ME8791 MECHATRONICS Unit – I

INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Mechatronics – Systems – Concepts of Mechatronics approach – Need for
Mechatronics – Emerging areas of Mechatronics – Classification of Mechatronics. Sensors and
Transducers: Static and dynamic Characteristics of Sensor, Potentiometers – LVDT –
Capacitance sensors – Strain gauges – Eddy current sensor – Hall effect sensor – Temperature
sensors – Light sensors
1.1 Introduction to Mechatronics
The term Mechatronics is used for this integration of microprocessor control systems,
electrical systems and mechanical system. A mechatronics system is not just a marriage of
electrical and mechanical systems and is more than just a control system; it is a complete
integration of all of them.

Fig: 1.1 Mechatronics

In the design now of cars, robots, machine tools, washing machines, cameras, and very
many other machines. Such an integrated and interdisciplinary approach to engineering design is
increasingly being adopted the integration across the traditional boundaries of mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering, electronics and control engineering has to occur at the
earliest stages of the design process if cheaper more reliable, more flexible systems are to be
developed. Mechatronics has to involve a concurrent approach to these disciplines rather than a
sequential approach of developing, say, a mechanical system then designing the electrical part
and the microprocessor part.
1.2 Systems
A system can be defined as a box which has an input and an output where we concentrate
about the relationship between the input and output, not with the input
Example: a motor.
A motor has input as electric power as input and rotation as output. The following figure
shows the representation.

Fig: 1.1 System

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1.3 Measurement System Definition

A measurement system can be defined as a black box which is used for making
measurements. It has an input the quantity being measured and its output the value of that
quantity.

Example: A temperature measurement system. i.e. Thermometer

Fig: 1.2 Measurement System

1.4Control System
A control system can be defined as a block box which can be used to control its output to
some particular value.

Example: a domestic central heating control system.

We can set the required temperature on the thermostat or controller and the pump can be
adjusted to supply water through radiators. So the required temperature can be maintained in
the house.

Fig: 1.3 Control System

1.5 Measurement Systems
Measurement System can be considered to be made up of three elements as shown in
figure.

Fig:1.4Measurement System and its Elements

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  A sensor which responds to the quantity being measured by giving as its output a
signal
 which is related to the quantity. Ex. a thermocouple is a temperature sensor.
 A signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and manipulates it into a
condition which is suitable for either display or in the case of a control system, for
use to exercise control. Thus for example the output from a thermocouple is a rather
small e.m.f and might be fed through an amplifier to obtain a bigger signal. The
amplifier is the signal conditioner.
 A display system where the output from the signal conditioner is displayed. This
might, for example be a pointer moving across a scale or a digital readout.
1.6 Open and closed-loop systems

 There are two basic forms of control system one being called and Open loop and
other closed-loop systems. The difference between these can be illustrated by a
simple example.

Fig:1.5 Open Loop System

 Consider an electric fire which has a selection switch which allows a 1 KW or a 2 kW

heating element to be selected. If a person used the heating element to heat a room, he
or she might just switch on the 1 kW element if the room is not required to be at too
high a temperature. The room will heat up and reach a temperature which is only
determined by the fact the 1 kW element was switched on, and not the 2 kW
elements. If there are changes in the conditions perhaps someone opening a window,
there is no way the heat output is adjusted to compensate.
 This is an example of open loop control in that there is no information fed back to the
element to adjust it and maintain a constant temperature.

Fig:1.6 Closed Loop System

 The heating system with the heating element could be made a closed loop system if the
person has a thermometer and switches the 1 kW and 2 kW elements on or off, according
to the difference between the actual temperature and the required temperature, to
maintain the temperature of the room constant.

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  In this situation there is feedback, the input to the system being adjusted according to
whether its output is the required temperature. This means that the input to the switch
depends on the deviation of the actual temperature from the required temperature.
 The difference between them determined by a comparison element. The person in this
case.
To illustrate further the differences between open and closed-loop systems, consider a motor.

 With an open-loop system the speed of rotation of the shaft might be determined solely
by the initial setting of a knob which affects the voltage applied to the motor.
 Any changes in the supply voltage, the characteristics of the motor as a result of
temperature changes, or the shaft load will change the shaft speed but not be
compensated for.
 There is no feedback loop. With a closed-loop system, however, the initial setting of the
control knob will be for a particular shaft speed and this will be maintained by feedback,
regardless of any changes in supply voltage, motor characteristics or load.
 In an open-loop control system the output from the system has no effect on the input
signal. In a closed-loop control system the output does have an effect on the input signal,
modifying it to maintain an output signal at the required value.
 Closed-loop systems have the advantage of being relatively accurate in matching the
actual to the required values. They are, however, having disadvantages like, more
complex andso more costly and a greater chance of breakdown as a consequence of the
greater number of components.

1.7 Basic elements of a closed-loop system

The following figure shows the general form of a basic closed-loop system.

