orbit in equatorial plane (inclination 0) complete rotation exactly one day, satellite is synchronous to earth rotation fix antenna positions, no adjusting necessary satellites typically have a large footprint (up to 34% of earth surface!), therefore difficult to reuse frequencies bad elevations in areas with latitude above 60 due to fixed position above the equator high transmit power needed high latency due to long distance (ca. 275 ms) not useful for global coverage for small mobile phones and data transmission, typically used for radio and TV transmission

2.29 LEO systems

Orbit ca. 500 - 1500 km above earth surface visibility of a satellite ca. 10 - 40 minutes global radio coverage possible latency comparable with terrestrial long distance connections, ca. 5 - 10 ms smaller footprints, better frequency reuse but now handover necessary from one satellite to another many satellites necessary for global coverage more complex systems due to moving satellites Examples: Iridium (start 1998, 66 satellites)
Bankruptcy in 2000, deal with US DoD (free use, saving from deorbiting)

Globalstar (start 1999, 48 satellites)

Not many customers (2001: 44000), low stand-by times for mobiles

2.30 MEO systems

Orbit ca. 5000 - 12000 km above earth surface comparison with LEO systems: slower moving satellites less satellites needed simpler system design for many connections no hand-over needed higher latency, ca. 70 - 80 ms higher sending power needed special antennas for small footprints needed Example: ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit, Inmarsat) start ca. 2000
Bankruptcy, planned joint ventures with Teledesic, Ellipso cancelled again, start planned for 2003

2.31Routing

One solution: inter satellite links (ISL) reduced number of gateways needed forward connections or data packets within the satellite network as long as possible only one uplink and one downlink per direction needed for the connection of two mobile phones Problems: more complex focusing of antennas between satellites high system complexity due to moving routers higher fuel consumption thus shorter lifetime Iridium and Teledesic planned with ISL Other systems use gateways and additionally terrestrial networks

2.32.Localization of mobile stations

Mechanisms similar to GSM Gateways maintain registers with user data

HLR (Home Location Register): static user data VLR (Visitor Location Register): (last known) location of the mobile station SUMR (Satellite User Mapping Register):
satellite assigned to a mobile station positions of all satellites

Registration of mobile stations

Localization of the mobile station via the satellites position requesting user data from HLR updating VLR and SUMR

Calling a mobile station

localization using HLR/VLR similar to GSM connection setup using the appropriate satellite

2.33 Handover in satellite systems

Several additional situations for handover in satellite systems compared to cellular terrestrial mobile phone networks caused by the movement of the satellites
Intra satellite handover
handover from one spot beam to another mobile station still in the footprint of the satellite, but in another cell

Inter satellite handover

handover from one satellite to another satellite mobile station leaves the footprint of one satellite

Gateway handover
Handover from one gateway to another mobile station still in the footprint of a satellite, but gateway leaves the footprint

Inter system handover

Handover from the satellite network to a terrestrial cellular network mobile station can reach a terrestrial network again which might be cheaper, has a lower latency etc.

Broadcast Systems

2.34 Unidirectional distribution systems

Asymmetric communication environments

bandwidth limitations of the transmission medium depends on applications, type of information examples
wireless networks with base station and mobile terminals client-server environments (diskless terminal) cable TV with set-top box information services (pager, SMS)

Special case: unidirectional distribution systems

high bandwidth from server to client (downstream), but no bandwidth vice versa (upstream) problems of unidirectional broadcast systems
a sender can optimize transmitted information only for one group of users/terminals functions needed to individualize personal requirements/applications

2.35Structuring transmissions - broadcast disks

Sender
cyclic repetition of data blocks different patterns possible (optimization possible only if the content is known)
flat disk skewed disk multi-disk A A A B A B C B A A C C B A A C A B

Receiver

cost-based strategy: what are the costs for a user (waiting time) if a data block has been requested but is currently not cached application and cache have to know content of data blocks and access patterns of user to optimize

2.36DAB: Digital Audio Broadcasting

Media access
COFDM (Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex) SFN (Single Frequency Network) 192 to 1536 subcarriers within a 1.5 MHz frequency band

Frequencies
first phase: one out of 32 frequency blocks for terrestrial TV channels 5 to 12 (174 - 230 MHz, 5A - 12D) second phase: one out of 9 frequency blocks in the L-band (1452- 1467.5 MHz, LA - LI)

