Question N 1

Correct Answer – A
A fading channel is a communication channel that experiences fading. In wireless
systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath -
induced fading, weather (rain), or shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave
propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading.
Medium frequency is mainly used for for AM broadcasting. During daytime, only local
stations can be received. Propagation in the night allows strong signals within a range
of about 2000 km. Naturally, because of the long distance travel affecting the wave
propagation, fading occurs most likely in the lower frequency bands.

Question N 2
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves that travel outw ards from a transmitter at the
speed of light. They are transverse waves, meaning that the electric and magnetic fields
involved travel from side to side (or up and down) whilst the wave goes "forwards".
There are a few components of these waves that you a re required to know. Two of the
most important are wavelength and frequency.
We have already mentioned that the wave travels at the speed of light, but that does not
tell us how long the wave is. The wavelength is the distance from one part of a wave
cycle to the same part of the next wave cycle. For instance, from one trough to the next,
or from one peak to the next.
We can use this information to tell us how many times a wave peak (or trough) will
pass us every second, which is the frequency of the wave. This can also be described as
the number of wave cycles per second, measured in Hertz (Hz)
The relationship between these values is by the formula:
c=fxλ
c = the speed of light (m/s)
f = frequency (Hz)
λ (Lambda) = wavelength (m)

The speed of light (c) is 300 000 000 m/s, so 3x10 8 m/s. The frequency is 121.95 MHz,
which is 121.95 x10 6 Hz or 121 950 000 MHz in long form. Remember to use metric
units, Metres, Hertz and Metres per Second only.
We can rearrange the formula to be:
λ=c/f
and then plug in the information to give:
λ = 3x10 8 / 121.95x10 6 = 2.46 m

Question N 3
Correct Answer – B
Fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath-induced
fading, weather (rain), or shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave propagation,
sometimes referred to as shadow fading.
Skywaves will fade at any distance. Sky waves are reflected by the ionosphere. The
ionosphere doesn’t have an equal reflection efficiency, which means that the reflected
signal can change and cause fading.
The most intense type of fading is when both the skywaves and the groundwaves arrive
with the same strength at the receiver.

Question N 4
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure
Frequency Modulation is the encoding of information n a carrier wave by changi ng the
frequency of the wave. It is widely used for FM radio broadcasting.
Amplitude modulation is most commonly used for transmitting information via a radio
carrier wave. As the name suggest the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed.
Pulse modulation is a form of signal modulation where the information is encoded in
the amplitude of a series of signal pulses.

Question N 5
Correct Answer – A
Amplitude modulation is a process by which the wave signal is transmitted by
modulating the amplitude of the signal.
It is often called as AM and is commonly used in transmitting a piece of information
through a radio carrier wave.
Amplitude modulation is mostly used in the form of electronic communication.
Currently, this technique is used in many areas of commu nication such as in portable
two-way radios, citizens band radio, VHF aircraft radio and in modems for computers.
Amplitude modulation is also used to mention the mediumwave AM radio broadcasting.
In general, amplitude modulation definition is given as a t ype of modulation where the
amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in some proportion with respect to the
modulating data or the signal.
As for the mechanism, when amplitude modulation is used there is a variation in the
amplitude of the carrier.
Here, the voltage or the power level of the information signal changes the amplitude of
the carrier.
In AM, the carrier does not vary in amplitude.
However, the modulating data is in the form of signal components consisting of
frequencies either higher or lower than that of the carrier.
The signal components are known as sidebands and the sideband power is responsible
for the variations in the overall amplitude of the signal. (refer to annex1)
The AM technique is totally different from frequency modulation and phas e modulation
where the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in the first case and in the second
one the phase is varied respectively.
Why Do We Need Modulation?
Practically speaking, modulation is required for;
 High range transmission
 Quality of transmission
 To avoid the overlapping of signals.
Difference Between AM And FM
Amplitude modulation and frequency modulation are used to transmit data using the
method of modifying a carrier signal.
The AM technique is totally different from frequency modu lation and phase modulation
where the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in the first case and in the second
one the phase is varied respectively. (refer to annex 2)
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation is a modulation technique where the amplitude of a carrier varies
depending on the information signal.
AM radio broadcast signals use lower carrier frequencies, this helps them to travel long
distances. Sometimes AM signals can be able to bounce off the ionosphere.
The distance travelled by the AM is much larger than the FM.
Frequency Modulation
In this module, the frequency of the carrier wave is modified according to the signal
that carries information.
The radio signals have large bandwidth than AM radio signals, which helps to offer
much better sound quality.
Frequency modulation also enables to transmit stereo signals.

Summary

Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency Modulation (FM)

The radio wave is called a carrier wave The radio wave is called a carrier wave,
and the frequency and phase remain the but the amplitude and phase remain the
same same

Has poor sound quality, but can transmit Has higher bandwidth with better sound
longer distance quality

The frequency range of AM radio varies The frequency range of FM is 88 to 108

from 535 to 1705 kHz MHz in the higher spectrum

More susceptible to noise Less susceptible to noise

Question N 6
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 062.01.03.04.01: State that radio waves in VHF, UHF, SHF and
EHF propagate as space waves.

Radio waves can propagate in many different ways. The most common is as a "space
wave". This is what most people think of when it comes to radio transmission, as this is
line of sight, meaning that the radio waves travel in straight lines only, so you can
only receive a signal if you are within Line-of-Sight (LOS).
Another propagation path is via ground waves, these are used by NDBs in order to
transmit their simple signals long distances following the curvature of the
Earth. Ground waves (surface waves) follow the contours of the surface, making their
ranges drastically reduced by mountainous terrain, and extended over seas.
The third method of propagation is via sky waves, which are space waves that interact
with the charged particles in the ionosphere. When these waves reach the ionosphere,
the subsequent attenuation refracts the waves, changing their course, until the waves
are heading downwards again. This is often referred to as "reflection" by EASA, so do
not be confused; it is refraction that occurs, it just looks like reflection from afar, and
they may refer to it as such.
Ground waves and sky waves both exist below the frequencies of VHF (30 MHz) .
Some strong ionospheric attenuation effects can affect the lower end of the VHF band,
but in general, VHF, UHF and upwards all rely on space waves to communicate , and
hence are reliant on line-of-sight.
Question N 7
Correct Answer – A
The most important atmospheric effects on radio wave propagation are Refraction and
Reflection. Refraction can occur in the troposphere or the ionosphere.
Tropospheric refraction occurs because the refractive index of the atmosphere decreases
as altitude increases, leading to a bending of waves back toward the earth.
Conversely, ionospheric refraction occurs because of the electrical properties of
plasmas that are formed in the ionosphere as a result of ionization of the
atmosphere.Reflection off the ionosphere is also possible if the frequency is low
enough.We will differentiate these two effects, and refer to the former as atmospheric
refraction and the latter as ionospheric propagation.
The atmosphere will also attenuate radio signals, due to absorption by air molecules,
water molecules, and precipitation (rain)
The most important thing to note is that refractivity is inversely proportional to
temperature and directly proportional to pressure and humidity.Hence, as we go higher
into the atmosphere, the refractivity tends to drop somce the pressure is less, and the air
is more dry. Temperature plays a role as well, and in reality temperature gradients can
cause the refractivity profile to be non-monotonic.

Question N 8
Correct Answer – A
Long-distance communication works on skywave propagation, where radio waves are
directed at an angle to the sky so they refract back to earth from the ionosphere. By this
method it is given that frequencies in the High Frequency (HF) band can travel beyond
the horizon, following the curvature of the earth, and can be received at long distances.
Because of the refraction and reflection properties of the HF band, these frequencies
are also good for transmission in mountainous terrains which prevent line of sight
communications.

Question N 9
Correct Answer – A
Radio signals have only one carrier wave, the carrier wave is used to carry the
information.
A1A is an abbreviation for the following:
A = Double side-band.
1 = A single channel containing quantized or digital information without the use of a
modulating sub-carrier.
A = Telegraphy, for aural reception.
A1A is the part of the emission of an interrupted unmodulated carrier wave which
requires the Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) to be on for aural reception. Keying is
adding readable data to a carrier wave. This readable data is usually formed in morse
code.

Question N 10
Correct Answer – B
Antenna shadowing
Shadowing by parts of an aircraft (such as a wing) may prevent signals from being
received if the antenna is not sited properly.
To minimize the adverse effects of antenna shading, it is important to place antennas on
aircraft in such locations where least shading can be expected in any normal flight
attitude. Antennas used for reception of ground -based facilities should be on the
underside of the aircraft while GPS antennas should be on the top.
During 360º medium-level turn, the effect of the wing shadowing the aircraft antenna
should be considered.

Question N 11
Correct Answer – B
The radio waves that reach the earth’s atmosphere are partially absorbed by the
ionosphere and partially travels through the ionosphere and reaches the ground. The
frequency of the radio waves determines if the waves travel through the ionosphere or
if they will be absorbed by the ionosphere.
Absorption of electromagnetic radiation describes how the electrons are taken up by
photons energy. It transforms electromagnetic energy into internal energy of the
absorber (in this case the ionosphere).

Question N 12
Correct Answer – B
As the name implies, Phase Modulation, PM uses variations in phase for carrying the
modulation.Phase modulation works by modulating the phase of the signal, i.e.
changing the rate at which the point moves around the circle.This changes the phase of
the signal from what it would have been if no modulation was applied.
In other words the speed of rotation around the circle is modulated about the mean
value.To achieve this it is necessary to change the frequency of the signal for a short
time.In other words when phase modulation is applied to a signal there are frequency
changes and vice versa.Phase and frequency are inseparably linked as phase is the
integral of frequency.
Note: For the ranging codes and navigation messages to travel from the satellite to the
receiver, they must be modulated onto a carrier frequency, by varying the phase of the
signal ( phase modulation).As soon as a data signal will be modulated onto the carrier
wave, the phase of the carrier wave is reversed by 180°.
The receiver will detect this reversal and is able to reconstruct the data.