Fig.1.7 Basic elements of closed loop

It consists or the following elements:
1. Comparison element
 This compares the required or reference value of the variable condition being controlled
with the measured value of what is being achieved and produces an error signal.
 It can be regarded as adding the reference signal, which is positive, to the measured value
signal, which is negative in this case:Error signal = reference value signal - measured
value signal
 The symbol used, in, general, for an element at which signals are summed is a
segmented circle, inputs going into segments.

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  The inputs are all added; hence the feedback input is marked as negative and the
reference signal positive so that the sum gives the difference between the signals.
 A feedback loop is a means whereby a signal related to the actual condition being
achieved is fed back to modify the Input signal to a process. The feedback is said to
be negative feedback when the signal which is fed back subtracts from the input
value. It is negative feedback that is required to control a system. Positive feedback
occurs when the signal fed back adds to the input signal.

2 .Control element

 This decides what action to take when it receives an error signal.

 It may be for example, a signal to operate a switch or open a valve.
 The control plan being used by the element may be just to supply a signal which
switches on or off when here is an error, as in a room thermostat or perhaps a signal
which proportionally opens or closes a valve according to the size of the error.
 Control plans may be hard-wired systems in which the control plan is permanently
fixed by the way the elements are connected together or programmable systems
where the control plan is stored within a memory unit and may be altered by
reprogramming it Controllers.

2. Correction element
 The correction element produces a change in the process to correct or change the
controlled condition.
 Thus it might be a switch which switches on a heater and so increases the temperature of
the process or a valve which opens and allows more liquid to enter the process.
 The term actuator is used for the element of a correction unit that provides the power to
carry out the control action.
4 .Process element
 The process is what is being controlled. It could be a room in a house with its
temperature being controlled or a tank of water with its level being controlled.
5. Measurement element
 The measurement element produces a signal related to the variable condition of the
process that is being controlled.
 For example, a switch which is switched on when a particular position is reached or a
thermocouple which gives an e.m.f related to the temperature.
 With the closed-loop system illustrated in Fig.1.6 for a person controlling the
temperature of a room.
1.7.1 The automatic control of water level
An automatic control system for the control of the room temperature could involve a
temperature sensor, after Suitable signal conditioning, feeding an electrical signal to the input
of a computer where it is compared with the set value and an error signal generated.

This is then acted on by the computer to give at its output a signal, which, after suitable
signal conditioning, might be used to control a heater and hence the room temperature. Such
a system can readily be programmed to give different temperatures al different times of the
day.

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 Fig:1.8 The automatic control of water level
The above figure shows an example of a simple control system used to maintain a
constant water level in a tank. The reference value is the initial setting of the lever arm
arrangement so that it just cuts off the water supply at the required level.

When water is drawn from the tank the float moves downwards with the water level. This
causes the lever arrangement to rotate and so allows water to enter the tank. This flow
continues until the ball has risen to such a height that it has moved the lever arrangement to
cut off the water supply.

1.7 Sequential Controllers

a) Automatic washing machine

Fig.1.9 Washing Machine System

 The above figure shows the basic washing machine system and gives a rough idea of its
constituent elements.
 The system that used to be used for the washing machine controller was a mechanical
system which involved a set of cam-operated switches, i.e mechanical switches. Figure
1.9 show the basic principle of one such switch.
 When, the machine is switched on, a signal electric motor slowly rotates its shaft, giving
an amount of rotation proportional no tune. The rotation turns the controller cams so that

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 each in turn operates electrical switches and so switches on circuits in the correct
sequence. The contour of a cam determines the time at which it operates a switch.
 The contours of the cams and the means by which the program is specified and stored in
the machine. The sequence of instructions and the instructions used in a particular
washing program are determined by the set of cams chosen.
 With modern washing machines the controller is a microprocessor and the program is not
supplied by the mechanical arrangement of cams but by a software program.
 For the pre-wash cycle an electrically operated valve is opened when a current is supplied
and switched off when it ceases. This valve allows cold water into the drum for a period
of time determined by the profile of the cam or the output from the microprocessor used
to operate its switch.
 However, since the requirement is a specific level of water in the washing machine drum,
there needs to be another mechanism which will stop the water going into the tank,
during the permitted time, when it reaches the required level.
 A sensor is used to give a signal when the water level has reached the preset level and
give art output front the microprocessor which is used to switch off the current to the
valve. In the case of a cam-controlled valve, the sensor actuates a switch which closes the
valve admitting water to the washing machine drum.
 When this event is completed die microprocessor, or the rotation of the cams, initiates a
pump to empty the drum.
 For the main wash cycle, the microprocessor gives an output which starts when lie pre-
wash part of the program is completed: in the case of the cam-operated system the cam
has a profile such that it starts in operation when the pre-wash cycle is completed. It
switches a current into a circuit to open a valve to allow cold water into the drum. This
level is sensed and the water shut off when tine required level is reached.
 The microprocessor or cam then supplies a current to activate a switch which applies a
larger current to an electric heater to heat the water. A temperature sensor is used to
switch off the current when the water temperature reaches the preset value.
 The microprocessor or cams then switch on the drum motor to rotate the drum. This will
continue for the time determined by the microprocessor or cam profile before switching
off. Then the microprocessor or a cam switches on the current to a discharge pump to
empty the water from the drum.
 The rinse part of the operation is now switched as a sequence of signals to open valves
which allow cold water into the machine. Switch it off, operate the motor to rotate the
drum, operate a pump to empty the water from the drum, and repeat this sequence a
number of times.

