LESSON 2.

4 SPECIAL DIODES

Rectifier diodes are the most common type of diode. They are used in power supplies to convert ac voltage
to dc voltage. But rectification is not all that a diode can do. Now we will discuss diodes used in other
applications.

 ZENER DIODE
 The ZENER DIODE is a HIGHLY DOPED silicon pn junction devices that differs from rectifier diodes
because it is designed for operation in the REVERSE-BREAKDOWN REGION.
 The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully controlling the level during manufacture.
 The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a specific voltage across it’s terminals within given limits
of line or load change.
 Typically it is used for providing a stable reference voltage for use in power supplies and other
equipment.

The symbol for a zener diode is shown in the figure. Instead of a straight line representing the cathode,
the zener diode has a bent line that reminds you of the letter Z (for zener).

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode. When biased in the FORWARD direction it
behaves just LIKE A NORMAL SIGNAL DIODE, but when a REVERSE voltage is applied to it, the
VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT for a wide range of currents.

 ZENER BREAKDOWN
Two types of reverse breakdown:

1. AVALANCHE EFFECT, occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a sufficiently high reverse
voltage. Those designed to operate more than 5 V operate mostly in avalanche breakdown range.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 21

2. ZENER BREAKDOWN occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages. Low voltage zeners less than
5V operate in the zener breakdown range.

Note: Zener diodes are commercially available with voltage breakdowns less than 1 V to more
than 250 V.

A zener diode is heavily doped to reduced the breakdown voltage. This causes a very thin depletion
region. As a result, an intense electric field exists within the depletion region. Near the zener breakdown
voltage (Vz), the field is intense enough to pull electrons from their valence bands and create current.
The zener diodes breakdown characteristics are determined by the doping process

Figure below represents the practical model of a zener diode, where the zener impedance (Z Z) is
included.

Since the actual voltage curve is not ideally vertical, a change in zener current (ΔIZ) produces a small
change in zener voltage (ΔVZ), as illustrated in breakdown characteristics figure

Where:
VR is the reverse voltage
VZ is the zener breakdown voltage
IZ is the reverse current or zener current.
IZK is the minimum zener current
IZM is the maximum zener current
IZT is the test or operating zener current

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 22

 SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
9. Calculate the zener impedance if the change in zener voltage is 100mV for a 20 mA change in zener
current on the linear portion of the characteristic curve.

 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
Specifies the percent change in zener voltage for each ˚C change in temperature.

VZ  VZ  TC  T

where:
VZ is the nominal zener voltage at 25˚C
TC is the temperature coefficient
ΔT is the change in temperature

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
10. An 8.2V zener diode has a positive temperature coefficient of 0.05%/˚C. What is the zener voltage at
60˚C?

 MAXIMUM POWER
Maximum DC Power Dissipation, PD(MAX) Maximum Deratted Power

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
11. A certain zener diode has a maximum power rating of 400 mW at 50˚C and a derating factor of
3.2mW/˚C. Determine the maximum power the zener can dissipate at a temperature of 90˚C.

 ZENER DIODE DATASHEET

As with most devices, zener diodes have given characteristics such as temperature coefficients
and power ratings that have to be considered. The data sheet provides this information.

VZ : zener voltage
IZT: zener test current
ZZT: zener Impedance
IZK: zener knee current
IZM: maximum zener current

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 23

 APPLICATIONS

 VOLTAGE LIMITER
Zener diodes can be used in ac applications to limit voltage swing to desired levels.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
12. Determine the output voltage for each zener limiting circuit.

Since input is an alternating current, therefore we will have 2 polarities

@ + half cycle
VZ1 = 0.7 V (act as ordinary diode)
VZ2 = 5.1 V (act as zener diode)

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 24

 @ - half cycle
VZ1 = 3.3 V (act as zener diode)
VZ2 = 0.7 V (act as ordinary diode)

 BASIC REGULATOR

a. Determine the state of the zener diode by removing it from the network and then calculating the
voltage across the resulting open ckt.