Sending power: 6.1 kW (VHF, 120 km) or 4 kW (L-band, 30 km) Date-rates: 2.304 Mbit/s (net 1.2 to 1.536 Mbit/s) Modulation: Differential 4-phase modulation (D-QPSK) Audio channels per frequency block: typ. 6, max. 192 kbit/s Digital services: 0.6 - 16 kbit/s (PAD), 24 kbit/s (NPAD)

2.37DAB transport mechanisms

MSC (Main Service Channel)

carries all user data (audio, multimedia, ...) consists of CIF (Common Interleaved Frames) each CIF 55296 bit, every 24 ms (depends on transmission mode) CIF contains CU (Capacity Units), 64 bit each

FIC (Fast Information Channel)

carries control information consists of FIB (Fast Information Block) each FIB 256 bit (incl. 16 bit checksum) defines configuration and content of MSC

Stream mode
transparent data transmission with a fixed bit rate

Packet mode
transfer addressable packets

2.38Audio coding

Goal
audio transmission almost with CD quality robust against multipath propagation minimal distortion of audio signals during signal fading

Mechanisms
fully digital audio signals (PCM, 16 Bit, 48 kHz, stereo) MPEG compression of audio signals, compression ratio 1:10 redundancy bits for error detection and correction burst errors typical for radio transmissions, therefore signal interleaving receivers can now correct single bit errors resulting from interference low symbol-rate, many symbols
transmission of digital data using long symbol sequences, separated by guard spaces delayed symbols, e.g., reflection, still remain within the guard space

2.39Bit rate management

a DAB ensemble combines audio programs and data services with different requirements for transmission quality and bit rates the standard allows dynamic reconfiguration of the DAB multiplexing scheme (i.e., during transmission) data rates can be variable, DAB can use free capacities for other services the multiplexer performs this kind of bit rate management, therefore, additional services can come from different providers

2.40Multimedia Object Transfer Protocol (MOT)

Problem
broad range of receiver capabilities audio-only devices with single/multiple line text display, additional color graphic display, PC adapters etc. different types of receivers should at least be able to recognize all kinds of program associated and program independent data and process some of it

Solution
common standard for data transmission: MOT important for MOT is the support of data formats used in other multimedia systems (e.g., online services, Internet, CD-ROM) DAB can therefore transmit HTML documents from the WWW with very little additional effort

Comparison of UMTS, DAB and DVB

Spectrum bands (depends on national regulations) [MHz]

Wireless LANs Regulation

Bandwidth Effective

3.1Characteristics of wireless LANs

Advantages
very flexible within the reception area Ad-hoc networks without previous planning possible (almost) no wiring difficulties (e.g. historic buildings, firewalls) more robust against disasters like, e.g., earthquakes, fire - or users pulling a plug...

Disadvantages
typically very low bandwidth compared to wired networks (1-10 Mbit/s) due to shared medium many proprietary solutions, especially for higher bit-rates, standards take their time (e.g. IEEE 802.11) products have to follow many national restrictions if working wireless, it takes a vary long time to establish global solutions like, e.g., IMT-2000

3.2Design goals for wireless LANs

global, seamless operation low power for battery use no special permissions or licenses needed to use the LAN robust transmission technology simplified spontaneous cooperation at meetings easy to use for everyone, simple management protection of investment in wired networks security (no one should be able to read my data), privacy (no one should be able to collect user profiles), safety (low radiation) transparency concerning applications and higher layer protocols, but also location awareness if necessary

3.3Comparison: infrared vs. radio transmission

Infrared
uses IR diodes, diffuse light, multiple reflections (walls, furniture etc.)

Radio
typically using the license free ISM band at 2.4 GHz

Advantages
simple, cheap, available in many mobile devices no licenses needed simple shielding possible

Advantages
experience from wireless WAN and mobile phones can be used coverage of larger areas possible (radio can penetrate walls, furniture etc.)