1.8 Microprocessor based Controllers

1.8.1 The automatic camera

 The modern camera is likely to have automatic focusing and exposure. Figure 1.10
illustrates the basic aspects of a microprocessor-based system that can’ t be used to
control the focusing and exposure.

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 When the switch is operated to activate the system and the camera pointed at the object
being photographed, the microprocessor takes the input from the range sensor and sends
an output to the lens position drive to move the lens to achieve focusing. The lens
position is fed back to the microprocessor so that the feedback signal can’ t be used to
modify the lens position according to the inputs from the range sensor.
 The light sensor gives an input to the microprocessor which then gives an output to
determine, if the photographer has selected the shutter controlled rather than aperture
controlled mode, the time for which the shutter will be opened. When the photograph has
been taken, the microprocessor gives an output to the motor drive to advance the film
ready for the next photograph.

Fig.1.10 Elements of Automatic Camera

 The program for the microprocessor is a number of steps where the microprocessor is
making simple decisions of the form: is there an input signal of a particular input line or
not and if there is output a signal on a particular output line. The decisions are logic
decisions with the input and output signals either being low or high to give on-off states.
A few steps of the program for the automatic camera might be of the form:
1.8.2 The Engine Management System

 The engine management system of a car is responsible for managing the ignition and
fuelling requirements of the engine.
 With a four-stroke internal combustion engine there are several cylinders, each of which
has a piston connected to a common crankshaft and each of which carries out a four-
stroke sequence of operations .
 When the piston moves down a valve opens and the air —fuel mixture is drawn into the
cylinder.
 When the piston moves up again the valve closes and the air —fuel mixture is
compressed.
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 When the piston is near the top of the cylinder the spark plug ignites the mixture with a
resulting expansion of the hot gases. This expansion causes the piston to move back
down again and so the cycle is repeated.
 The pistons of cacti cylinder are connected to a common crankshaft and their power
strokes occur at different times so that here is continuous power for rotating the
crankshaft.

Fig.1.11 Four Stroke Sequence

Fig1.12 Elements of Engine Management System

 The power and speed of the engine are controlled by varying the ignition timing and the
air —fuel mixture.
 With modem car engines this is done by a microprocessor. Figure 1.12 shows the basic
elements of a microprocessor control system.
 For ignition timing, the crankshaft drives a distributor which makes electrical contact for
each spark plug in turn and a timing wheel. This timing wheel generates pulses to
indicate he crankshaft position.
 The microprocessor then adjusts the timing at which high voltage pulses are sent to the
distributor so they occur at the right moments of time.

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 To control the amount of air —fuel mixture entering a cylinder during the intake strokes,
the microprocessor varies the time for which a solenoid is activated to open the intake on
the basis of inputs received of the engine temperature and the throttle position.
 The amount of fuel to be injected into the air stream can be determined by an input from
a sensor of the mass rate of air flow, or computed from other measurements, and the
microprocessor hen gives an output to control a fuel injection valve.

1.9 Concept of Mechatronics Approach

 The domestic washing machine is used cam-operated switches in order to control the
washing cycle is now out-of-date. Such mechanical switches are being replaced by
microprocessors.
 A microprocessor can be just considered as being essentially a collection of logic gates
and memory elements that are not wired up as individual components but whose logical
functions are implemented by means of software.
 The microprocessor-controlled washing machine can be considered an example of a
mechatronics approach in that a mechanical system has become integrated with electronic
controls.
 As a consequence, a bulky mechanical system is replaced by a much more compact
microprocessor system which is readily adjustable to give a greater variety of programs.

1.10 Need for Mechatronics

• Dynamic market condition
• Producing next generation products
• Variety in product ranges
• Batch production runs
• Change in design perspective
• Product quality and consistency

1.11 Emerging Areas of Mechatronics

 Smart consumer products: home security, camera, microwave oven,toaster, dish washer,
laundry washer-dryer, climate control units, etc.
 Medical: implant-devices, assisted surgery, haptic, etc.
 Defense: unmanned air, ground, and underwater vehicles, smart munitions, jet engines,
etc.
 Manufacturing: robotics, machines, processes, etc.
 Automotive: climate control, antilock brake, active suspension, cruise control, air bags,
engine management, safety, etc.
 Network-centric, distributed systems: distributed robotics, telerobotics, intelligent
highways, etc.
1.12 Classification of Mechatronics
• Traditional product realization
– Discipline specific sequential process (design then manufacture)
– Drawback: cost overruns due to redesign/re-tooling
• A better but still deficient approach
– Discipline specific concurrent process (design for manufacturing)
– Bottleneck: sub-optimal integration
• Mechatronics based product realization exploits
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 – Integrated process founded upon interdisciplinary synergy

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

1.13 INTRODUCTION

 Sensor is used to produce a varying signal according to the quantity being

measured.