If Voc≥ VZ, the zener diode is “ON”, otherwise, the zener diode is “OFF”

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 25

 b. Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for the desired unknown.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
13. a. For the Zener diode network, Determine VL, VR, IZ and PZ.
b. Repeat part (a) with RL = 3kΩ.

a.

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑽 < 𝑽𝒁; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑶𝑭𝑭

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 26

 b.

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑽 > 𝑽𝒁; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑶𝑵

 OPTICAL DIODES
Optoelectronics is the technology that combines optics and electronics. This field includes many devices
based on the action of a pn junction. Examples of optoelectronic devices are light-emitting diodes (LEDs),
photodiodes, optocouplers, and laser diodes.

A. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

 LEDs have replaced incandescent lamps in many applications because of the LED’s lower energy
consumption, smaller size, faster switching and longer life time
 The light-emitting diode (LED) emits photons as visible light. It’s purpose is for indication and other
intelligible displays.
 Various impurities are added during the doping process to vary the color output.

 LED Biasing
 LED operates in forward biased.
 The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater than for a silicon diode. Typically,
the maximum VF for LEDs is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V, depending on the material. Reverse
breakdown for an LED is much less than for a silicon rectifier diode (3 V to 10 V is typical).

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 27

 LED Operation
 When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type material
and recombine with holes in the p-type material.
 The free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy than the holes in the
valence band.
 The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes corresponds to the energy of
visible light.
 When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the form of
photons.
 The emitted light tends to be monochromatic (one color) that depends on the band gap (and
other factors).
 A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semiconductive material permits the photons
to be emitted as visible light.
 This process, called electroluminescence. Various impurities are added during the doping
process to establish the wavelength of the emitted light.
 The wavelength determines the color of visible light.
 Some LEDs emit photons that are not part of the visible spectrum but have longer wavelengths
and are in the infrared (IR) portion of the spectrum.
 Depending on the material used, the light is red, orange, yellow, blue, white or some are
invisible (infrared)

Photons (from Greek φως, meaning light), in many atomic models in physics, are particles
which transmit light. In other words, light is carried over space by photons.

Electroluminescence (EL) is an optical phenomenon and electrical phenomenon in which a

material emits light in response to the passage of an electric current or to a strong electric field.

The color of the light, which corresponds to the wavelength energy of the photons, is
primarily determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor materials that are used. By
using elements like gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus, a manufacturer can produce LEDs that
radiate red, green, yellow, blue, orange, white or infrared (invisible) light. LEDs that produce
visible radiation are useful as indicators in applications such as instrumentation panels, internet
routers, and so on. The infrared LED finds applications in security systems, remote controls,
industrial control systems, and other areas requiring invisible radiation.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 28

  LED Common Applications:
a. Typical small LEDs as indicators

b. Bright LEDs for lighting

A typical LED for lighting can deliver 50–60 lumens per watt, which is approximately five times
greater efficiency than a standard incandescent bulb. LEDs for lighting are available in a variety
of configurations, including low-wattage bulbs for outdoor walkways and gardens. Many LED
lamps are designed to work in 120 V standard fixtures.

c. LED Displays
Standard LEDs are used for indicator lamps and readout displays on a wide variety of
instruments, ranging from consumer appliances to scientific apparatus. A common type of
display device using LEDs is the seven-segment display. By forward-biasing selected
combinations of segments, any decimal digit and a decimal point can be formed. Two types of
LED circuit arrangements are the common anode and common cathode as shown.

B. PHOTODIODES
The photodiode is used to vary current by the amount of light that strikes it. It is placed in the circuit in
reverse bias. As with most diodes when in reverse bias, no current flows when in reverse bias, but when

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 29

 light strikes the exposed junction through a tiny window, reverse current increases proportional to light
intensity.

The photodiode allows essentially no reverse current (except for a very small dark current) when
there is no incident light. When a light beam strikes the photodiode, it conducts an amount of reverse
current that is proportional to the light intensity (irradiance).