Disadvantages
interference by sunlight, heat sources etc. many things shield or absorb IR light low bandwidth

Disadvantages
very limited license free frequency bands shielding more difficult, interference with other electrical devices

Example
IrDA (Infrared Data Association) interface available everywhere

Example
Many different products

3.4Bluetooth

History
1994: Ericsson (Mattison/Haartsen), MC-link project Renaming of the project: Bluetooth according to Harald Bltand(was: Gormsen [son ) of Gorm], King of Denmark in the 10th century 1998: foundation of Bluetooth SIG, www.bluetooth.org 1999: erection of a rune stone at Ercisson/Lund ;-) 2001: first consumer products for mass market, spec. version 1.1 released 2005: 5 million chips/week

Special Interest Group

Original founding members: Ericsson, Intel, IBM, Nokia, Toshiba Added promoters: 3Com, Agere (was: Lucent), Microsoft, Motorola > 2500 members Common specification and certification of products

Module 4 Network Protocols/Mobile IP

4.1Motivation for Mobile IP

Routing
based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42) determines physical subnet change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a topological correct address (standard IP) or needs special entries in the routing tables

Specific routes to end-systems?

change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the right destination does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in the location, security problems

Changing the IP-address?

adjust the host IP address depending on the current location almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take to long time TCP connections break, security problems

Requirements to Mobile IP (RFC 3344, was: 3220, was: 2002)

Transparency
mobile end-systems keep their IP address continuation of communication after interruption of link possible point of connection to the fixed network can be changed

Compatibility
support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP no changes to current end-systems and routers required mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems

Security
authentication of all registration messages

Efficiency and scalability

only little additional messages to the mobile system required (connection typically via a low bandwidth radio link) world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the whole Internet

4.2Terminology

Mobile Node (MN)

system (node) that can change the point of connection to the network without changing its IP address

Home Agent (HA)

system in the home network of the MN, typically a router registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA

Foreign Agent (FA)

system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the default router for the MN

Care-of Address (COA)

address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN) actual location of the MN from an IP point of view can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP

Correspondent Node (CN)

communication partner

4.3 Network integration

Agent Advertisement
HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their physical subnets MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in the home or a foreign network (standard case for home network) MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages

Registration (always limited lifetime!)

MN signals COA to the HA via the FA, HA acknowledges via FA to MN these actions have to be secured by authentication

Advertisement
HA advertises the IP address of the MN (as for fixed systems), i.e. standard routing information routers adjust their entries, these are stable for a longer time (HA responsible for a MN over a longer period of time) packets to the MN are sent to the HA, independent of changes in COA/FA

4.4Mobile IP registration request

0 7 8 15 16 23 24 S B D MGr T x lifetime type = 1 home address home agent COA identification extensions . . .

31

S: simultaneous bindings B: broadcast datagrams D: decapsulation by MN M mininal encapsulation G: GRE encapsulation r: =0, ignored T: reverse tunneling requested x: =0, ignored

4.5Encapsulation

original IP header original data

new IP header new data outer header inner header original data

4.6Optimization of packet forwarding

Triangular Routing
sender sends all packets via HA to MN higher latency and network load

Solutions
sender learns the current location of MN direct tunneling to this location HA informs a sender about the location of MN big security problems!

Change of FA
packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss, old FA now forwards remaining packets to new FA this information also enables the old FA to release resources for the MN

4.7Mobile IP with reverse tunneling

Router accept often only topological correct addresses (firewall!)

a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now topological correct furthermore multicast and TTL problems solved (TTL in the home network correct, but MN is to far away from the receiver)

Reverse tunneling does not solve

problems with firewalls, the reverse tunnel can be abused to circumvent security mechanisms (tunnel hijacking) optimization of data paths, i.e. packets will be forwarded through the tunnel via the HA to a sender (double triangular routing)

The standard is backwards compatible

the extensions can be implemented easily and cooperate with current implementations without these extensions Agent Advertisements can carry requests for reverse tunneling

4.8Mobile IP and IPv6

Mobile IP was developed for IPv4, but IPv6 simplifies the protocols
security is integrated and not an add-on, authentication of registration is included COA can be assigned via auto-configuration (DHCPv6 is one candidate), every node has address autoconfiguration no need for a separate FA, all routers perform router advertisement which can be used instead of the special agent advertisement; addresses are always colocated MN can signal a sender directly the COA, sending via HA not needed in this case (automatic path optimization) soft hand-over, i.e. without packet loss, between two subnets is supported
MN sends the new COA to its old router the old router encapsulates all incoming packets for the MN and forwards them to the new COA authentication is always granted

4.9Problems with mobile IP

Security
authentication with FA problematic, for the FA typically belongs to another organization no protocol for key management and key distribution has been standardized in the Internet patent and export restrictions

Firewalls
typically mobile IP cannot be used together with firewalls, special set-ups are needed (such as reverse tunneling)

QoS
many new reservations in case of RSVP tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a special treatment needed for the QoS

Security, firewalls, QoS etc. are topics of current research and discussions!