Question N 13
Correct Answer – B
Wavelength (λλ) is the distance of one full cycle of the oscillation. Longer wavelength
waves such as radio waves carry low energy; this is why we can listen to the radio
without any harmful consequences. Shorter wavelength waves such as x -rays carry
higher energy that can be hazardous to our health. Consequently lead aprons are worn
to protect our bodies from harmful radiation when we undergo x-rays. This wavelength
frequently relationship is characterized by:
c=λν(1)(1)c=λν
where
 c is the speed of light,
 λλ is wavelength, and
 νν is frequency
Shorter wavelength means greater frequency, and greater frequency means higher
energy. Wavelengths are important in that they tell one what type of wave one is
dealing with. (see the annex)

Question N 14
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figures
Dipole antenna:
This antenna is the most widely-used type of antenna. It is the simplest form of an
antenna. A basic dipole antenna, as seen in figure 1, consists of 2 conductors arranged
symmetrically with one side of the balanced feedline from the transmitter or receiver
attached to each.
Monopole antenna:
This antenna has a more complicated design. A monopole antenna, as seen in figure 2,
consists of a single conductor, usually attached to the ground. Because of the use of
only one conductor, the monopole antenna has twice the gain of a similar dipole
antenna.
Loop antenna:
Loop antenna, as the name suggests, suggest of a loop of wire. Loop antennas, as seen
in figure 3, correspond directly with the magnetic field of the radio wave, which means
they are insensitive to electrical noise.
Quadrupole antenna:
As the name suggests, this antenna consists of 4 parts. This is the most complex form of
antenna and therefore not much used. As seen in figure 4, it consists of 4 monopole
antennas attached in order.
Question N 15
Correct Answer – B
Antenna shadowing
Terrain contours or obstacles close to the transmitting or receiving antenna, as well as
aircraft parts, partially block the radio signal, resulting in a weaker reception for the
same transmission power and distance, regardless of the type of wave propagation.
To minimize the adverse effects of antenna shading, it is important to place antennas on
aircraft in such locations where least shading can be expected in any normal flight
attitude. Antennas used for reception of ground -based facilities should be on the
underside of the aircraft while GPS antennas should be on the top.

Question N 16
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
MOUNTAIN EFFECT
Mountainous areas can cause both reflections and diffraction of the transmitted radio
waves to produce errors in ADF systems. Such errors increase at low altitude and can
be minimized by flying higher.
Note: The new learning objectives state the following "Describe diffraction of radio
waves in mountainous terrain (mountain effect)." => it seems that the correct option
for this question differs:
 EASA2016: reflection
 EASA2020: diffraction
Question N 17
Correct Answer – D
An aircraft uses a range of radio frequencies to navigate to its destination and
communicate with air traffic control. Aircraft short range communication uses VHF
band between 118 MHz and 137 MHz to talk with air traffic control.
These VHF frequencies have a line of sight capability, meaning that they travel in a
straight line whilst the surface of the Earth is a downward-curved surface (declination),
relative to the signal. Eventually, at a certain distance, the receiving aircraft will fall
out of the line-of-sight of the transmitter – because the signals normally do not follow
the curvature of the Earth

Question N 18
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
As show in the figure circular polarization of an electromagnetic wave is a polarization
state in which, at each point, the electromagnetic field of the wave has a cons tant
magnitude but its direction rotates at a constant rate in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of the wave.
Circular polarization can be applied into different uses. One of them is a helical
antennae.
In circular polarization the electrical field rotates at the frequency of the radiowave.
Circular polarization is used in radar systems because when the energy is reflected from
water droplets the circularity is reversed and therefore the so called ‘clutter’ of
precipitation can be eliminated.

Question N 19
Correct Answer – C
Learning Objective 062.01.01.03.04: State that the following abbreviations
(classifications according to International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
regulations) are used for aviation applications: N0N: carrier without modu lation as
used by non-directional radio beacons (NDBs); A1A: carrier with keyed Morse code
modulation as used by NDBs; A2A: carrier with amplitude modulated Morse code as
used by NDBs; A3E: carrier with amplitude modulated speech used for communication
(VHF-COM).

The ITU (International Telecommunication Union) produce a classification system for

each type of radio wave, describing in 3 characters how a radio wave is modulated.
Modulation is the act of putting information onto a radio wave, and includes pulse
modulation, frequency modulation or amplitude modulation. The first letter is how the
wave is modulated, the second character is what type of information is modulated onto
the wave (digital, analogue, etc.) and the third is the information output (m orse code,
voice, etc.).
The 3 character abbreviation for an old style NDB ident is A1A (These have keyed
morse code modulation, BFO mode must be used to here the ident.), and a newer NDB
ident is A2A (which has amplitude modulated morse code, so you can listen to it in
any mode). The NDB carrier wave is N0N; it is not modulated and carries no
information.
The learning objectives also state that we must know the classification for VHF
communication waves, which is A3E as per the above LO.
This is the limit of the learning objectives on these classifications. You do not need to
find and memorise the table.

Question N 20
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
Using simple mathematics, when an airplane is directly overhead a station it will read
the distance from the DME, but vertically instead of compared to the horizon. In this
question simply convert 36.000 ft to NM.
That gives the following:

1 NM 6076 ft ? = (36.000 ft. x 1 NM)/6076 = 5.92 NM = 6 NM

? 36.000 ft.

Question N 21
Correct Answer – B
Refer to Figure.
Learning Objective 062.01.01.03.03: State that HF meteorological information for
aircraft in flight (VOLMET) and HF two-way communication use a single sideband.
When we want to send information via radio waves, we have to modulate the ca rrier
wave somehow, this is the process of adding information to it. There are a few ways to
do this. In the early days of radio, it was done by sending pulse of the carrier wave as
morse code, pulse modulation. These days we can modulate the amplitude of the carrier
wave, to carry our information, or we can modulate the frequency slightly, to carry
information also.
Amplitude modulation is easier to do and far easier to represent visually. The peaks and
troughs of our carrier wave are modified to create ou r information wave over the top of
each peak, and the same information wave under each trough. The wave over the peaks
is one sideband, and the wave under the troughs is the other sideband. Two sidebands
are created, but when we send HF radio signals, we remove one sideband to reduce
the required power of the transmitter, and the required bandwidth. This means to
accept HF radio, our receiver has to be of the single-sideband (SSB) type.
This question is a bit too ambiguous, as it does not mention that we are picking up a
HF VOLMET broadcast in simple terms. Instead it hints at the HF part as it is a long -
haul flight currently en route, and that it is a VOLMET as they are trying to pick up
"meteorological information". The learning objective above is very cle ar on this
though, and once that LO is known, it is obvious what the question writer is getting at.
Question N 22
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 062.01.02.03.01: Name the common different types of directional
antennas: loop antenna used in old automatic direction -finding (ADF) receivers;
parabolic antenna used in weather radars; slotted planar array used in more modern
weather radars.

The loop antenna is a system which rotates and measures when a current output (due
to the incoming NDB signals) occurs. Due to the vertical polarisation of NDB signals
and the antenna rotation, there are 2 null points in the system (points of zero current),
where the antenna is completely perpendicular to the incoming signals, giving us 2
potential relative bearings. The sense aerial then tells us which of the two points the
NDB signal is coming from, and then this direction is outputted to an ADF indicator in
the cockpit.

Question N 23
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 062.01.01.03.03: State that HF meteorological information for
aircraft in flight (VOLMET) and HF two-way communication use a single sideband.
When we want to send information via radio waves, we have to modulate the carrier
wave somehow, this is the process of adding information to it. There are a few ways to
do this. In the early days of radio, it was done by sending pulse of the carrier wave as
morse code, pulse modulation. These days we can modulate the amplitude of the carrier
wave, to carry our information, or we can modulate the frequency slightly, to carry
information also.
Amplitude modulation is easier to do and far easier to represent visually. The peaks
and troughs of our carrier wave are modified to create our information wave over the
top of each peak, and the same information wave under each trough. The wave over the
peaks is one side band, and the wave under the troughs is the other side band. Two side
bands are created, but when we send HF radio signals, we remove one side band to
reduce the required power of the transmitter, and the required bandwidth . This means
that, for our uses, HF transmissions are single side band (SSB).
Question N 24
Correct Answer – A
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or
more properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a
modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted .
Most radio systems in the 20th century used frequency modulation (FM) or amplitude
modulation (AM) for radio broadcast.
Why Do We Need Modulation?
Practically speaking, modulation is required for;
 High range transmission
 Quality of transmission
 To avoid the overlapping of signals.
Difference Between AM And FM
Amplitude modulation and frequency modulation are used to transmit data using the
method of modifying a carrier signal.
The AM technique is totally different from frequency modulation and phase modulation
where the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in the first case and in the second
one the phase is varied respectively.
Refer to annex 1
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation is a modulation technique where the amplitude of a carrier varies
depending on the information signal.
AM radio broadcast signals use lower carrier frequencies, this helps them to travel long
distances.
Sometimes AM signals can be able to bounce off the ionosphere.
The distance travelled by the AM is much larger than the FM. (annex2)
Refer to annex 2
Frequency Modulation
In this module, the frequency of the carrier wave is modified according to the signal
that carries information.
The radio signals have large bandwidth than AM radio signals, which helps to offer
much better sound quality.
Frequency modulation also enables to transmit stereo signals.

Summary
Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency Modulation (FM)

The radio wave is called a carrier wave and The radio wave is called a carrier wave, but
the frequency and phase remain the same the amplitude and phase remain the same

Has poor sound quality, but can transmit Has higher bandwidth with better sound
longer distance quality

The frequency range of AM radio varies The frequency range of FM is 88 to 108

from 535 to 1705 kHz MHz in the higher spectrum

More susceptible to noise Less susceptible to noise

Question N 25
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
The ionosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the Earth which under intense solar
radiation acquire electrical properties that affect the passage of RF signals in two ways.
Signals passing into this region will be refracted or bent and will be attenuated (mainly
by the E and F layers). Electromagnetic waves refracted from the E and F layers of
the ionosphere are called sky waves.

Question N 26
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
Radio waves speed up over water due to the reduced absorption of energy (attenuation)
compared to what which occurs over land. This speeding up causes the wave front to
bend (refract) away from it’s normal path and pull it towards the coast.
For an aircraft flying over the sea the error puts the aircraft position closer to the coast
than its actual position.
The effect can be minimised by:
 Flying higher
 Using NDB’s on or near to the coast
 Using signals that cross the coast at or near to 90°
Question N 27
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
VDF (VHF Direction Finding) is a method of measuring the direction from which a
VHF signal came. It has been used for many decades now, and is particularly useful as
the transmitting aircraft only needs a standard VHF radio to ask for a VDF bearing
from a suitably equipped ATSU. This can give them:
QDM - Magnetic bearing from the aircraft to the station.
QDR - Magnetic bearing from the station to the aircraft.
QUJ - True bearing from the aircraft to the station.
QTE - True bearing from the station to the aircraft.
The antenna for a VDF ground station is called an Adcock aerial, and is shown in the
annex above. It is a series of standard dipole antennas in a circle, each receiving the
incoming wave in slightly different phase. the system (or operator) can then
calculate which direction the signal is coming from . Skilled radio operators can also
use the older style equipment to give a classification of how accurate the bearing was,
Class A, class B, etc.
Question N 28
Correct Answer – B
Very Low Frequency (VLF) appears in the 3 – 30 kHz frequency band. The great
benefit of VLF is that the radio waves propagate over great distances in the Earth -
ionosphere.
VLF radio waves can diffract around large obstacles and so are not blocked by
mountain ranges or the horizon, and can propagate as ground waves following the
curvature of the Earth. Ground waves are less important beyond several hundred to
thousands of miles, and the main mode of VLF transmitting is done by skywaves.
The ionosphere reflects some frequencies better than others. The waves bounce between
the ground and the ionosphere and make their way around the earth. Radio waves travel
better at night because the reflection characteristics of the ionosphere are better at
night.