OTHER SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODE

 LASER DIODE
 The laser diode (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) produces a monochromatic
(single color) light.
 Laser light is also called coherent light, a single wavelength, as compared to incoherent light, which
consists of a wide band of wavelengths. The laser diode normally emits coherent light, whereas the LED
emits incoherent light.
 Laser diodes in conjunction with photodiodes are used to retrieve data from compact discs.

 LASER Diode Biasing

The laser diode is forward-biased by an external voltage source.

 Photodiode and LASER Diode Applications

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 30

 VARACTOR DIODE
 A varactor diode is best explained as a variable capacitor.
 Specially designed to take advantage of this characteristic and are used as voltage-controlled capacitors
rather than traditional diodes.
 Think of the depletion region a variable dielectric. The dielectric is “adjusted” by bias changes.
 Commonly used in communication systems. Varactor diodes are also referred to as varicaps or tuning
diodes.

 Varactor Diode Biasing

Varactor operates in reverse bias and is doped to maximize the inherent capacitance of the
depletion region.

 Varactor Diode Operation

Recall that capacitance is determined by the parameters of plate area (A), dielectric constant (P),
and plate separation (d), as expressed in the following formula:

As the reverse-bias voltage increases, the depletion region widens, effectively increasing the plate
separation, thus decreasing the capacitance. When the reverse-bias voltage decreases, the depletion
region narrows, thus increasing the capacitance.
In a varactor diode, these capacitance parameters are controlled by the method of doping near the
pn junction and the size and geometry of the diode’s construction. Nominal varactor capacitances are
typically available from a few picofarads to several hundred picofarads.

The varactor diode can be useful in filter circuits as the adjustable component.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 31

 SCHOTTKY DIODE
 The significant characteristic is it’s fast switching speed. This is useful for high frequencies and digital
applications.
 It is not a typical diode in the fact that it does not have a p-n junction, instead it consists of a heavily
doped n-material and metal bound together.
 It is also known as schottky barrier diode, surface barrier diode, majority carrier device, hot electron
diode and HOT-CARRIER DIODES.
 The term hot-carrier is derived from the higher energy level of electrons in the n region compared to
those in the metal region.
 Operates only with majority carriers. There are no minority carriers and thus no reverse leakage current
as in other types of diodes.

 PIN DIODE
 The pin diode consists of heavily doped p and n regions separated by an intrinsic (i) region,
 It’s variable forward series resistance characteristic is used for attenuation, modulation, and switching.
 In reverse bias exhibits a nearly constant capacitance.
 Used in mostly microwave frequency applications, 1GHz to 1000 GHz range

 PIN Diode Applications:

a. As High Voltage Rectifier – The large width of the intrinsic layer allows the ability to the diode to
tolerate high reverse voltage without the breakdown of the diode. Thus, rectification at high voltage can
be implemented with PIN diode. So, this diode is used as a high voltage rectifier.

b. As Radio and Microwave frequency switch – The PIN diode makes an ideal RF switch. In this case,
the diode operated in reverse biased, when the diode is reversed bias. The level of isolation is
increased. Due to the intrinsic layer between the PN junctions, the level of capacitance Not store any
charge and immediately changes from conduction to insulation and vice versa.

c. As Attenuator and RF protection Circuit – It is mainly useful for RF design applications and also for
providing the switching, or an attenuating element in RF attenuators and RF switches.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 32

 d. As Photodiode – The PIN diode is used for converting the light energy into electrical energy. When the
light falls on the depletion region, the small current produced. IN PIN diode there are wide depletion
region so, wide are of depletion region gets more volume of light to produce current and changes occur
according to light easily

 STEP-RECOVERY DIODE
 a diode that has less doping level as compared to other diodes and known as a voltage-dependent
variable capacitor.
 The doping level in this diode is very less near to the junction of the diode. From this, we can say that
charge carries are also less around the junction of the diode.
 Due to this charging is less close to PN junction of diode that decreases the time from on condition to off
condition of a diode.
 As this diode provides high switching speed at less frequency so it mostly used as a charge controlled
switch.
 At less frequency, this diode operates like a general diode that operates in forward biased condition and
not flows current through a diode in reverse biasing conditions.
 Its condition changes very fastly as it changed biasing from forward biased condition to reverse bias.
 For larger frequency signals the switching of a diode is slow. Therefor current generated in forward biasing
continue to flow in reverse biased cycle for some time interval.
 It is due to that stored charged close to PN junction, though their quantity is less but has a high frequency
that uses the large time to move away from the junction.
 The number of charge carries reduces as they reach the junction this process reverse snap off exits. So
step recovery diode is also known as Snap-off Diode.