 Sensor is an element in a mechatronic system which acquires a physical

parameter and changes it into signal that can be processed by the system.

 The active element of a sensor is known as transducer.

 Transducer converts the measured quantity, property (or) condition into a usable
electrical output.

 The mechatronic system requires sensors to measure physical quantities such as

position, distance, force, strain, temperature, vibration and acceleration. Simply
sensors are also called transducers.

1.14 PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY (Static and Dynamic characteristics)

 The function of the sensor (or) transducer is to sense (or) detect a parameter such
as pressure, temperature flow, motion, resistance, voltage, current and power.

 The sensor should be capable of faithfully and accurately detecting any changes
that occur in the measured parameter.

 The performance of transducers can be defined by using the following terms:

1. Range and span
2. Error
3. Accuracy
4. Sensitivity
5. Hysteresis error
6. Non linearity error
7. Repeatability/Reproducibility
8. Reliability
9. Stability
10. Dead band/time
11. Resolution
12. Backlash
13. Output impedance

Range and Span:

 The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can vary.

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  The difference between the limits (maximum value - minimum value) is known
as span.
 For example a load cell is used to measure force. An input force can vary from 20
to 100 N. Then the range of load cell is 20 to 100 N. And the span of load cell is
80 N (i.e., 100-20)

Error:

 If the transducer is ideally designed and made from appropriate materials with
ideal workmanship, then output will indicate the true value. But in actual practice
the output of the transducer will deviate from the true value.

 The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the
measured parameter is termed as the error of the device.

 Error = Indicated value —true value

 For example, if the transducer gives a temperature reading of 30°C when theactual
temperature is 29° C, then the error is + 1°C. If the actual temperature is 3 1° C, then the
error is —1°C.

Accuracy:

 Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated by the measurementsystem would
be wrong.
 Accuracy is the summation of all possible errors that are likely to occur.

 For example, a thermocouple has an accuracy of ± 1° C. This means that reading given
by the thermocouple can be expected to lie within + 1°C (or) — 1°C of the true value.
 Accuracy is also expressed as a percentage of the full range output (or) full-scale
deflection.
 For example, a thermocouple can be specified as having an accuracy of ±4 % of full
range output. Hence if the range of the thermocouple is 0 to 200°C, then the reading
given can be expected to be within + 8°C (or) —8° C of the true reading.

Sensitivity:
The sensitivity is the relationship showing how much output we can get per unit input.

ie sensitivity = Output / Input

Hysteresis error

 When a device is used to measure any parameter plot the graph

of output Vs value of measured quantity.
 First for increasing values of the measured quantity and then for
decreasing values of the measured quantity.
 The two output readings obtained usually differ from each other.

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 Fig.1.13 Hysteresis error

 This is because of a certain amount of internal (or) external friction in the response of the
sensing element.

 The maximum difference in between any part of output readings so obtained is known as
hysteresis error.
 The hysteresis error can be reduced by proper design and selection of the mechanical
components, introducing greater flexibility and providing suitable heat treatment to the
materials.

Non-linearIty error:
 A linear relationship is assumed between the input and output and hence, a straight line is
drawn in the graph as shown here.

Fig.1.14

 Some transducers, do not have linear relationship and errors occur as a result of the
assumption of linearity.The error is defined as the maximum difference from the straight
line.

There are three methods to find the the numerical error. They are namely,

 In the next method, the straight line is drawn by using the method of least squares to
determine the best fit line by considering all data values are in error. Refer fig (1.3).

 In the last method, the straight line is drawn by using the method of least squares to
determine the best fit line which passes through the zero point.

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 Fig.1.15 Fig.1.16
Repeatability/Reproducibility:

 The repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are its ability to give the same output
for repeated applications of the same input value.

 Repeatability is also defined as the measure of the deviation of test results mean value.
Reliability:

 The reliability of a system is defined as the possibility that it will perform its assigned
functions for a specific period of time under given conditions.

 The reliability of a device (or) system is affected not only by the choice of individual
parts in system but also by manufacturing methods, quality of maintenance and the type
of user.

Stability:
 The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time.
 The term drift is the change in output that occurs over time.
 The drift can be expressed as a percentage of the full range.
 Zero drift means if there is change in output when there is zero input.

Dead band / time:

 There will be no output for certain range of input values. This is known as dead band.
There will be no output until the input has reached a particular value.

 The length of time from the application of an input until the output begins to respond and
change is known as Dead time.
Resolution:

 Resolution is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that can be
detected.
 The resolution is the smallest change in the input value which will produce an observable
change in the input.
 Resolution is also known as the degree of fineness with which measurements can be
made.
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  For example, if a micrometer with a minimum graduation of 1mm is. used to measure to
the nearest 0.5 mm, then by interpolation, the resolution is estimated as 0.5 mm.