Question N 29
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
Frequency, in physics, the number of waves that pass a fixed point in unit time; also,
the number of cycles or vibrations undergone during one unit of time by a body in
periodic motion. A body in periodic motion is said to have undergone one cycle or one
vibration after passing through a series of events or positions and returning to its
original state.
Usually frequency (f) is measured in the hertz unit (Hz) , named in honor of the 19th-
century German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. The hertz measurement is the
number of waves that pass by (cycle) per second. For example, an "A" note on a
violin string vibrates at about 440 Hz (440 vibrations per second).

Question N 30
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
As seen in the figure the Electric field (E-Field) is positioned horizontally compared to
the propagation direction and the Magnetic field (H-Field) is positioned vertically
compared to the propagation direction. This means that the waves are perpendicular to
eachother.
A vertical dipole antenna has the E-field working in vertical direction instead of
horizontal direction. This means that in order to receive the electrical field of the RF
transmission, the receiving antenna has to be aligned with the vertical dipole antenna in
the vertical plane.

Question N 31
Correct Answer – A
As seen in the table below, the Very Low Frequency (VLF) band reaches from 3 kHz to
30 kHz.

Frequency name Frequency Application

Very Low Frequency

3 - 30 kHz Nil
(VLF)

Low Frequency (LF) 30 - 300 kHz NDB/ADF

Medium Frequency 300 - 3000

NDB/ADF, long range communications
(MF) kHz
High Frequency (HF) 3 - 30 MHz Long range communications

Very High Frequency 30 - 300 Short range communication, VDF, VOR, ILS
(VHF) MHz Localizer, marker beacons

Ultra High Frequency 300 - 3000 ILS Glide Path, DME, SSR, Satelite
(UHF) MHz communications, GNSS, Long range radars

Super High
3 - 30 GHz RADALT, AWR, MLS, Short range radars
Frequency (SHF)

Extremely High 30 - 300

Nil
Frequency (EHF) GHz

Mnemonic to remember the frequency names:

Very (Very Low Frequency)
Lovely (Low Frequency)
Maidens (Medium Frequency)
Have (High Frequency)
Very (Very High Frequency)
Useful (Ultra High Frequency)
Sewing (Super High Frequency)
Equipment (Extremely High Frequency)

Question N 32
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
Electromagnetic radiation has the same properties as light. Light travels, just like
electromagnetic radiation, in waves. All electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of
300.000 km/s. Which is the same speed as light.
The main difference between electromagnetic waves and light waves is that
electromagnetic waves can have any wavelength or frequency.
Electromagnetic waves are categorized according to their frequency and wavelength:
 Waves that have a short wavelength and higher frequencies mainly include
ultraviolet light, xrays and gamma rays.
 Waves that have a longer wavelength and lower frequencies include infrared
light, microwaves and radio and television waves.
Question N 33
Correct Answer – B
To understand the meaning of ground wave propagation, it is important to understand
the meaning of radio wave propagation. Radio wave propagation is the behaviour of
radio waves as they propagate from one p oint to another or into various parts of the
atmosphere.
These waves propagation can be classified depending upon the frequencies as:
 Ground waves propagation
 Skywave propagation
 Free space propagation
Ground wave propagation is a type of radio propagation which is also known as a
surface wave. These waves propagate over the earth’s surface in low and medium
frequencies. These are mainly used for transmission between the surface of the earth
and the ionosphere. These are made up of the number of constituent waves. The reason
why it is known as a ground wave is that it is the sum of the waves that are reflected by
the earth’s surface or any hills. The waves follow the curvature of the earth enabling
them to cover beyond the horizon. Beyond the horizon, the wa ves get blocked by the
curvature of the earth and the signals are produced by the diffracted surface wave.
Advantages of Ground Wave Propagation
 These waves have the tendency to bend around the corners or obstructions
during propagation which makes them more efficient and also these are not
affected by the change in atmospheric conditions.
Disadvantages of Ground Wave Propagation
 High-frequency waves cannot be transmitted as the energy losses are more
because of the absorption of energy in the earth’s atmos phere.
 These are used to cover short ranges and also involves attenuation of waves as
they interact with the eddy currents produced by the surface of the earth.

Question N 34
Correct Answer – B
As seen in the table below, the Very Low Frequency (VLF) band reaches from 3 kHz to
30 kHz.

Frequency name Frequency Application

Very Low Frequency

3 - 30 kHz Nil
(VLF)

Low Frequency (LF) 30 - 300 kHz NDB/ADF

Medium Frequency 300 - 3000

NDB/ADF, long range communications
(MF) kHz

High Frequency (HF) 3 - 30 MHz Long range communications

Very High Frequency 30 - 300 Short range communication, VDF, VOR, ILS
(VHF) MHz Localizer, marker beacons

Ultra High Frequency 300 - 3000 ILS Glide Path, DME, SSR, Satelite
(UHF) MHz communications, GNSS, Long range radars

Super High
3 - 30 GHz RADALT, AWR, MLS, Short range radars
Frequency (SHF)

Extremely High 30 - 300

Nil
Frequency (EHF) GHz

Mnemonic to remember the frequency names:

Very (Very Low Frequency)
Lovely (Low Frequency)
Maidens (Medium Frequency)
Have (High Frequency)
Very (Very High Frequency)
Useful (Ultra High Frequency)
Sewing (Super High Frequency)
Equipment (Extremely High Frequency)
Question N 35
Correct Answer – B
ICAO Annex 3 — Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation
defines visibility for aeronautical purposes as the greater of the greatest distance at
which:
a) a black object of suitable dimensions, situated near the ground, can be seen and
recognized when observed against a bright background; and
b) lights in the vicinity of 1 000 candelas can be seen and identified against an unlit
background.

This question seems to be worded in a very tricky way, to try and make you guess 4 000
if you are not sure of the answer. The visibility is the distance we can see such a light
from, the light is always 1 000 candelas, but the visibility can change from day to day.
Note: This is a meteorology question which is out of the scope of RNAV. However, a
student has recently come across it during his/her RNAV exam. If it comes up under this
subject, you should appeal it.

Question N 36
Correct Answer – D
Airborne weather radar is a type of radar used to provide an indication to pilots of the
intensity of convective weather.Modern weather radars are mostly doppler radars,
capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to intensity of the
precipitation.
Airborne weather radar is typically Xband, pulse modulated and operating in the 8 -12
Ghz range with a wavelenght approx. 3 cm (remember well: 3 GHz -300GHz
correspond ro a wavelenght of 10cm-1mm).
The shape of the radar beam is very important in the design of a radar.For purposes of
airborne weather radar, a narrow beam is the most desirable because it concentrates
more energy on the target, which means more energy will come back in the echo.
Flat Plate antennas are better than dish antennas and larger antennas are better than
smaller antennas for concentrating the beam.The pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of a
radar will determine its maximum range.The PRF must be long enough to allow the
echo pulses to return from the maximum range target.
The longer the required range, the lower the PRF Scanning speed comes into play with
the PRF since a high scanning speed and low PRF would cause targets to be missed.At
least one pulse should be transmitted per a beam width of scan.Pulse width will
determine the minimum range of the radar and also the resolution size of the target.
If a target is close and the echo is reflected back to the radar while the transmitter pulse
is still being transmitted, then obviously that target will be missed.Most radars I have
worked with had a pulse width of less than 4 microseconds so this isn’t a problem.Also,
many radars will shorten their pulse width in map mode allowing a higher degree of
resolution for ground targets such as shorelines or islands.

Question N 37
Correct Answer – D
Radio Waves in frequency bands VHF, UHF, SHF, and EHF propagate mainly by means
of Space Wave, or Direct Line-of-Sight.

Question N 38
Correct Answer – D
Antenna shadowing
Shadowing by parts of an aircraft (such as a wing) may prevent signals from being
received if the antenna is not sited properly.
To minimize the adverse effects of antenna shading, it is important to place antennas on
aircraft in such locations where least shading can be expected in any normal flight
attitude. Antennas used for reception of ground -based facilities should be on the
underside of the aircraft while GPS antennas should be on t he top.

Question N 39
Correct Answer – A
ITU is known as low-speed data typically divided into 3 segments:
 The first segment, a letter, is the type of modulation.
 The second symbol, a number, is the type of modulating signal.
 The third segment, a letter, is the type of information that is being transmitted.
A1A is an abbreviation for the following:
 A = Double sideband amplitude modulation.
This indicates the bandwidth of the signal.
 1 = A single channel containing quantized or digital information without the use
of a modulating subcarrier.
  A = Telegraphy, for aural reception.

Question N 40
Correct Answer – A

 A = Refraction

Refraction is a radio wave that gets changed in direction when it’s passing from one
medium to the other.

 B = Absorption

Absorption is how electrons take up a photon’s energy, to change the electromagnetic

energy into internal energy.

 C = Reflection

Reflection of a radio wave is when the radio wave changes direction to the medium it is
projecting from.

Question N 41
Correct Answer – A
Light is an electromagnetic wave, and the electric field (E) of this wave oscillates
perpendicularly to the direction of propagation. Light is called unpolarized if the
direction of this electric field fluctuates randomly in time. Many common light sourc es
such as sunlight, halogen lighting, LED spotlights, and incandescent bulbs produce
unpolarized light. If the direction of the electric field of light is well defined, it is
called polarized light. The most common source of polarized light is a laser.
Depending on how the electric field is oriented, we classify polarized light into three
types of polarizations:
 Linear polarization: the electric field of light is confined to a single plane along
the direction of propagation
 Circular polarization: the electric field of light consists of two linear
components that are perpendicular to each other, equal in amplitude, but have a
phase difference of π/2. The resulting electric field rotates in a circle around the
direction of propagation and, depending on the rotation direction, is called left-
or right-hand circularly polarized light.
 Elliptical polarization: the electric field of light describes an ellipse. This results
from the combination of two linear components with differing amplitudes and/or
a phase difference that is not π/2. This is the most general description of
 polarized light, and circular and linear polarized light can be viewed as special
cases of elliptically polarized light.