 The switching of this diode takes less time almost some ‘ns’. This imparts the capability to produce very
sharp beats which play an important function in waveshaping circuits.

 TUNNEL DIODE
 Also called as Esaki diode
 A type of semiconductor diode that has effectively “negative resistance” due to the quantum mechanical
effect called tunneling.
 It will actually conduct well with low forward bias.
 With further increases in bias it reaches the negative resistance range where current will actually go
down.
 This is achieved by heavily doped p and n materials that creates a very thin depletion region.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 33

  Tunnel Diode Application
A parallel resonant circuit can be represented by a capacitance, inductance, and resistance in parallel.
RP is the parallel equivalent of the series winding resistance of the coil. When the tank circuit is
“shocked” into oscillation by an application of voltage, a damped sinusoidal output results. The damping
is due to the resistance of the tank, which prevents a sustained oscillation because energy is lost when
there is current through the resistance.

If a tunnel diode is placed in series with the tank circuit and biased at the center of the negative-
resistance portion of its characteristic curve, a sustained oscillation (constant sinusoidal voltage) will
result on the output. This is because the negative-resistance characteristic of the tunnel diode
counteracts the positive-resistance characteristic of the tank resistance. The tunnel diode is only used at
very high frequencies.

 CURRENT REGULATOR DIODE

 The current regulator diode is often referred to as a constant-current diode.
 Rather than maintaining a constant voltage, as the zener diode does, this diode maintains a constant
current.
 The current regulator diode operates in forward bias (shaded region), and the forward current becomes
a specified constant value at forward voltages ranging from about 1.5 V to about 6 V, depending on the
diode type.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 34

LESSON 2.5 DIODE APPLICATIONS

LESSON 2.5.1 RECTIFIER

 is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction,
to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.
 The process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of current.

INPUT: AC VOLTAGE
OUTPUT: PULSATING DC VOLTAGE

Types of Rectifier:
1. HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER (1 diode)
2. FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
 CENTER-TAPPED (CT) (2 diodes)
 BRIDGE RECTIFIER (4 diodes)

 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

 Circuit inside electronic equipment that converts the ac input voltage to an almost perfect dc output
voltage.
 DC POWER SUPPLY converts the standard 220 V, 60 Hz AC voltage available at wall outlets into a
constant DC voltage.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 35

  The DC power supply is one of the most common circuits you will find, so it is important to understand
how it works.

• Transformer
• Rectifier
a. Half Wave Rectifier
b. Full wave rectifier
1. Center-tapped
2. Bridge type
• Filter
a. Choke Input Filter
b. Capacitor Input Filter
• Regulator

 SINUSOIDAL WAVE
A mathematical curve that describes a smooth repetitive oscillation.

Faraday's work in the 19th

century showed that a changing current
in a conductor (e.g. a transformer primary
winding) sets up a changing magnetic
field around the conductor. If another
conductor (secondary winding) is placed
within this changing magnetic field a
voltage will be induced into that winding.

 INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE ( 𝐕𝑰𝑵𝑺 ) Value of voltage at any instant.

 PEAK VOLTAGE ( 𝐕𝐏 ) Highest value of voltage on half of the cycle.

Measured by an oscilloscope.

 AVERAGE VOLTAGE (DC VOLTAGE) Voltage measure by a DC VOM.

( 𝐕𝐀𝐕𝐄 or 𝐕𝐃𝐂 ) Mathematically it is the area under the curve over
a full cycle.

 RMS VOLTAGE ( 𝐕𝐑𝐌𝐒 ) Voltage measure by an AC VOM.