Backlash:
 Backlash is defined as the maximum distance (or) angle through which any part of a
mechanical system can be moved in one direction without causing any motion of the
attached part.
 Backlash is an undesirable phenomenon and is important in the precision design of gear
trains.

Output Impedance:

 Before defining impedance, we should know about Ohm’ s law.

 Ohm’ s law is used to define the relationship between voltage V, Current I and
Resistance R.
(i.e.,) V=IR
 Ohm’ s law can be extended to the AC circuit analysis of resistor, capacitor and
inductor elements as
v=ZI
where Z is called impedance of the elements. So impedance is similar to
resistance.

 The sensors produce electrical output.

 When these sensors are interfaced with an electronic circuit, it is necessary to
know the output impedance.
 This impedance is connected in either series (or) parallel with that circuit and the
inclusion of the sensor will modi1 the behaviour of the system to which it is
connected.

1. Potentiometer Sensor

 Potentiometers consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact and

the sliding contact can be moved over the length of the element. This
sliding contact is called Wiper.
 The motion of the sliding contact may be linear or rotational.
 The Fig.1.5 shows the linear potentiometer and the Fig.1.6 shows the
rotary potentiometer.
 The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular wire-wound track over
which a rotatable sliding contact can be rotated.
 The wire-wound track may be single turn or helical turn.

Displacement and Position Sensor Types:

The displacement and position sensors are grouped into:
1. Contact sensors
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 2. Non-contact sensors
1. Rotary
2. Linear
3. Helical potentiometers

Fig.1.17 Fig.1.18

Advantages of Resistance Potentiometers

1. They are simple and in expensive,
2. Electrical efficiency is high,
3. Simple in operation.
4. Useful for measurement of large amplitudes of displacement

2.Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Fig.1.19

 It consists of three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube.

 The central coil is primary and other two are secondary.
 A magnetic core is moved through the central tube, so that the displacement
being monitored.
 When voltage is supplied to the primary coil, alternating e.m.f.s are induced in
the secondary coils.
 Suppose the magnetic core is in central, the e.rn.f. induced in each coil is same
because of magnetic material in each coil is same and oppose to each other. So
there is no output.

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 Fig.1.20

 If the core is displaced from the central position there is a greater amount of
magnetic core in one coil than the other. This will create a higher e.m.f. in one
coil and lesser e.m.f. in the other coil. This will make a net difference in two
e.m.f.s and the displacement being monitored.
 The formulas which are used in LVDT are:
1. The e.m.f.s induced in the two secondary coils 1 and 2 are:

where K1, K2 are degree of coupling between the primary and

secondary coils.

Advantages of L VDT
1. High range
2. Friction and electrical isolation
3. Low hysteresis
4. Power consumption is less.
3.Capacitance Sensor

• A combination of plates which can hold an electric charge is called a capacitor. The
capacitor may be characterized by q, the magnitude of charge on either conductors, and
by V, the positive potential difference between the conductors (Figure C1). The ratio of
charge to voltage is constant for each capacitor, and is called the capacitance (C) of the
capacitor.

4.Strain gauge

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 • A strain gage (sometimes refered to as a Strain gage) is a sensor whose resistance
varies with applied force; It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change
in electrical resistance which can then be measured. When external forces are applied to a
stationary object, stress and strain are the result.
• A strain gauge is a device used to measure strain on an object
the most common type of strain gauge consists of an insulating
flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern. The gauge
is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive, such as
cyanoacrylate. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed,
causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change,
usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the
strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor.

5.Eddy current proximity sensors:

Fig. 21. Eddy current sensor

 Working: When alternating current is supplied to the coil means the alternating magnetic
field is produced. If there is a metal object in close proximity to this alternating magnetic
field the eddy current is induced in it. This eddy current will produce a magnetic field
themselves and the impedance of the coil changes the amplitude of the alternating
current.
 The above Fig. shows the basic form of such sensor and it is used for the detection of
non-magnetic conductive materials.
6.Hall effect Sensors
 Hall effect: Hall effect is defined as when a beam of charged particles
passesthrough magnetic field, the beam is deflected from its straight line path due
to the forces acting on the particles.
 A current flowing in a conductor like a beam is deflected by a magnetic field.

Fig.1.22
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  The difference of potential is produced between the opposite edges of the
conductor. The magnitude of the voltage depends upon the current and magnetic
field.
 In the Fig. the current is passed through leads 1 and 2 of the strip. The output
leads connected with Hall strip.
 When a transverse magnetic field passes through the strip the voltage difference
occur in the output leads.
 The hail effect sensor have the advantages of being able to operate as switches
and it operate upto 100 KHz.

Fig.1.23
Applications of Hall Effect Sensors:
1. It is used as a Magnetic to electric transducer.

2. It is used for the measurement of the position or displacement of a structural

element.
3. It is used for measurement of current.
4. It is used for measurement of power.