4.10Problem No. 1: Routing

7 N1 Highly dynamic network topology

N6 N1 N2 N4 time = t2 good link weak link

N7

N6

N Device mobility plus 2varying channel quality N3 Separation and merging of networks possible Asymmetric connections possible N4 time = t1 N5

N3

N5

4.11Traditional routing algorithms

Distance Vector
periodic exchange of messages with all physical neighbors that contain information about who can be reached at what distance selection of the shortest path if several paths available

Link State
periodic notification of all routers about the current state of all physical links router get a complete picture of the network

Example
ARPA packet radio network (1973), DV-Routing every 7.5s exchange of routing tables including link quality updating of tables also by reception of packets routing problems solved with limited flooding

4.12Routing in ad-hoc networks

THE big topic in many research projects

Far more than 50 different proposals exist The most simplest one: Flooding!

Reasons
Classical approaches from fixed networks fail
Very slow convergence, large overhead

High dynamicity, low bandwidth, low computing power

Metrics for routing

Minimal
Number of nodes, loss rate, delay, congestion, interference

Maximal
Stability of the logical network, battery run-time, time of connectivity

4.14Problems of traditional routing algorithms

Dynamic of the topology
frequent changes of connections, connection quality, participants

Limited performance of mobile systems

periodic updates of routing tables need energy without contributing to the transmission of user data, sleep modes difficult to realize limited bandwidth of the system is reduced even more due to the exchange of routing information links can be asymmetric, i.e., they can have a direction dependent transmission quality

4.16DSDV (Destination Sequenced Distance Vector)

Early work
on demand version: AODV

Expansion of distance vector routing Sequence numbers for all routing updates
assures in-order execution of all updates avoids loops and inconsistencies

Decrease of update frequency

store time between first and best announcement of a path inhibit update if it seems to be unstable (based on the stored time values)

4.17Dynamic source routing I

Split routing into discovering a path and maintaining a path Discover a path
only if a path for sending packets to a certain destination is needed and no path is currently available

Maintaining a path
only while the path is in use one has to make sure that it can be used continuously

No periodic updates needed!

4.18Dynamic source routing II

Path discovery
broadcast a packet with destination address and unique ID if a station receives a broadcast packet
if the station is the receiver (i.e., has the correct destination address) then return the packet to the sender (path was collected in the packet) if the packet has already been received earlier (identified via ID) then discard the packet otherwise, append own address and broadcast packet

sender receives packet with the current path (address list)

Optimizations
limit broadcasting if maximum diameter of the network is known caching of address lists (i.e. paths) with help of passing packets
stations can use the cached information for path discovery (own paths or paths for other hosts)

4.19Dynamic Source Routing III

Maintaining paths
after sending a packet
wait for a layer 2 acknowledgement (if applicable) listen into the medium to detect if other stations forward the packet (if possible) request an explicit acknowledgement

if a station encounters problems it can inform the sender of a packet or look-up a new path locally

4.20Examples for interference based routing

Least Interference Routing (LIR)
calculate the cost of a path based on the number of stations that can receive a transmission

Max-Min Residual Capacity Routing (MMRCR)

calculate the cost of a path based on a probability function of successful transmissions and interference

Least Resistance Routing (LRR)

calculate the cost of a path based on interference, jamming and other transmissions

LIR is very simple to implement, only information from direct neighbors is necessary

Mobile Transport Layer

4.21Motivation I

Transport protocols typically designed for

Fixed end-systems Fixed, wired networks

Research activities
Performance Congestion control Efficient retransmissions

TCP congestion control

packet loss in fixed networks typically due to (temporary) overload situations router have to discard packets as soon as the buffers are full TCP recognizes congestion only indirect via missing acknowledgements, retransmissions unwise, they would only contribute to the congestion and make it even worse slow-start algorithm as reaction