Amount of AC power that produces the same
heating effect as an equivalent DC power

 TRANSFORMER
Transformer changes ac voltages based on the turns ratio between the primary and secondary.

INPUT: AC VOLTAGE
OUTPUT: AC VOLTAGE

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 36

 Schematic Symbol:

2 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
1. STEP-UP TRANSFORMER
Example: 110V to 220V
N1 < N2
N2 / N1 > 1 (Turn Ratio)
V2 > V1

2. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER – usual

Example: 220V to 110V
N1 > N2
N2 / N1 < 1 (Turn Ratio)
V1 > V2

IDEAL
***No power losses
***100% power transfer

𝐏𝟏 = 𝐏𝟐
Power in Primary Winding = Power in Secondary Winding

I1 V1 = I2 V2

𝐕𝟏 𝐈𝟐
=
𝐕𝟐 𝐈𝟏

𝐕𝟏 𝐈𝟐 𝐍𝟏
𝐕𝟐
= 𝐈𝟏
= 𝐍𝟐

where: N is the number of turns in windings

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
14. Calculate the voltage output by the secondary winding of a transformer if the primary voltage is 35 volts,
the secondary winding has 4500 turns, and the primary winding has 355 turns.

15. Calculate the load current and load voltage in this transformer circuit

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 37

 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

 IDEAL APPROXIMATION

1. The AC source produce a SINUSOIDAL voltage.

2. The positive half of the AC source will forward biased the diode (switch closed), and the positive
half cycle of the source will appear across the load resistor.
3. On the negative half cycle of the source, the diode is reverse biased (open switch) and no voltage
will appear across the load

 SECOND APPROXIMATION

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 38

 SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
16. Determine the peak value of the output voltage for the circuit if the turns ratio is 0.5. Use ideal and 2nd
approximation.

 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

 CENTER-TAPPED RECTIFIER
- A center-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses two diodes connected to the
secondary of a center-tapped transformer.
- This is equivalent to 2 half wave rectifier. Because of the center tap, each of these rectifiers has an
input equal to half of the secondary voltage.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 39

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
17. Solve Vout for below circuit. Draw the input and output (1st and 2nd approx) waveform.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 40

 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected as shown.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
18. A certain unfiltered Bridge rectifier has a transformer that is specified to have a 12Vrms secondary
voltage. Determine the load voltage in peak value using 1st and 2nd approx.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 41

ACTIVITY #2

1. A 1N4736 zener diode has a ZZT of 3.5 Ω. The data sheet gives VZT = 6.8V at IZT = 37 mA and IZK = 1mA.
What is the voltage across the zener terminal when the current is 50mA? When the current is 25 mA.
ANS. 6.84V at 50mA; 6.75V at 25 mA

2. Draw the output waveform for the zener limiting circuit. Show your analysis.
ANS. Will limit the voltage at 6.9 V; and -15.7 V

3. Calculate the number of turns needed in the secondary winding of a transformer to transform a primary
voltage of 300 volts down to a secondary voltage of 180 volts, if the primary winding has 1150 turns of wire.
ANS. Nsecondary = 690 turns

4. A step-down transformer has a turn ratio of 8:1. If the primary voltage is 120 V rms, what is the secondary
voltage? If the primary current is 0.25Arms, what is the secondary current?
ANS. V2 = 15 Vrms; I2 = 2 Arms

5. A certain unfiltered HW rectifier is powered by 120Vrms with turn ratio of N1:N2 = 6:1 (draw figure)
Determine;
a. 2nd voltage rms
b. Peak 2nd voltage
c. DC load voltage
d. DC load current if RL = 5 k
ANS. V2 = 20 Vrms; V2(peak) = 28.28 V; VDC = 9V; IDC = 1.8 mA

6. Determine the peak output voltage for the bridge rectifier. Assuming ideal model, what PIV rating is required
for the diodes? The transformer is specified to have a 12 V RMS secondary voltage for the standard 110V
across the primary.

ANS. PIV = 16.97 V

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 42