Question N 42
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
Radio Frequency (RF) is the lowest portion in the electromagnetic spectrum familiar as
a medium of analogue and modern digital wireless communication system.It spreads in
the range between 3 KHz and 300 GHz.
All known transmission systems works in the RF spectrum range including analogue
radio, aircraft navigation, marine radio, amateur radio, TV broadcasting, mobile
networks and satellite systems.

Question N 43
Correct Answer – D
A Direct Reading Compass (DRC) gives the pilot a reading of the aircraft heading in
relation to two or more pivoted magnets. The magnets align themselves with the
horizontal components of the earth magnetic field.
During the flight the Direct Reading Compass (DRC) receives metallic interference
from the airframe and the indication would not be accurate anymore because the
magnets are not correctly aligned.
The reading of the Direct Reading Compass should be done during the pre -flight
serviceability test and be as accurately as possible to minimize the error of reading.
Question N 44
Correct Answer – C
Antenna shadowing
Terrain contours or obstacles close to the transmitting or receiving antenna, as well as
aircraft parts, partially block the radio signal, resulting in a weaker reception for the
same transmission power and distance, regard less of the type of wave propagation.
To minimize the adverse effects of antenna shading, it is important to place antennas on
aircraft in such locations where least shading can be expected in any normal flight
attitude. Antennas used for reception of grou nd-based facilities should be on the
underside of the aircraft while GPS antennas should be on the top.

Question N 45
Correct Answer – D
VOR beacons operate at shorter ranges and are free from most of the errors that afflict
NDBs.
They use line of sight frequencies in the VHF band (wavelenght from 10 m to 1 m
refer f) between 108 MHz and 117.975 MHz it means from 10m to 1 m.
Wave lenght “λ” ( in m) = Propagation speed “c” (in ms/s) ÷ Frequency “f” (in Hz)
Wave lenght “λ” ( in m) = 300 000 000 ÷ Frequency (between 108 000 000 and 117 975
000 Hz)
Result will be around 3 metres.
Between 108 MHz and 112 MHz the band is shared with ILS so VOR frequencies are
only allocated at even 100 KHz spacing
From 112 MHz to 117.975 MHz the band belongs to VOR alone and spa cing is reduced
to 50 KHz.Thus 108.2 MHz and 113.35 MHz would be VOR frequencies and 108.1
MHz would not.
Within the VOR ILS shared frequency range, the allocated frequencies are as follows:
VOR = EVEN 100 kHz numerals
108.00. 108.05, 108.20. 108.25 to 111.80. 111.85
ILS = ODD 100 kHz numerals
108.10. 108.15, 108.30. 108.35 t0 111.90. 111.95

Question N 46
Correct Answer – D
ADF Accuracy and Errors
ICAO requirement is an accuracy of ±6° with a signal-to-noise ratio no less than 3:1.
The ADF is subject to a number of potential errors:
Static
All forms of static can affect accuracy of the ADF. In snow and freezing rain
precipitation static reduces the accuracy and attenuation reduces the range of bearing
information.
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms in the vicinity act as radio beacons and can cause the needle to deviate
in their direction.
In conditions like this and where heavy static is present VHF aids should be used in
preference to ADF.
Night Effect
The principal propagation method of NDBs is the ground wave.
However it is possible for weak sky waves to be returned at night when the ionosphere
is less dense and attenuation is least.
Returning sky waves take a longer propagation path than ground waves so they are
often out of phase.
Night effect can be detected by listening for Fading on the carrier wave (BFO on) and
by the instrument hunting. It is most likely at dawn or dusk.
Station Interference
The long ground waves of LF and MF signals mean that occasionally signals from
stations on similar frequencies overlap.
This will not cause errors in the daytime if the stations are only used within the
protected range.
At night, returning sky waves can cause rogue signals at considerable range producing
the same problems as night effect.
Coastal Refraction
Speed of a surface wave is affected by the surface over which it travels (faster over
water than land).
This change of speed means the wave is refracted at low altitude as it passes over a
coastline.
Refraction is always towards the coast.
An aircraft receiving a refracted wave would give a false indication of the beacon's
position.
It will place the aircraft nearer to the coast than it actually is. This effect is worse the
further back from the coast the beacon is sited.
Quadrantal Error
The wave front from the NDB can be distorted by the aircraft's structure as it
approaches the aerial.
The error is called "quadrantal error" because the effect is worst for signals arriving
from 45° and 135° left and right of the nose, the four "quadrants".
Quadrantal error is small and predictable.
It can be compensated during the installation of the receiver aerial and any residual
errors can be shown on a quadrantal error card kept near the instrument.
Modern receivers completely remove it.
Dip
Dip occurs when the receiver sense aerial is masked by the loop aerial.
Dip gives large bearing errors, only occurs in a turn and is at its greatest when the NDB
is on a relative bearing of 45° and 135° left and right of the nose.
Mountain Effect
At low altitude multipath signals reflected from terrain can cause erroneous readingsi.
This effect diminishes with height as hills are further from the line of sight and
interfere less with the surface wave

Question N 47
Correct Answer – A
The distinctive words in this question are ‘Before Take-off’.
A Direct Reading Compass (DRC) gives the pilot a reading of the aircraft heading in
relation to two or more pivoted magnets. The magnets align themselves with the
horizontal components of the earth magnetic field.
During the flight the Direct Reading Compass (DRC) receives metallic interference
from the airframe and the indication would not be accurate anymore because the
magnets are not correctly aligned.
The reading of the Direct Reading Compass should be done before takeoff and as
accurately as possible to minimize the error of reading.

Question N 48
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 062.01.01.06.03: Describe ‘pulse modulation’: a modulation form
used in radar by transmitting short pulses followed by larger interruptions.

When we want to send information via radio waves, we have to modulate the carrier
wave somehow, this is the process of adding information to it. There are a few ways to
do this. In the early days of radio, it was done by sending pulses of the carrier wa ve as
morse code, pulse modulation. These days we can modulate the amplitude of the carrier
wave, to carry our information, or we can modulate the frequency slightly, to carry
information also.

Many RADARs are so-called "Pulse RADARs", as they operate by transmitting a

very short pulse of a particular frequency, then they wait for a much longer time to
receive a potential reflection off an object in that direction. Any such reflections are
called returns, and the time between the pulse and the return can be used to calculate
the distance to the object, as these pulses travel at the speed of light.
This means that the pulse returns carry time data, which is information that the
RADAR can use. These RADARs usually scan from side to side, and do this process
hundreds or thousands of times per second, which allows obect locations to be plotted
on a display. This is a modern usage of pulse modulation.

Question N 49
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
A skip zone is a region where a radio transmission can not be received. Radio waves
which travel near to the ground (groundwave) and towards the ionosphere (skywaves)
have a skip zone. The skip zone is a region between the farthest point at which the
groundwave can be received and the nearest point at which the r efracted skywaves can
be received.
The skip zone is a natural phenomenon that can never be influenced by technical
means. It can only be reduced by decreasing the frequency of the radio waves.
Reducing the frequency can be done by increasing the ionospheric width.
Question N 50
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 062.01.03.05.01: State that the Doppler effect is the phenomenon
where the frequency of a wave will increase or decrease if there is relative motion
between the transmitter and the receiver.

The Doppler effect is where waves have a slightly higher detected frequency when the
transmitter and receiver are coming together, but a lower frequency when moving
apart (see the above annex, it occurs for EM waves and sound waves). It is
a measurable difference, as we often know the precise frequency that we should be
picking up, and so small variations from that can tell us if a transmitter or a reflector is
moving towards or away from us, and at what speed.
The Doppler effect occurs everywhere from astronomy (Redshift) to the sound of an
ambulance passing us in the street. In aviation, we make use of the effect in modern
Doppler VORs, GNSS systems and radars, for MTI (moving target indication) and
turbulence detection.
The best way to answer these questions is by thinking of a loud car (an ambulance with
sirens on, a car honking its horn, etc.) going past you. The frequency (pitch) of the
sound starts high, but decreases as the vehicle passes, and stays low whilst the vehicle
is moving away. Therefore the frequency is increased when moving together,
and reduced when moving apart.
Question N 51
Correct Answer – D
Radio waves at Medium Frequency wavelengths propagate via ground waves and
reflection from the ionosphere called skywaves. Ground waves follow the curvature of
the Earth. At these wavelengths they can bend (diffract) over hills, and travel beyond
the visual horizon.
Medium Frequency waves can also travel longer distances via skywave propagation, in
which radio waves radiated at an angle into the sky are reflected back to Earth by layers
of charged particles in the ionosphere, the E and F-layers.
At night, especially in winter months and at times of low solar activity, the ionospheric
D-layer van virtually disappear. When this happens Medium Frequency skywaves can
easily be received hundreds or even thousands of miles away as the signal will be
refracted by the remaining F-layer.

Question N 52
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
When we want to send information via radio waves , we have to modulate the carrier
wave somehow, this is the process of adding information to it. There are a few ways to
do this. In the early days of radio, it was done by sending pulse of the carrier wave as
morse code, pulse modulation. These days we ca n modulate the amplitude of the carrier
wave, to carry our information, or we can modulate the frequency slightly, to carry
information also.
Amplitude modulation is easier to do and far easier to represent visually, as shown
above. The peaks and troughs of our carrier wave are modified to create our
information wave over the top of each peak, and the same information wave under each
trough. The wave over the peaks is one sideband, and the wave under the troughs is the
other sideband. These signals are carried along by the carrier wave, and then decoded in
a receiver unit back to their original state, giving voice messages in the case of VHF.
If a transmitter was faulty, it may not be able to encode the voice message information
onto the carrier wave, and so may be able to send the carrier wave only, with no
modulation. This would sound like clicks, or crackles down the radio, similar to what
can be heard when a pilot presses the Push To Talk (PTT) button but says nothing. This
carrier wave can be used to send signals in morse code if necessary, effectively going
back to the days of pulse modulation.
Question N 53
Correct Answer – C
A directional antenna or beam antenna is an antenna which radiates or receives greater
power in specific directions allowing increased performance and reduced interference
from unwanted sources. In other words, directional antennas send and receive signals in
one direction only, usually in a tightly focused, very narrow beam.
Directional antennas come in a variety of shapes, sizes and designs that fluctuate
widely according to their intended purpose.
Common designs include:
 Slotted planar array antennas
 Loop antennas
 Parabolic or ‘dish’ antennas
 Helical antennas

Question N 54
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 062.01.01.03.03: State that HF meteorological information for
aircraft in flight (VOLMET) and HF two-way communication use a single sideband.
Learning Objective 062.01.03.04.02: State that radio waves in LF, MF and HF
propagate as surface/ground waves and sky waves.
This question contains a mixture of two different learning objectives, one is to know
which frequency range of radio waves use a single side band (HF), and the second is to
know how HF waves propagate.