4.22Motivation II

TCP slow-start algorithm

sender calculates a congestion window for a receiver start with a congestion window size equal to one segment exponential increase of the congestion window up to the congestion threshold, then linear increase missing acknowledgement causes the reduction of the congestion threshold to one half of the current congestion window congestion window starts again with one segment

TCP fast retransmit/fast recovery

TCP sends an acknowledgement only after receiving a packet if a sender receives several acknowledgements for the same packet, this is due to a gap in received packets at the receiver however, the receiver got all packets up to the gap and is actually receiving packets therefore, packet loss is not due to congestion, continue with current congestion window (do not use slow-start)

4.23Influences of mobility on TCP-mechanisms

TCP assumes congestion if packets are dropped

typically wrong in wireless networks, here we often have packet loss due to transmission errors furthermore, mobility itself can cause packet loss, if e.g. a mobile node roams from one access point (e.g. foreign agent in Mobile IP) to another while there are still packets in transit to the wrong access point and forwarding is not possible

The performance of an unchanged TCP degrades severely

however, TCP cannot be changed fundamentally due to the large base of installation in the fixed network, TCP for mobility has to remain compatible the basic TCP mechanisms keep the whole Internet together

4.24 Snooping TCP II

Data transfer to the mobile host

FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet loss via duplicated ACKs or time-out fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network

Data transfer from the mobile host

FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers, FA answers directly with a NACK to the MH MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay

Integration of the MAC layer

MAC layer often has similar mechanisms to those of TCP thus, the MAC layer can already detect duplicated packets due to retransmissions and discard them

Problems
snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as I-TCP snooping might be useless depending on encryption schemes

4.25Indirect TCP II

Advantages
no changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes for the hosts (TCP protocol) necessary, all current optimizations to TCP still work transmission errors on the wireless link do not propagate into the fixed network simple to control, mobile TCP is used only for one hop between, e.g., a foreign agent and mobile host therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible, the short delay on the mobile hop is known

Disadvantages
loss of end-to-end semantics, an acknowledgement to a sender does now not any longer mean that a receiver really got a packet, foreign agents might crash higher latency possible due to buffering of data within the foreign agent and forwarding to a new foreign agent

4.26Early approach: Mobile TCP

Special handling of lengthy and/or frequent disconnections M-TCP splits as I-TCP does
unmodified TCP fixed network to supervisory host (SH) optimized TCP SH to MH

Supervisory host
no caching, no retransmission monitors all packets, if disconnection detected
set sender window size to 0 sender automatically goes into persistent mode

old or new SH reopen the window

Advantages
maintains semantics, supports disconnection, no buffer forwarding

Disadvantages
loss on wireless link propagated into fixed network adapted TCP on wireless link

4.27 Fast retransmit/fast recovery

Change of foreign agent often results in packet loss

TCP reacts with slow-start although there is no congestion

Forced fast retransmit

as soon as the mobile host has registered with a new foreign agent, the MH sends duplicated acknowledgements on purpose this forces the fast retransmit mode at the communication partners additionally, the TCP on the MH is forced to continue sending with the actual window size and not to go into slow-start after registration

Advantage
simple changes result in significant higher performance

Disadvantage
further mix of IP and TCP, no transparent approach

4.28Transmission/time-out freezing

Mobile hosts can be disconnected for a longer time

no packet exchange possible, e.g., in a tunnel, disconnection due to overloaded cells or mux. with higher priority traffic TCP disconnects after time-out completely

TCP freezing
MAC layer is often able to detect interruption in advance MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection TCP stops sending, but does now not assume a congested link MAC layer signals again if reconnected

Advantage
scheme is independent of data

Disadvantage
TCP on mobile host has to be changed, mechanism depends on MAC layer

4.29 Selective retransmission

TCP acknowledgements are often cumulative

ACK n acknowledges correct and in-sequence receipt of packets up to n if single packets are missing quite often a whole packet sequence beginning at the gap has to be retransmitted (go-back-n), thus wasting bandwidth

Selective retransmission as one solution

RFC2018 allows for acknowledgements of single packets, not only acknowledgements of in-sequence packet streams without gaps sender can now retransmit only the missing packets

Advantage
much higher efficiency

Disadvantage
more complex software in a receiver, more buffer needed at the receiver

4.30Transaction oriented TCP

TCP phases
connection setup, data transmission, connection release using 3-way-handshake needs 3 packets for setup and release, respectively thus, even short messages need a minimum of 7 packets!