1.12 TEMPERATURE SENSORS

 Temperature measurements are amongst the most common and the most important
measurements made in controlling industrial processes.
 Changes that are commonly used to monitor temperature are, the expansion or
contraction of solids, liquids or gases, the change in electrical resistance of conductors,
semiconductors and thermoelectric e.m.f.s. The control system which are used to measure
the temperature is as follows
1.Thermocouples
 The most common electrical method of temperature measurement uses the
thermocouples.
 The basic principle of this is, if two different metals are joined together, a potentiometer
difference occurs across the junction.
 The potential difference depends on the metals used and the temperature of the junction.
 When both junctions are at the same temperature, there is no net e.ni.f. But if there is a
difference in temperature between the junction the e.m.f. will be produced.
 This e.m.f. will depend upon the two metals and the temperature between the junctions.
One junction is held at 0°C and the equation which is used to find out the e.m.f. is

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 Fig. 1.24. Thermocouple

 There are three e.m.f.s present in a thermoelectric circuit. In this the Seebeck e.m.f. is
caused by the junction of dissimilar metals and the Pettier e.m.f. is caused by a current
flow in the circuit, and the Thomson e.m.f. which results from a temperature gradient in
the materials.

 It is observed that all thermocouple circuits must involve at least two junctions. In that
one of the junctions senses the desired or unknown temperature.
 This junction is called the hot or measuring junction. The other junction is usually
maintained at a known fixed temperature and this junction is called the cold or reference
junction.
 If the temperature of the reference or cold junction is known, the temperature of the hot
or the measuring junction can be calculated by using the thermoelectric properties of the
materials.

 If thermocouple circuit can have other metals in the circuit and they will have no effect
on the thermoelectric e.m.f.
 A thermocouple can be used with the reference junction at a temperature other than0°C.
 For that we assume a 0°C junction and the correction has to be applied using the law of
intermediate temperatures.

The equation used in this is

Fig. 1.25. Las’ of intermediate temperature

 Here to maintain the 0°C at one junction a compensation circuit is Used to provide an
e.m.f. which varies with the temperature of the cold junction.

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 Fig. 1.26. Compensation thermocouple

 The temperature of the block is ambient temperature.

 This reference temperature is measured by semiconductor sensor and
compensation circuitry develops a voltage Ecomp which is combined with
measuring junction and the net voltage across the voltmeter = T (Temperature
being measured).

 The isothermal block can accept many thermocouple pairs in multichannel

instruments with microprocessor computing power since the T (reference
junction sensor now sends its temperature data to the computer which computes
the needed voltage correction for each thermocouple.
 The thermocouples like E, J, K and T are relatively cheap and it has accuracies of
about ± ito 3%.
 The noble metal thermocouples are very high cost compared with this and it has
accuracies of about ±1% better than the base metal thermocouples.
 Thermocouples are used in applications ranging from measurement of room air
temperature to that of a liquid metal bath. The problems which may be
encountered are
1. Faulty reference junction,
2. Installation faults,
3. Junctions formed by users may involve excessive temperatures or
faulty soldering techniques,
4. Gross errors can result due to wrong installation of thermocouple.
2.Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) or resistance thermometers are basic

instruments for measurement of resistance.

 The materials used for RTDs are Nickel, Iron, Platinum, Copper, Lead, Tungsten,
Mercury, Manganin, Silver, etc.
 The resistance of most metals increases over a limited temperature range and the
relationship between Resistance and Temperature is shown below.

Fig. 1.27. Resistance temperature detector

The equation which is used to find the linear relationship in RTD is

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 Fig. 1.28. RTD element

Constructional Details ofRTDs

 The platinum, nickel and copper in the form wire are the most commonly used materials
in the RTDs.
 Thin film platinum elements are often made by depositing the metal on a suitable
substrate wire- wound elements involving a platinum wire held by a high temperature
glass adhesive inside a ceramic tube.

Fig. 1.29.
Salient Features ofRTDs:
1. High degree of accuracy.
2. Resistance thermometer is interchangeable in a process without compensation
or recalibration.
3. It is normally designed for fast response as well as accuracy to provide close
control of processes.

3.Thermistors

 Thermistor is a semiconductor device that has a negative temperature coefficient of

resistance in contrast to positive coefficient displayed by most metals.
 Thermistors are small pieces of material made from mixtures of metal oxides, such as
Iron, cobalt, chromium, Nickel, and Manganese.
 The shape of the materials is in terms of discs, beads and rods.
 The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its resistance changes rapidly
with temperature.
 The resistance of conventional metal-oxide thermistors decreases in a very non-linear
manner with an increase in temperature is shown in the Fig.2.46 below.
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  The change in resistance per degree change in temperature is considerably larger
than that which occurs with metals.

Fig. 1.30. Thermistors

 The simple series circuit for measurement of temperature using a thermistor and
the variation of resistance with temperature for a typical thermistor is shown in
the below

Fig. 1.31. Thermistor

 The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its resistance changes

rapidly with temperature.
 Thermistors have many advantages when compared with other temperature
sensors.
 The main disadvantage is highly non-linear behaviour.