When we want to send information via radio waves, we have to modulate the carrier
wave somehow, this is the process of adding information to it. There are a few ways to
do this. In the early days of radio, it was done by sending pulses of the carrier wave as
morse code, pulse modulation. These days we can modulate the amplitude of the carrier
wave, to carry our information, or we can modulate the frequency slightly, to carry
information also.

Amplitude modulation is easier to do and far easier to represent visually. The peaks and
troughs of our carrier wave are modified to create our information wave over the top of
each peak, and the same information wave under each trough. The wave over the peaks
is one side band, and the wave under the troughs is the other side band. Two sid e bands
are created, but when we send HF radio signals, we remove one side band to reduce the
required power of the transmitter, and the required bandwidth. This means that HF
transmissions are single side band (SSB).

Also to note, HF radio waves are between 3 - 30 MHz (the range just below familiar
VHF), and they travel as both ground waves (clinging on to the surface of the earth -
also called surface waves) and sky waves (bouncing off the ionosphere). This can
actually cause some interference when the two meet, especially at night when the
ionosphere is lower.
Question N 55
Correct Answer – D
PULSE LENGTH
Pulse length is also known as pulse width or pulse duration. As a general definition, we
can say that pulse length is the nominal duration of a standard pulse, which is the time
interval between the half-amplitude points on the rise and decay points of the curve. It
is a measurement of how long a pulse is.

Question N 56
Correct Answer – B
Wave lenght “λ” ( in m) = (Propagation speed “c” (in ms/s ) ÷ Frequency “f” (in Hz)) / 2
Firs step is to transform our Frequency “f” from MHz to HZ
110 MHz = 110 000 000 HZ
Propagation speed “c” is a costant: 300 000 000 m/s or 162 000 NM/s
X = (300 000 000 ÷ 110 000 000) / 2
X = 1.36 m
X (cm) = 1.36 (m) x 100 = 136 cm

Question N 57
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
Radio waves speed up over water due to the reduced absorption of energy (attenuation)
compared to that which occurs over land. This speeding up causes the wave front to
bend (refract) away from it’s normal path and pull it towards the coast.
Refraction is negligible at 90 degrees to the coast(perpendicular to shoreline) but
increases as the angle of incidence decreases. As seen in the figure the refraction of the
radio waves is at it’s maximum from 0 – 30 degrees from the shoreline.
Therefore if there is a NDB station near to the coast, most erroneous readings occur
when you are at acute angles.
Question N 58
Correct Answer – C
Modulation: process of mixing a signal with a sinusoid to produce a new signal.This
new signal, conceivably, will have certain benefits over an un-modulated
signal.Mixing of low frequency signal with high frequency carrier signal is called
modulation.
The sinusoidal signal that is used in the modulation is known as the carrier signal, or
simply "the carrier".
The signal that is used in modulating the carrier signal (or sinusoidal signal) is known
as the "data signal" or the "message signal".A carrier wave is a pure wave of constant
frequency, a bit like a sine wave.
By itself it doesn’t carry much information that we can relate to (such as speech or
data).To include speech information or data information, another wave needs to be
imposed, called an input signal, on top of the carrier wave.
This process of imposing an input signal onto a carrier wave is called modulation.
In other words, modulation changes the shape of a carrier wave to somehow encode the
speech or data information that we were interested in carrying.
Modulation is like hiding a code inside the carrier wave.
Recall that any wave has three basic properties:
1. Amplitude – the height of the wave
2. Frequency – a number of waves passing through in a given second
3. Phase – where the phase is at any given moment.
Question N 59
Correct Answer – C
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has designated the type of amplitude
modulations:

Designation Description

A3E AM speech communication (as used for

aeronautical VHF communications).
Double side-band full carrier on VHF and
UHF: the basic Amplitude modulation
scheme

R3E Single-sideband reduced carrier

H3E Single-sideband full-carrier

J3E Single-sideband suppressed-carrier on HF

B8E Independent-sideband emission

C3F Vestigial-sideband

Question N 60
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.

Radio waves can propagate in many different ways. The most common is as a "space
wave". This is what most people think of when it comes to radio transmission, as this is
line of sight, meaning that the radio waves travel in straight lines only.
Another propagation path is via ground waves, which "cling" to the surface and follow
the contours of the Earth.
The third method of propagation is via sky waves, which are space waves that interact
with the charged particles in the ionosphere. When these waves reach the
ionosphere, the subsequent ionospheric attenuation refracts the waves, changing their
course, until the waves are heading downwards again. This is often referred to as
"reflection" by EASA, so do not be confused; it is refraction that occurs, it just looks
like the reflection from afar, and they use the terms almost interchangeably.
The "skip distance" is the distance away from the transmitter where the first sky
wave returns to the surface after bouncing off the ionosphere. This can create a
dead zone of reception for some frequencies which travel as both ground and sky
waves, as, for example the ground waves might stop at 100 nm, but the sky waves only
begin at 200 nm (these numbers are not even close to correct).
Higher frequencies receive less ionospheric attenuation, therefore refracting less, and
not bending as sharply in the ionosphere. This means that higher frequency radio
signals do not "bounce" off the ionosphere at steep angles, thus making the skip
distance longer. See the second annex above.
The height of the ionosphere also makes a difference, a higher ionosphere means that
the signals will travel further before reaching the level where refraction begins, and
will travel further on the way back down also. This means that a higher ionosphere
contributes to a longer skip distance.

Question N 61
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
A skip distance is the distance a radio wave travels. It is a distance measured along the
curvature of the earth between two points where radio waves from a transmitter,
refracted downwards by different layers of the ionosphere, comes back to the earth’s
surface.
Radio waves from the transmitting antenna do not all get refracted by the ionosphere.
Depending upon the refractive index of each of the layers in the ionosphere it is
determined what happens to the transmitted radio waves. Some of them are absorbed,
some are refracted and some manage to escape to the next layer.
At this higher layer usually the radio waves bent down to earth again.
Because of the different heights in the ionosphere the radio waves hit the earth’s
surface at different points, that’s why there is referred to a skip distance. Skip distance
is greatest during the night when the ionosphere is the highest.
Question N 62
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 062.01.01.06.01: Define ‘amplitude modulation’: the information
that is impressed onto the carrier wave by altering the amplitude of the carrier.

When we want to send information via radio waves, we have to modulate the carrier
wave somehow, this is the process of adding information to it . There are a few ways
to do this. In the early days of radio, it was done by sending pulses of the ca rrier wave
as morse code, pulse modulation. These days we can modulate the amplitude of the
carrier wave, to carry our information, or we can modulate the frequency slightly, to
carry information also.
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is shown in the annex above, which is the easiest to get an
understanding of how modulation works. We "overlay" an information wave on top
of the carrier wave, so the information is carried without needing another
transmission, and then the carrier wave is just removed in the receiver, but the
information remains intact. AM is quite sensitive to noise (hisses and crackles) and it
also produces two "side bands" of information, one wave at the top, on at the bottom, of
which one can be removed to save on power and bandwidth, as is done with HF
communications in aviation.
Question N 63
Correct Answer – B
Antenna shadowing
Shadowing by parts of an aircraft (such as a wing) may prevent signals from being
received if the antenna is not sited properly.
To minimize the adverse effects of antenna shading, it is important to place antennas on
aircraft in such locations where least shading can be expected in any normal flight
attitude. Antennas used for reception of ground -based facilities should be on the
underside of the aircraft while GPS antennas should be on the top.

Question N 64
Correct Answer – A
 A = Ground wave
The ground wave follows the curvature of the earth. It is ideal for relatively short
distance propagation in the low and medium frequency during daytime.
  B = Sky wave & space wave
Sky waves travel directly from antenna to receiver.
Space waves can travel through the atmosphere from the transmitter to the receiver.
Directly or after reflection from ground into the atmosphere.
 C = Skip zone
The skip zone, also known as silent zone, is a specific region where a transmission of
radio waves cannot be received.
 D = Skip distance
The skip distance refers to the distance between the transmitter and receiver measured
over the earth’s surface.

Question N 65
Correct Answer – B
A Primary Radar is a conventional radar sensor that illuminates a large portion of space
with an electromagnetic wave and receives back the reflected waves from targets within
that space.
Primary Radar is used to detect aircraft not equipped with a Secondary Radar
Transponder.
In order to achieve this function the Primary Radar uses a directional antenna.
A directional antenna or beam antenna is an antenna which radiates or receives greater
power in specific directions allowing increased performance and r educed interference
from unwanted sources. Ideally to use for Air Traffic Control Services to serve a large
number of aircrafts.

Question N 66
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figures.
Learning Objective 062.01.02.03.01: Name the common different types of directional
antennas: loop antenna used in old automatic direction -finding (ADF)
receivers; parabolic antenna used in weather radars; slotted planar array used in more
modern weather radars.

Radars such as AWRs (Airborne Weather Radars) have to be able t o send pulses of
electromagnetic radiation in one direction all at once. This is more difficult than it
sounds, due to the way that these waves are produced.
Parabolic Antenna
The older method of directing this energy was by using a parabolic reflector dis h,
which is a shape that reflects all radiation from the focal point in the middle outwards
in the same direction, and vice versa, any radiation from that direction is reflected onto
the focal point in the middle. This allows for a transmitter/receiver dev ice to be placed
in the focal point, facing backwards towards the dish, and for its transmissions to go
forwards, ahead of the aircraft, and receive the reflected pulses indicating the presence
of weather.
One of the biggest problems with the parabolic ant enna is the side lobes. The formation
of this "main beam" of radiation does cause some unwanted extra radiation, called side
lobes, which send some of the energy in a different direction than intended, and can
cause some spurious and incorrect responses on the radar screen.
Slotted Planar Array / Flat Plate Antenna / Phased Array
These types of radars use a more efficient modern technique, by having a flat plate with
numerous waveguide-size slots cut into it, it can produce a similar beam to the
parabolic antenna with much smaller sidelobes. The lesser side lobes means that
there are less spurious returns and that there is less wasted energy, meaning that less
energy is needed for the same radar scan.
The main beam (main lobe) of a slotted planar array can also be made thinner than the
parabolic antenna beam, which would use even less energy, allowing for increased
range, or just lower energy consumption.
Note: The reduction in side lobes is the main improvement referred to in the question ,
but there is also an option which mentions the reduced beam width. Whilst the beam
width is thinner for a modern flat plate antenna, the use of the word "considerably"
does make that option more specific, and less likely to be correct. This is backed up
with feedback showing that the "reduced side lobe" answer is considered correct by
EASA.
Question N 67
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figures.
Learning Objective 062.01.03.06.01: Define ‘skip distance’: the distance between the
transmitter and the point on the surface of the Earth where the first sky wave return
arrives.