Transaction oriented TCP

RFC1644, T-TCP, describes a TCP version to avoid this overhead connection setup, data transfer and connection release can be combined thus, only 2 or 3 packets are needed

Advantage
efficiency

Disadvantage
requires changed TCP mobility not longer transparent

4.31Comparison of different approaches for a mobile TCP

Approach
Indirect TCP Snooping TCP

Chapter 5

5.1 World Wide Web and mobility

Protocol (HTTP, Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and language (HTML, Hypertext Markup Language) of the Web have not been designed for mobile applications and mobile devices, thus creating many problems! Typical transfer sizes
HTTP request: 100-350 byte responses avg. <10 kbyte, header 160 byte, GIF 4.1kByte, JPEG 12.8 kbyte, HTML 5.6 kbyte but also many large files that cannot be ignored

The Web is no file system

Web pages are not simple files to download static and dynamic content, interaction with servers via forms, content transformation, push technologies etc. many hyperlinks, automatic loading and reloading, redirecting a single click might have big consequences!

5.2 HTTP 1.0 and mobility I

Characteristics
stateless, client/server, request/response needs a connection oriented protocol (TCP), one connection per request (some enhancements in HTTP 1.1) primitive caching and security

Problems
designed for large bandwidth (compared to wireless access) and low delay big and redundant protocol headers (readable for humans, stateless, therefore big headers in ASCII) uncompressed content transfer using TCP
huge overhead per request (3-way-handshake) compared with the content, e.g., of a GET request slow-start problematic

DNS lookup by client causes additional traffic

5.3 HTTP 1.0 and mobility II

Caching
quite often disabled by information providers to be able to create user profiles, usage statistics etc. dynamic objects cannot be cached
numerous counters, time, date, personalization, ...

mobility quite often inhibits caches security problems

how to use SSL/TLS together with proxies?

today: many user customized pages, dynamically generated on request via CGI, ASP, ...

POSTing (i.e., sending to a server)

can typically not be buffered, very problematic if currently disconnected

Many unsolved problems!

5.4HTML and mobile devices

HTML
designed for computers with high performance, color high-resolution display, mouse, hard disk typically, web pages optimized for design, not for communication

Mobile devices
often only small, low-resolution displays, very limited input interfaces (small touch-pads, soft-keyboards)

Additional features
animated GIF, Java AWT, Frames, ActiveX Controls, Shockwave, movie clips, audio, ... many web pages assume true color, multimedia support, high-resolution and many plug-ins

Web pages ignore the heterogeneity of end-systems!

e.g., without additional mechanisms, large high-resolution pictures would be transferred to a mobile phone with a low-resolution display causing high costs

5.5WAP - Wireless Application Protocol

Goals
deliver Internet content and enhanced services to mobile devices and users (mobile phones, PDAs) independence from wireless network standards open for everyone to participate, protocol specifications will be proposed to standardization bodies applications should scale well beyond current transport media and device types and should also be applicable to future developments

Platforms
e.g., GSM (900, 1800, 1900), CDMA IS-95, TDMA IS-136, 3rd generation systems (IMT-2000, UMTS, W-CDMA, cdma2000 1x EV-DO, )

Forum
was: WAP Forum, co-founded by Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia, Unwired Planet, further information www.wapforum.org now: Open Mobile Alliance www.openmobilealliance.org (Open Mobile Architecture + WAP Forum + SyncML + )

5.6 WDP - Wireless Datagram Protocol

Protocol of the transport layer within the WAP architecture

uses directly transports mechanisms of different network technologies offers a common interface for higher layer protocols allows for transparent communication using different transport technologies (GSM [SMS, CSD, USSD, GPRS, ...], IS-136, TETRA, DECT, PHS, IS-95, ...)