4. Thermodiodes and Transistors

(a) Thermodiodes:

Thermodiode is widely used method for measuring temperature. When

thetemperature of doped semiconductors changes, the mobility of their charge
carriers changes and this affects the rate at which electrons and holes candiffuse
across ap-n junction.
1. Measurement of temperature,
2. Control of temperature,
3. Temperature compensation,
4. Measurement of thermal conductivity,
5. Measurement of power at high frequencies,
6. Measurement of composition of gases,
7. Providing time delay,
8. Vacuum measurements.

 The difference in voltage and current through the junction is a function of

thetemperature. The equation which is used to find the I is

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  From the above equation the voltage ‘ V’ is proportional to the temperature on
Kelvin scale and the potential difference measurement across a diode at constant
current is used to measure the temperature.
(a) Transistor:
 In Thermo transistor the voltage across the junction between the base and the
emitter depends on the temperature.
 A common method is use of two transistors with different collector current and
finding the difference in the base-emitter voltages between them, and this
difference is the measure of temperature.

Fig. 1.32. Transistor

 The thermotransistors can be combined with circuit components on a single chip

to give a temperature sensor.

5. Bimetallic strips

Fig. 1.33. Bimetallic thermostat

 A Bimetallic thermostat consists of two different metal strips bounded together

and they cannot move relative to each other.
 These metals have different coefficients of expansion and when the temperature
changes the composite strips bends into a curved strip, with the higher coefficient
metal on the outside of the curve.
 The basic principle in this is all metals try to change their physical dimensions at
different rates when subjected to same change in temperature.
 This deformation may be used as a temperature- controlled switch, as in the
simple thermostat.
1.13 LIGHT SENSORS

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 1. Photodiodes
 Diodes like photodiodes and semiconductor diodes are connected into a circuitin
reverse bias giving a very high resistance.
 When light falls on the junction the resistance of the diode will drop and the current in
the circuit will rise.

Fig. 1.34.

 If the diode is sufficiently reverse biased, it will breakdown.

 The current passing through the diode when forward biased only.
 If an A.C. voltage is applied across a diode, it can be regarded as only switching
on when forward bias it and being off in the reverse direction.
 The photodiodes have a very fast response to light and it can be used as a
variable resistance device controlled by the light incident on it.

Photo Transistors

Fig. 1.35.

 The main current flows in at the collector and out at the emitter in npn transistor.

 The main current flowing in at the emitter and out at the collector in pnp
transistor.
 The phototransistors have a light sensitive collector-base p-n junction.
 There is a very small collector to emitter current when there is no incident light.
Suppose the light is incident a base current is produced and it is proportional to
the light intensity.
 So this will produce a collector current and it is used for measure of the light
intensity.
 The example for photo transistors is photo Darlington arrangement.

Part-A
1. Distinguish between open and closed loop system.
2. What is mechatronics approach? (May 2014)
3.Mention the functions of a Mechatronics system.(May 2013)
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 4.What do you understand by signal conditioning.(N0v 2011)
5.Define measurement system with a block diagram.(May 2015)
6.What are the two basic forms of the control system?
7.Write the differences between open loop and closed loop control system.
8.What are the elements of the closed loop control system?
9.Define sequential controller with example.
10.What do you understand by the term static and dynamic characteristics of transducers.(Nov
2014)
11.Give an example for a transducer and state its transduction principle? (Nov 2012)
12.List any four types of sensors and mention their features.(May 2013)
13.Differentiate between Accuracy and precision of transducer with example.(May 2015)
14.Define static and Dynamic characteristics?
15. State the advantage of capacitive type proximity sensor?(Nov 2012)
16. Write about Hall effect sensors?
17.list down the type of proximity sensor.(Nov 13)
18. Difference between absolute encoder and incremental encoder .(Nov 2014)
19.What are pressure sensor?
20.List down the liquid level sensors.
21.Name the liquid flow sensors.
22.What is the basic principle in thermocouples?
23.Distinguish b/w position sensor and light sensor.(Nov 2013)
24.What is RTD?State its applications.(Nov 2011)
PART-B
1. (a) Explain the control system for domestic central heating system involving a bimetallic
thermostat and that involving a microprocessor. (8) (Nov 2014)
2. (a) List and define the dynamic characteristics of sensors (8)
(b) With an example explain the various functional units of a measurement
System (8) (Nov 2012)
3. Explain the working principle of Automatic washing Machine.(16)
4. What are microprocessor based controllers? Explain with block diagram the working of
an automatic camera as microprocessor based controller. (16)(May 2015,Nov 2013)
5. (a) Write short notes on:(a) Photovoltaic transducer (b)Incremental encodes. (8)(May
2014)
(b) Describe neatly potentiometer sensor. (8) (Nov 2013)
6. Explain the construction , working and applications of following
i) Hall effect sensor
ii) Capacitance sensor
iii) Pressure sensor
iv) Strain gauge (16)(May 2015)
7. (a) Explain the construction and working principle of eddy current sensor?(8) (May
2013)