Radio waves can propagate in many different ways. The most common is as a "space
wave". This is what most people think of when it comes to radio transmission, as this is
line of sight, meaning that the radio waves travel in straight lines only, so you can only
receive a signal if you are within Line-of-Sight (LOS).
Another propagation path is via ground waves, these are used by NDBs in order to
transmit their simple signals long distances following the curvature of the
Earth. Ground waves (surface waves) follow the contours of the surface, making their
ranges drastically reduced by mountainous terrain, and extended over seas.
The third method of propagation is via sky waves, which are space waves that interact
with the charged particles in the ionosphere. When these waves reach the
ionosphere, the subsequent ionospheric attenuation refracts the waves, changing their
course, until the waves are heading downwards again. This is often referred to as
"reflection" by EASA, so do not be confused; it is refraction that occurs, it just looks
like the reflection from afar, and they use the terms almost interchangeably.
The "skip distance" is the distance away from the transmitter where the first sky
wave returns to the surface after bouncing off the ionosphere. This can create a
dead zone of reception for some frequencies which travel as both ground and sky
waves, as, for example the ground waves might stop at 100 nm, but the sky waves only
begin at 200 nm (these numbers are not even close to correct).

Question N 68
Correct Answer – B
Antenna shadowing
Terrain contours or obstacles close to the transmitting or receiving antenna partially
block the radio signal, resulting in a weaker reception for the same transmission power
and distance, regardless of the type of wave propagation.
To minimize the adverse effects of antenna shading, it is important to place antennas on
aircraft in such locations where least shading can be expected in any normal flight
attitude. Antennas used for reception of ground -based facilities should be on the
underside of the aircraft while GPS antennas should be on the top.

Question N 69
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
Use the simplified standard formulae:
λ (in meters) = (c (300))/(f(in MHz))
With this question there is a different unit of frequency.
As seen in the figure, 1 MHz equals 1.000.000 Hz.
Meaning that 1MHz is the same as 1000 kHz.
To convert 427 kHz to MHz use a simple scheme so that the following can be
calculated:

1 MHz 1000 kHz

? 427 kHz

This results in the following:

(427 kHz x 1MHz)/(1000 kHz) = ? = 0.427 MHz.
If we fill this in in the standard formulae we get the following:
λ = 300/(0.427 MHz) = 702.5 meters.
Question N 70
Correct Answer – A
ADF
The ADF is subjected to a number of potential errors:
 Static interference (precipitation and thunderstorms) Station interference;
 Night effect;
 Mountain effect;
 Coastal refraction;
 Quadrantal error;
 Bank angle (dip);
 Lack of failure warning.
However, the error which reduces ADF accuracy during a bank/turn is known as
Bank Angle (dip) error => When an aircraft is in a turn, the loop antenna position is
compromised. The effect is that, when in a turn and pointing to or from a station, the
ADF needle will dip by up to 10º towards the low wing, causing the ADF instrument to
be off balance. This error is only present when the aircraft is not in level flight.

Question N 71
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 062.01.01.03.01: List the bands of the frequency spectrum for
electromagnetic waves: very low frequency (VLF): 3-30 kHz; low frequency (LF): 30-
300 kHz; medium frequency (MF): 300-3 000 kHz; high frequency (HF): 3-30
MHz; very high frequency (VHF): 30-300 MHz; ultra-high frequency (UHF): 300-3
000 MHz; super high frequency (SHF): 3-30 GHz; extremely high frequency (EHF): 30 -
300 GHz.

Each frequency band is effectively a logarithmic band which begins at one frequency
value, and ends at the frequency value 10x higher. They all begin with the numb er 3,
and are of different orders of magnitude.
VHF is the best known frequency band by pilots, as that is the frequency our radios use
for transmissions to ATC. VHF waves exist between frequencies of 30 MHz and 300
MHz. A good way of remembering all the frequency bands is having VHF as a "starter
band", and we can say that a well known VHF frequency of 121.5 MHz is between 30
and 300 MHz, so therefore we can create the bands with frequencies above (UHF, SHF
and EHF) and below that (HF, MF, LF and VLF), us ing multiples of 10.
There is a saying to remember the order, using the first letters, "Very Lovely Maidens
Have Very Useful Sewing Equipment".
The only answer that exists completely between 30 and 300 MHz is "90 MHz to 295
MHz".
Question N 72
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
Fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath-induced
fading, weather (rain), or shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave propagation,
sometimes referred to as shadow fading.
Medium frequency is mainly used for AM broadcasting. During daytime, only local
stations can be received. Propagation in the night allows strong signals within a range
of about 2000 km. Naturally, because of the long distance travel affecting the wave
propagation, fading occurs most likely in the lower frequency bands.

Question N 73
Correct Answer – A
DME measures the straight-line distance from the aircraft to the ground station in the
order of 200-300 NM depending on the aircraft height.This is called "slant rang e" and
is slightly more than the actual horizontal distance because of the difference in
elevation between the aircraft and the station.
The most extreme case of "slant range error" occurs when the aircraft passes directly
over the station; instead of reading zero, the DME shows the altitude of the airplane
above the station (in nautical miles).Slant range error also affects groundspeed and
time-to-station displays when you're close to the station.Displayed DME groundspeed
drops below actual groundspeed as you approach the station and then climbs back to
normal after you pass it.Displayed DME time-to-station may not count all the way
down to zero as you fly over the station.
The DME range (slant range) can be calculated using the following formula:
Slant Range = 1.23 (√H1 + √H2 )
H1 = altitude of the aircraft (ft)
H2 = elevation of the DME station (ft)
In our case:
FL210 ft correspond at 21000ft
Slant Range = 1.23 (√21000 + √0 )
Slant Range = 1.23 x 144.9
Slant Range = 178.2 NM
With the aircraft at a distance of 220 NM we can say that at FL 210 it is beyond the
maximum theoretical range or below the line of sight minimum altitude for this
distance.

Question N 74
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 062.01.01.03.03: State that HF meteorological information for
aircraft in flight (VOLMET) and HF two-way communication use a single sideband.
Learning Objective 062.01.03.04.02: State that radio waves in LF, MF
and HF propagate as surface/ground waves and sky waves.

This question contains a mixture of two different learning objectives, one is to know
which frequency range of radio waves use a single side band (HF), and the second is to
know how HF waves propagate.

When we want to send information via radio waves, we have to modulate the carrier
wave somehow, this is the process of adding information to it. There are a few ways to
do this. In the early days of radio, it was done by sending pulse of the carrier wave as
morse code, pulse modulation. These days we can modulate the amp litude of the carrier
wave, to carry our information, or we can modulate the frequency slightly, to carry
information also.
Amplitude modulation is easier to do and far easier to represent visually. The peaks and
troughs of our carrier wave are modified to create our information wave over the top of
each peak, and the same information wave under each trough. The wave over the peaks
is one side band, and the wave under the troughs is the other side band. Two side bands
are created, but when we send HF radio signals, we remove one side band to reduce
the required power of the transmitter, and the required bandwidth. This means that HF
transmissions are single side band (SSB).
Also to note, HF radio waves are between 3 - 30 MHz (the range just below familiar
VHF), and they travel as both surface waves (clinging on to the surface of the earth)
and sky waves (bouncing off the ionosphere).
Question N 75
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
The phase angle is referred to the fraction of a phase.
As shown in the figure a phase is divided into 4 parts:
After 1/4th of a phase the phase angle equals 90 degrees.
After 2/4th of a phase the phase angle equals 180 degrees.
After 3/4th of a phase the phase angle equals 270 degrees.
And after an entire phase the phase angle is 360 degrees.

Question N 76
Correct Answer – B
HF propagation over long distances during day and night is by skywave
propagation originated by the reflection and refraction of radio waves between Earth's
surface and the ionosphere. HF Radio waves can be reflected by the ionosphere and the
earth's surface and propagate long distance from the transmitter to the receiver with
several hops. Path loss of sky wave propagation varies with different conditions of
ionosphere and types of the earth's surfaces.
The ionosphere is a consequence of radiation from the sun ionizing Earth's atmosphere,
so it changes significantly with time of day and sunspot activity. The F layer is mostly
responsible for the refraction of radio waves back to Earth, preventing them from
escaping to space. The other layers interact in other ways. During the day, the D layer
forms, and the F layer splits into F1 and F2 layers.The D layer is present during the day
and is a good absorber of radio waves, increasing losses ( for MF and LF power loss is
so high that sky-wave propagation is not possible for them).
Hf frequency can propagate like ground wave as well but their range is very
small: as the wavefront of the ground wave travels along the Earth's surface it is
attenuated. The degree of attenuation is dependent upon a variety of factors. Frequency
of the radio signal is one of the major determining factor as losses rise with increasing
frequency. As a result, it makes this form of propagation impracticable above the
bottom end of the HF portion of the spectrum (3 MHz). Typically a signal at 3.0 MHz
will suffer an attenuation that may be in the region of 20 to 60 dB more than one at 0.5
MHz dependent upon a variety of factors in the signal path including the distance. In
view of this it can be seen why even high power HF radio broadcast stations may only
be audible for a few miles from the transmitting site via the ground wave

Question N 77
Correct Answer – B
Radio transmissions travel through the sky and receive multiple interferences . As
shown in the diagram, there are sky waves and ground waves being directed form the
transmitter to the receiver.
Fading is a variation of a signal. Fading in radio waves may be caused by multiple
interferences such as weather (mainly rain), or shadowing from obstacles affecting the
wave propagation.

.............................................................................................................................................................

Release date: 2022.12.04.