Goals of WDP
create a worldwide interoperable transport system with the help of WDP adapted to the different underlying technologies transmission services such as SMS, GPRS in GSM might change, new services can replace the old ones

Additionally, WCMP (wireless Control Message Protocol) is used for control/error report (similar to ICMP in the TCP/IP protocol suite)

5.7 WTLS - Wireless Transport Layer Security

Goals
data integrity
prevention of changes in data

privacy
prevention of tapping

authentication
creation of authenticated relations between a mobile device and a server

protection against denial-of-service attacks

protection against repetition of data and unverified data

WTLS
is based on the TLS (Transport Layer Security) protocol (former SSL, Secure Sockets Layer) optimized for low-bandwidth communication channels

5.8 WTP - Wireless Transaction Protocol

Goals
different transaction services, offloads applications
application can select reliability, efficiency

support of different communication scenarios

class 0: unreliable message transfer class 1: reliable message transfer without result message class 2: reliable message transfer with exactly one reliable result message

supports peer-to-peer, client/server and multicast applications low memory requirements, suited to simple devices (< 10kbyte ) efficient for wireless transmission
segmentation/reassembly selective retransmission header compression optimized connection setup (setup with data transfer)

5.9 Details of WTP I

Support of different communication scenarios

Class 0: unreliable message transfer
Example: push service

Class 1: reliable request

An invoke message is not followed by a result message Example: reliable push service

Class 2: reliable request/response

An invoke message is followed by exactly one result message With and without ACK Example: typical web browsing

No explicit connection setup or release is available Services for higher layers are called events

5.10 Details of WTP II

Used Mechanisms
Reliability
Unique transaction identifiers (TID) Acknowledgements Selective retransmission Duplicate removal

Optional: concatenation & separation of messages Optional: segmentation & reassembly of messages Asynchronous transactions Transaction abort, error handling Optimized connection setup (includes data transmission)

5.11 WSP - Wireless Session Protocol

Goals
HTTP 1.1 functionality
Request/reply, content type negotiation, ...

support of client/server, transactions, push technology key management, authentication, Internet security services session management (interruption, resume,...)

Open topics
QoS support) Group communication Isochronous media objects management

5.12 WSP protocols

WSP

Connection mode (uses WTP)

Connectionless mode (uses WDP or WTLS)

Session Management (class 0, 2) Method Invocation (Kl. 2) Error Report Push (class 0) Confirmed Push (class 1) Session suspend/resume (class 0, 2)

Method Invocation Push (in general unreliable)

5.13 WAE - Wireless Application Environment

Goals
network independent application environment for low-bandwidth, wireless devices integrated Internet/WWW programming model with high interoperability

Requirements
device and network independent, international support manufacturers can determine look-and-feel, user interface considerations of slow links, limited memory, low computing power, small display, simple user interface (compared to desktop computers)

Components
architecture: application model, browser, gateway, server WML: XML-Syntax, based on card stacks, variables, ... WMLScript: procedural, loops, conditions, ... (similar to JavaScript) WTA: telephone services, such as call control, text messages, phone book, ... (accessible from WML/WMLScript) content formats: vCard, vCalendar, Wireless Bitmap, WML, ...

5.14 Wireless Markup Language (WML)

WML follows deck and card metaphor

WML document consists of many cards, cards are grouped to decks a deck is similar to an HTML page, unit of content transmission WML describes only intent of interaction in an abstract manner presentation depends on device capabilities

Features
text and images user interaction navigation context management

5.15 WML example I

<?xml version="1.0"?> <!DOCTYPE wml PUBLIC "-//WAPFORUM//DTD WML 1.1//EN" "http://www.wapforum.org/DTD/wml_1.1.xml"> <wml> <card id="card_one" title="simple example"> <do type="accept"> <go href="#card_two"/> </do> <p> This is a simple first card! <br/> On the next one you can choose ... </p> </card>

5.16 WMLScript

Complement to WML Provides general scripting capabilities Features

validity check of user input
check input before sent to server

access to device facilities

hardware and software (phone call, address book etc.)

local user interaction

interaction without round-trip delay

extensions to the device software

configure device, download new functionality after deployment

5.17 WMLScript - example

function pizza_test(pizza_type) { var taste = "unknown"; if (pizza_type = "Margherita") { taste = "well... "; } else { if (pizza_type = "Vulcano") { taste = "quite hot"; }; }; return taste; };

5.18 Wireless Telephony Application (WTA)

Collection of telephony specific extensions Extension of basic WAE application model
content push
server can push content to the client client may now be able to handle unknown events

handling of network events

table indicating how to react on certain events from the network

access to telephony functions

any application on the client may access telephony functions

Example
calling a number (WML) wtai://wp/mc;07216086415 calling a number (WMLScript) WTAPublic.makeCall("07216086415");