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 8. (a) Discus how displacement is sensed by LVDT. With neat sketch show how it can be
mode Phase sensitive.(8)(May 2013)

(b) What are the applications of bimetallic strip? Discuss their types and principle of
operation respectively.(8)
9. (a) Explain the working of light sensor. (8)
(b) Explain the temperature measurement using thermocouple. (8) (Nov 2013)
10. (a) Explain the relationship between temperature and resistance for the RTD with
temperature resistance curve. What are the advantages and disadvantages of RTDs? (10)(Nov
2014)
(b) Explain the functions of a capacitive sensor in a robot end effector. (6)

Part-A

1.What is mechatronics approach? (May 2014)

The approach of the Complete integration of Mechanical, Electronics ,Control and
Computer technology to produce products and systems is called Mechatronics approach.
2.Mention the functions of a Mechatronics system.(May 2013)
 It allows to integrate the Mechanical systems with micro elements
 It ensures the higher efficiency and reliability for the quality of products.
3.What do you understand by signal conditioning.(Nov 2011)
 A signal conditioning system performs manipulating an analog signal.
 It performs filtering and amplification functions.

4. Define measurement system with a block diagram.(May 2015)

A measurement system is a black box which is used for making measurements.
Thermometer

Input ( Temperature) Output (Number on Scales)

5. What are the two basic forms of the control system?

 Open loop control system
 Closed loop control system
6. Write the differences between open loop and closed loop control system.
Open loop systems Closed loop systems
i.It is suitable where accurate positioning of i.The feedback signal controls the table
the tools is not required position accurately
ii.System is very simple ii.Is used almost in all automation process
iii.It is suitable for rough works iii.Its not suitable for rough works
iv.Error is not currently checked and rectified iv.Error is currently checked and rectified

7.What are the elements of the closed loop control system?

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 The elements of the closed loop system are
a. Comparison element
b. Control element
c. Correction element
d. Process element
e. Measurement element

8.Define sequential controller with example.

The sequential controller is used when control is such that actions are strictly ordered in a time
or event based sequences.
Example : Domestic Washing Machine.

9.What do you understand by the term static and dynamic characteristics of transducers.
(Nov 2014)
(or) Define static and Dynamic characteristics?
Static Characteristics The instrument is required to measure a condition not varying with
time.
Dynamic Characteristics The instrument is required to measure a condition varying with
time.

10.Give an example for a transducer and state its transduction principle? (Nov 2012)
Transducers are used to convert one form of energy in to other form of energy.
Example : Thermocouple converts temperature in to a voltage.

11.List any four types of sensors and mention their features.(May 2013)
 Primary sensors – Output is direct measure of input parameters.
 Secondary sensor – Output is not a direct measure of input parameters.
 Active sensor – The power required to produce the output is provided by the sensed
physical phenomenon itself.
 Passive sensor – Requires external power source.

12.Differentiate between Accuracy and precision of transducer with example.(May 2015)

Accuracy Precision
The measured value closes to the true Smallest change in the measured value.
value
It has no unit It has unit.
It indicates how much variation a It indicates how much output may be obtained
measured value has with the true value. per unit output.

13.State the advantage of capacitive type proximity sensor?(Nov 2012)

 High accuracy

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  Excellent linearity over the dynamic range.
 The system responds to average displacement of a large area of a moving electrode.

14.Write about Hall effect sensors.

 When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the
particles and the beam is deflected from its straight line path. A current flowing in a
conductor is like a beam of moving charges and thus can be deflected by a magnetic
field.
 It is used to determine the level of fuel in an automobile fuel tank.

15.Llist down the type of proximity sensor.(Nov 13)

The types of proximity sensors are
 Optical encoder
 Hall effect sensors
 Pneumatic proximity sensors
 Capacitive sensors.
16.Difference between absolute encoder and incremental encoder .(Nov 2014)
Absolute Encoder Incremental Encoder
To Measure angular velocity To measure angular velocity
To produce a unique digital word It produces equally spaced pulses from one
corresponds or more concentric tracks on the code disk.
To each rotational position of the shaft.

17.What are pressure sensor?

A pressure sensor measures pressure of gases or liquids .These sensors generate a signal as a
a function of the pressure applied by the fluid.

18.List down the liquid level sensors.

 Float level sensor
 Static pressure level sensor
 Differential pressure level sensor
 Variable capacitance transducers.

19.Name the liquid flow sensors.

 Orificemeter
 Venturimeter
 Turbine flow meter.

20What is the basic principle in thermocouples?(May 2014)

 A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related
to a temperature difference.
 The amount of current that will be produced is dependent on the temperature difference
between the measurement and reference junction.

21.Distinguish between position sensor and light sensor.(Nov 2013)

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 A position sensor is used to monitor the position of the throttle in an internal combustion
engine.
.
22.What is RTD?State its applications.(Nov 2011)
 It is used to measure the measure the temperature by correlating the resistance of the
RTD element with temperature.
 Applications are in Automatic temperature control (Oven Temperature)

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