Question N° 78
Correct Answer – D
The message transmitted form the GBAS ground facility to the aircraft contains one
or more data sets that contain Final Approach Segment (FAS) data.
Each data set is transmitted with the associated vertical/lateral alert limits:
 FAS, MA Vertical Alert Limit (FASVAL)
 FAS, MA Lateral Alert Limit (FASLAL)
Each Final Approach Segment (FAS) data block contains the parameters that define a
single precision approach.
It is self-contained and includes a means to preserve integrity from the time it is
generated and validated to the time that it is used in airborne equipment.
All of the information necessary to describe the paths and its designation i s contained
within it.
This primarily includes the following:
 Airport identification
 Runway designation and position
 Procedure type (provides flexibility for advanced procedures such as departure
or curved approach)
 Procedure name
 Runway surveyed points defining the FAS path.
The FAS path is a line in space defined by the following parameters:
 Landing Threshold Point or Fictitious Threshold Point (LTP/FTP)
 Flight Path Alignment Point (FPAP)
 LTP/FTP height
 Threshold Crossing Height (TCH)
 Glide Path Angle (GPA)

Question N° 79
Correct Answer – B
In navigation, dead reckoning is the process of calculating current position of aircraft
by using a previously determined position, or fix, and then incorporating estimates of
speed, heading direction, and course over elapsed time. You may need it during flight,
when you don't have adequate equipment and enough navigational aids to determine
your position.

Question N° 80
Correct Answer – A
The User Equivalent Range Error (UERE) is the maximum position error that has to be
expected by the user and can be calculated as the square root of the sum of all
individual errors squared (ionospheric propagation delay, satellite clock error, satellite
orbital variations, multipath propagation). UERE is therefore the value of all residual
errors affecting the receiver position after attempts have been made to compensate.
The actual position error to be expected is however not only affected by UERE.
Another factor is the Geometric Dilution of Position (GDOP).
The total position error can be computed by multiplying UERE by GDOP.
Question N° 81
Correct Answer – A
One of the biggest differences between a Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) and a
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) is that the PSR relies on the reception of a
reflected pulse (the echo of the transmitted pulse). On the other hand, Secondary radar
(SSR), receives pulses transmitted by the target in response to interrogation pulses - has
the ability to interrogate an aircraft (using a transponder)and elicit replies.

Question N° 82
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
ICAO Doc 8168
1.4.7 DME arc entry
DME arc entry: At the fix, the aircraft shall enter the holding pattern in accordance
with either the Sector 1 or Sector 3 entry procedure.

Sector 1 procedure => parallel entry.

Sector 2 procedure => offset entry.
Sector 3 procedure => direct entry.
Question N° 83
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figures.
Learning Objective 062.01.03.06.01: Define ‘skip distance’: the distance between the
transmitter and the point on the surface of the Earth where the first sky wave return
arrives.

Radio waves can propagate in many different ways. The most common is as a "space
wave". This is what most people think of when it comes to radio transmission, as this is
line of sight, meaning that the radio waves travel in straight lines only, so you can only
receive a signal if you are within Line-of-Sight (LOS).
Another propagation path is via ground waves, these are used by NDBs in order to
transmit their simple signals long distances following the curvature of the
Earth. Ground waves (surface waves) follow the contours of the surface, making their
ranges drastically reduced by mountainous terrain, and extended over seas.
The third method of propagation is via sky waves, which are space waves that interact
with the charged particles in the ionosphere. When these waves reach the
ionosphere, the subsequent ionospheric attenuation refracts the waves, changing their
course, until the waves are heading downwards again. This is often referred to as
"reflection" by EASA, so do not be confused; it is refraction that occurs, it just looks
like the reflection from afar, and they use the terms almost interchangeably.
The "skip distance" is the distance away from the transmitter where the first sky
wave returns to the surface after bouncing off the ionosphere . This can create a
dead zone of reception for some frequencies which travel as both ground and sky
waves, as, for example the ground waves might stop at 100 nm, but the sky waves only
begin at 200 nm (these numbers are not even close to correct).

Question N° 84
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
A skip zone is a region where a radio transmission can not be received. Radio waves
which travel near to the ground (groundwave) and towards the ionosphere (skywaves)
have a skip zone. The skip zone is a region between the farthest point at which the
groundwave can be received and the nearest point at which the refracted skywaves can
be received.
The skip zone is a natural phenomenon that can never be influenced by technical
means. It can only be reduced by decreasing the frequency of the radio waves.
Reducing the frequency can be done by increasing the ionospheric width.
Question N° 85
Correct Answer – D
Mode S does not transmit the P3 pulse, but has an additional P4 pulse, which can be
either long or short in duration.

 Intermode A/C/S All Call: Interrogation will consist of P1, P2, P3 and the long P4
pulses.
 Intermode A/C only All Call: Interrogation will consist of P1, P2, P3 and
the short P4 pulses.

Question N° 86
Correct Answer – D
A narrow conical beam is used for weather detection that is approximately 5º in beam
width, called a pencil beam.
The scanner tilt used for ground mapping with the conical beam is a function of aircraft
height and the mapping range.

Question N° 87
Correct Answer – A
Civil aircraft may be equipped with transponders capable of operating in different
modes:
 Mode A equipment transmits an identifying code only.
 Mode C equipment enables the ATCO to see the aircraft altitude or flight level
automatically.
 Mode S equipment has altitude capability and also permits data exchange.
Mode C or S equipment is a mandatory requirement for many busy areas of controlled
airspace.
Transponders have an “Ident” facility which causes the aircraft radar response to stand
out when the pilot operates the Ident switch in the cockpit.
This should only be operated upon ATC request
NOTE: The Mode C reply provides height increments of 100 feet,
which was initially adequate for monitoring aircraft separated by at least 1000 feet.
However, as airspace became increasingly congested,
it became important to monitor whether aircraft were not moving out of their assigned
flight level.
A slight change of a few feet could cross a threshold and be indicated as the next
increment up and a change of 100 feet.
Smaller increments were desirable

Question N° 88
Correct Answer – D
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)
RAIM is a technique which uses extra GNSS satellites to improve the integrity of
GNSS location data. Instead of the 4 satellite ranges required for a 3D GNSS fix , using
5 satellites can mean that the onboard RAIM system can continuously
measure different sets of 4 signals, making sure that every f ix is consistent with the
others. Each fix excludes 1 satellite, so the receiver knows if they are all correct or not,
thereby noticing if any one satellite becomes faulty, as all the seperate fixes will then
be different from each other. This can tell us within a few seconds if a satellite that we
are using becomes faulty, rather than waiting a potential 3 hours for it to be noticed and
taken offline. This RAIM feature is called Fault Detection (FD). It does not tell us
which is the faulty satellite, as this is mathematically impossible to work out with so
little data

If we use a second extra satellite, (a total of 6 for a 3D fix), then we can also reliably
calculate which is the faulty satellite and remove it from usage, called Fault Detection
and Exclusion (FDE).

The amount of required satellites can be reduced by 1 for 2D fixes, but these are not
used unless barometric altitude is fed to the GNSS system, which can allow an extra
"range sphere", and effectively acts like another satellite. This is an Air -Based
Augmentation System and occurs in a different place in the learning objectives.

Question N° 89
Correct Answer – C
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is a secondary radar system that provides slant
range using the pulse technique. The aircraft’s interrogator transmits a stream of omni-
directional pulses on the carrier frequency of the ground transponder.
The output of a modern ground beacon is around 2700 pulse pairs per second. Once the
ground beacon is receiving 2700 pps it becomes saturated and it reduces the receiver
gain. Once the ground beacon is reducing the receiver gain, the aircraft from which the
weakest pulse pairs are received will be denied a DME-range. The maximum number of
interrogations at the same time is 100 aircraft.

Question N° 90
Correct Answer – C
Learning Objective 062.02.01.02.03: Explain that by using more than one ground
station, the position of an aircraft can be determined and transmitted to the pilot.

VDF (VHF Direction Finding) is a method of measuring the direction from which a
VHF signal came. It has been used for many decades now, and is particularly useful as
the transmitting aircraft only needs a standard VHF radio to ask for a VDF bearing
from a suitably equipped ATSU. This can give them:
QDM - Magnetic bearing from the aircraft to the station.
QDR - Magnetic bearing from the station to the aircraft.
QUJ - True bearing from the aircraft to the station.
QTE - True bearing from the station to the aircraft.
With this information, the pilots can plot the lo cation of their aircraft on a chart by
drawing a true radial (QTE) outbound from each station that was used. 2 stations (and
therefore 2 lines) can be enough to calculate the position of an aircraft, by finding the
point at which they intercept. This is a process known as triangulation. It is important
to get a large angle at the point of interception, as the larger the angle (optimum 90º),
the better the precision of the fix. More than 2 VDF stations can also be used to get a
more accurate fix.
Distress and Diversion (121.5 MHz) have access to an auto-triangulation feature
which gives them an immediate readout of the position of any calling aircraft , due to
the reception of its transmission at multiple different locations with VDF capability.
The computer allows the triangulation to be done immediately.
Position is the only thing that can be gained from VHF direction finding though, so it is
limited in that sense, but is very useful in the sense that only a VHF radio is required in
the aircraft.

Question N° 91
Correct Answer – B
062.03.04.02.11: State that every aircraft is allocated an ICAO aircraft address, which
is hard-coded into the Mode S transponder (Mode S address).
062.03.04.02.12: Explain that a 24-bit address is used in all Mode S transmissions, so
that every interrogation can be directed to a specific aircraft.

MODE S
Modes A and C are limited to 4096 available codes. With an increasing volume of air
traffic, these systems become prone to interference. Mode S was invented to overcome
these limitations. "S" stands for Selective Addressing, which means that a specific
aircraft my be interrogated by the controller. One of the main features of Mode S is the
availability of codes:
 The aircraft address code will be made up of a 24 bit code. Consid ering a 24-bit
binary code, it provides over 16 million (2 2 4 = 16 777 216) possible hard-
coded individual addresses to be allocated.
Mode S differs from Modes A and C due to the additional data message up to 112 bits
that is transmitted via interrogation.

Question N° 92
Correct Answer – D
In SSR Mode S, transponders in aircraft are selectively interrogated by sensors (SSR
ground stations) to perform ranging and bearing as well as to provide enhanced
situational awareness with the exchange of binary-encoded surveillance information.
Information from Mode S transponders can be received from SSR ground stations
which have the capability to interrogate a Mode S transponder. TCAS systems also
rely on the the Mode S data link to detect collision hazards and exchange resolution
advisories among each other.
In ADS-B, the new standard that has become mandatory in most airspaces by 2020,
Mode S transponders elicit the periodic or event-driven transmission of extended
squitters (ADS-B messages) in order to provide position, velocity and identity reports
to aircraft and ground stations in range.
Important note: We have received multiple feedback supporting the option "SSR and
ADS-B". However, latest feedback (Feb-22) states that the current correct option is
"SSR and TCAS", which possibly indicates that this question has been recently updated
by EASA. Please, let us know if you come across this question.

Question N° 93
Correct Answer – C
An ADF is the cockpit display of the signals from an NDB. An NDB is Non -Directional
Beacon, which is a navigational aid that emits a signal in all directions, and the ADF
onboard an aircraft picks up the direction from which it came, and presents this to the
pilots.
It is now quite an old nav-aid and is affected by many errors and inaccuracies, such as:

 Night Effect
 Coastal Refraction
 Thunderstorm Effect
 Dip Error

By day, the ADF bearings presented to the pilot within the published range of an
NDB should be accurate to ±5⁰. This is easy to remember, as it is the same accuracy
that an NDB approach must be flown to. By night, they are even less accurate nav-aids.

Question N° 94
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
RNP is an implementation of Performance Based Navigation (PBN) which stands for
Required Navigation Performance. This means that, for a certain section of flight
(Oceanic, Terminal, Approach, etc.), the aircraft's Actual Navigation Performance
(ANP) must be below a certain value, which is the RNP. If the ANP is less than the
RNP, then that means our navigational performance is more accurate than what is
required for that stage of flight, so we are sure enough of our position, and therefore
that is good. The ANP is calculated so that we are within such a navigational
performance 95% or more of the time.
If our ANP (which is constantly being monitored for anything that might make us
unsure of our position) is greater than RNP, then we are not as sure of our position as
we need to be, and we cannot continue to use that PBN specification. This may have
negative effects like stopping us from making an RNP approach, or even from using
some types of airspace.
In this question, we are in the bad scenario where our ANP is greater than our RNP,
so we do not meet the requirements for that procedure/airspace, we are out of limits.
Question N° 95
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
There are three types of markers installed as part of an Instrument Landing System
(ILS), and they can be used for any instrument approach. The marker in question is the
Outer Marker (OM), which is at the point on the approach that the aircraft would be
around 1500 ft.
Outer marker: (OM)
This marker normally indicates the Final Approach Fix (FAF). It is located between 4
and 7 nm from the runway threshold on the same course as the localiser. When passing
the outer marker, the pilot receives an audio tone in a continuous series at 400 Hz,
accompanied by a flashing blue light in a series of dashes (2 per second). "- - - - - - "
Middle marker: (MM)
This marker normally indicates the CAT I Missed approach point and it is positioned
between 0.5 and 0.8 nm from the runway threshold. When passing the middle marker,
the pilot receives an audio tone in a continuous series at 1300 Hz, accompanied by a
flashing amber light in a sequence of alternating dots and dashes. "- . - . - . - ."
Inner marker: (IM)
This marker normally indicates the passing of the runway threshold. When passing the
inner marker, the pilot receives an audio tone in a continuous series of 3000 Hz,
accompanied by a flashing white light in a sequence of dots (6 per second). ". . . . . . ."

Question N° 96
Correct Answer – B
Avoid weather radar (AWR) operation when personnel are within the area normally
enclosed by the aircraft nose radome. These radars can be the most dangerous critters in
the cockpit. AWR work on super high freqencies (SHF) to do what they do and, without
proper care, that energy can be hazardous to you and others around the
airplane (i.e. tissues getting damaged).

Question N° 97
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
The question references an RBI, which is a Relative Bearing Indicator, also know as a
fixed card ADF. This only shows the direction to an NDB from the direction you are
currently facing, and is the simplest type of ADF display.
The question mentions that you should start the timing for the outbound leg when wings
level or abeam the fix, whichever is later. It then specifies that we are already wings
level, so we simply have to identify at which point we are abeam the NDB.
This would be whenever the RBI shows 90⁰ or 270⁰, as holding patterns can
be standard (right hand turns) or non-standard (left hand turns), which would place you
on opposite sides of the fix.

Question N° 98
Correct Answer – C
Aircraft Based Augmentation Systems (ABAS)
The performance improvement resulting from Aircraft Based Augmentation Systems
(ABAS) is based on the use of redundant elements in the GNSS constellation or the
combination of GNSS information with other navigation aids for integrity
monitoring.Systems that analyse data gained from other aircraft systems beside GNSS
signals are called Aircraft Autonomous Integrity Monitoring. (AAIM)
Additional information typically used comprises the barometric altitude from the
altimeter or the position indication of an inertial system (INS/IRD).
Question N° 99
Correct Answer – D
GPS is the terminal of positioning or navigation by receiving satellite signals. GPS
satellite signals are divided into L1, L2, L3, L4, L5.
The commonly used frequency bands are L1 and L2, with frequency of 1575.42MHZ
and 1228MHZ, where L1 is an open civil signal and the signal is circular polarization.
Therefore, the GPS jammer in the market is mainly aimed at these two signal
frequencies.
The signal strength is -166dbw, which is a weak signal.
These features determine the preparation of specialized antennas for the reception of
GPS signals.
The global positioning system (GPS) has been used to support a wide variety of
applications, such as high-accuracy positioning and navigation.
Differential GPS techniques can largely eliminate common-mode errors between the
reference and the rover GPS stations resulting from ionospheric and tropospheric
refraction and delays, satellite and receiver clock biases, and orbital errors.
The ionospheric delay in the propagation of global positioning system (GPS) signals is
one of the main sources of error in GPS precise positioning and navigation.
A dual-frequency GPS receiver can eliminate (to the first order) the ionospheric
delay through a linear combination of the L1 and L2 observations.
Note: The most significant effect of ionospheric delay appear in case of using single
frequency data.

Question N° 100
Correct Answer – D
062.06.01.02.06: State that PPS uses both frequencies L1 and L2.

There are two modes of operation of NAVSTAR GPS, each with a different accuracy.

 The Standard Positioning Service (SPS) is available for civilian users. SPS is a
positioning and timing service provided on frequency L1.
 The Precise Position Service (PPS) is only available for authorised users, such
as the military. PPS provides a higher accuracy than SPS and uses both
frequencies L1 and L2.
Question N° 101
Correct Answer – D
Syllabus reference 062.07.05.02.01: State that manual data entry is acceptable for
RNAV 5.
Under an RNP/RNAV procedure, waypoints cannot be manually defined in the terminal
area.
 Manual entry, or creation of new waypoints is not permitted under RNAV
1/RNAV 2/RNP 1/RNP 2.
 Manual entry of new waypoints is allowed under RNP/RNAV 10, RNP 4 and
RNAV 5.

Question N° 102
Correct Answer – B
Aircraft Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (AAIM)
AAIM is a method of monitoring the integrity of the GNSS position data, using
information from on board sensors such as barometric altitude data, IRS position
data and potentially even conventional nav-aid autotuning (VOR, DME position data).
This can allow our aircraft to notice any suspicious GNSS position data and notify the
pilots that it may not be correct. It is a type of ABAS (Aircraft-Based Augmentation
System).
The term Airborne Based Augmentation System (ABAS) covers both AAIM, described
above, and RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring) . RAIM is a system
which uses extra GNSS satellites to effectively verify the working order of the usual 4
required for a 3D position fix. 1 extra satellite (5 in total) can give the ability to notice
when a fault occurs (Fault Detection). 2 extra satellites (6 in total) gives the ability to
detect and identify which satellite is faulty (Fault Detection and Exclusion).

Question N° 103
Correct Answer – B
Refer to figure.
Important to know with this question is that the groundspeed is only accurate when the
aircraft is flying directly towards or away from the DME station. Meaning that the
indication given by the DME will usually be less than what the aircraft is actually
flying.

The DME on board the aircraft will indicate the (purple) slant range.
The aircraft is 1 minute from the DME, meaning that the ground distance towards the
station will be:
300 nm 60 min
? 1 min
? = (1min x 300 nm)/(60 min) = 5 nm.
Knowing that the ground distance to the station is 5 nm, the slant range (DME
indication) can be calculated by using the following:
FL300 = 30.000 ft = 4.9 nm = 5 nm.

The slant range can be used by using the following the pythagoras theorem:
Slant range = √((Ground distance)²+(Aircraft height) 2 )
Slant range = √((5 nm)²+(5 nm)²) = 7 nm.

Question N° 104
Correct Answer – A
Aircraft Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (AAIM)
AAIM is a method of monitoring the integrity of the GNSS position data, using
information from on board sensors such as barometric altitude data, IRS position data
and conventional nav-aid autotuning (VOR, DME position data). This can allow our
aircraft to notice any suspicious GNSS position data and notify the pilots that it may
not be correct. It is a type of ABAS (Aircraft-Based Augmentation System).

Question N° 105
Correct Answer – A
NDB identification
Each time a pilot intends to use an NDB, identification of the station is necessary to
confirm full operational serviceability of the navigation aid and to check whether the
NDB is within range – An NDB with wrong or missing identification must never be
used for navigation.
 The audible identifier of an NDB is a Morse Code signal, repeated every 10
seconds, that represents the identifier letters of the navigation aid. All Morse dots
and dashes are published along an NDB identifier.
 Normally, en-route NDB stations possess a 3-letter identifier, whereas Locators
within terminal areas have 2-letter or 1-letter identifiers.

Note: This question has been created based on incomplete feedback. Please contact us
if you have anything to add to this question.

Question N° 106
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
RNP APCH to LPV minima
Technically, known as RNP Approach, procedures down to LPV minima, LPVs were
introduced within the PBN concept as new approach operations based on SBAS, a
technology providing augmentation to GNSS systems like GPS.
 RNP approaches that can be conducted down to LPV minima are characterised
by a coded Final Approach Segment (FAS) data block.

Question N° 107
Correct Answer – D
Refer to figure.
This type of question is best to draw out. To start with, draw the VOR (Magnetic North
up) and lines coming out of it representing the course selected on the HSI (in this case
radials 340º and the reciprocal 160º - label them). The draw the aircraft on radial 120º
facing direction 070º. Now we can see that the aircraft is closer to the 160 radial, which
we can called the "340º TO" course, and this is what our CDI (course deviation
indicator - in the middle of the HSI) wants us to follow.
As you can see in the annex above, the desired course is behind the aircraft, and
therefore the deviation bar on the CDI is behind us also . You can also tilt your head
to the left to see the standard course deviation indicator showing full scale "fly left"
indication, which is also expected, as the HSI thinks we want to fly the "340º TO"
course into the VOR, which we are to the right of.