THE PIONEER COLUMN OF 1890

After obtaining the B.S.A. Company charter, Cecil Rhodes started recruiting the people who
were to be the first settlers of Mashonaland. The first white settlers were known as the
pioneers. The pioneers were chosen for their character as good citizens as well as skills.
200 of the pioneers were experienced in mining, metal works, carpentry and printing.
Each of the 200 men was promised 3000 acres of land and 15 gold claims upon reaching
Mashonaland. The group also comprised of 400 soldiers and about 1000 servants from the
Ngwato people of Bechuanaland.Dr. Starr Jameson led the group and Frederick Selous acted
a guide. They had about 117 wagons filled with stores. The Group moved from Bechuanaland
through Matebeleland and settled in Mashonaland where they established themselves at Fort
Victoria and Fort Salisbury, which became their capital.
The Ndebele did not fight the British as they entered and passed through Matebeleland though
the impis had wanted to.
Occupation of Matebeleland.
The occupation of Matebeleland completed the British occupation of Southern Rhodesia. The
Occupation of Matebeleland was achieved through war. The British realized that Lobengula
was not going to willingly hand over Matebeleland to them. Therefore, the only option open
to them was through war.
Causes of the Anglo- Ndebele War of 1893.
i. The British were disappointed by the fact that they did not find any gold in
Mashonaland. They thought they would in Matebeleland. The British started looking
for an excuse to declare war on Matebeleland.
ii. The British occupation of Mashonaland also led to the 1893 war. The occupation
created political instability in the Kingdom. This was because the Ndebele impis
could no longer raid the Shonas as they were under British Protection. The Ndebele
Impis had always considered Mashonaland as their raiding grounds. Sometimes, the
impis carried out raids on Mashonaland without Lobengula’s permission. This created
tension with the British settlers.
iii. The British favoring of the Shona over the Ndebele also angered the Ndebele, as the
Ndebele perceived them Shona as being slaves and inferior. In addition, the Shona
were sometimes used as translators by the British authorities.
iv. The Killing of the Shona sub-chiefs Lomagunndi and Chivi also contributed to the
outbreak of war. The two Sub chiefs had stopped paying tribute to Lobengula, as they
felt safe under British protection. Lobengula sent his impis to kill the two and grab
their cattle. This annoyed the British Authorities in Mashonaland.
v. The immediate cause of the war concerned the cutting of 500meters of telegraphic
wire by the Shona under Chief Gomala. Jameson demanded that chief Gomala
surrender the culprits or pay a fine in form of cattle. The Chief choose to pay the fine
in form of cattle. When Lobengula head this he sent his impis to punish Chief
Gomala since by tradition, all the cattle in the Kingdom belonged to the King. Many
Shonas were killed while others seek refuge at Fort Victoria. The Impis demanded
that the Magistrate of Fort Victoria Lendy had to surrender the refugees. This
demand was turned down. Lendy informed Jameson who was at Fort Salisbury of the
situation.
However, the British saw this confrontation as an excuse to start war with the Ndebele and
destroy the power of Lobengula. On 14th July 1893, the B.S.A. Company police shot dead 30
impis who had not complied with the order to leave the Fort Victoria area. This incident was
referred to as the Fort Victoria Incident.
Course/Stages of the Anglo-Ndebele War of 1893.
- From 14th July to October 1893, both the Ndebele and the British started preparing for war.
The Ndebele were 18000 in number while the white settlers were only 3500 but had an
advantage in mobility as they used horses and had modern weapons such as the Maxim gun.
- Jameson started organizing an army and recruiting the settlers. He signed an agreement with
the settlers on behalf of the B.S.A Company called The Victoria Agreement. This was a
secret agreement that stated that after the defeat of the Ndebele all who participated would be
given 2,700 acres of land, 20 gold claims and a share of Lobengula’s cattle.
- The B.S.A. Company troops were organised into three columns. The Fort Victoria and Fort
Salisbury troops were led by Allan Wilson and Major William Forbes respectively. The
third column was from Tati and Captain Raaf commanded it.
Before 24th October 1893, the British and the Ndebele fought minor battles. However, on the
night of 24th October, the first major battle took place on the banks of the Shaagani River.
The Ndebele attacked the British laager and killed many of the African refugees.
The second major battle was fought on 31 st October along the Mbembesi River. The Ndebele
were defeated again.
On 4th November 1894, the British occupied Bulawayo and hoisted the British flag. This
completed the British occupation of Southern Rhodesia. The British troops were sent to
follow and capture Lobengula under the command of Major Forbes.
Results of the War.
- The Ndebele were defeated and became British subjects.
- They lost their land and cattle to the B.S.A. Company.
- They were relocated to the Shaagani and Gwaii Native Reserves, which were small and had
infertile soils.
- Matebeleland and Mashonaland became one and the territory was called Rhodesia in
Memory of Cecil Rhodes.
- The Matebeleland Order-in-Council was passed to administer the new territory.
THE BRITISH OCCUPATION OF NYASALAND
The British occupation of Nyasaland was achieved through the signing of treaties with
Swahili leaders such as Mlozi. The man who played a major role in the British occupation of
Nyasaland was Harry Johnson. He was also a staunched imperialist like Cecil Rhodes who
wanted to expand British colonial rule in Central Africa. Johnson had traveled to many parts
of Africa and was a student of African societies and languages.
Therefore Johnson decided to appoint a man by the name of Sir Alfred Sharpe as his viceto
assist him in his task of treaty making. His main area of concern was the Lower Luangwa
valley, which was part of North-eastern Rhodesia or present day Eastern Province of Zambia.
OCCUPATION OF NORTHERN RHODEDSIA.
The British occupation of Northern Rhodesia was achieved in two phases from two
directions. The Occupation of North- Western Rhodesia was achieved from the South i.e.
Mashona and Matebeleland. While the occupation of North-Eastern Rhodesia was achieved
from Nyasaland.
The Occupation of North- Eastern Rhodesia.
The British Occupation of North-Eastern Rhodesia was achieved from Nyasaland as a result
of the extension of the treaty making activities that were started by Harry Johnson. In 1890,
Johnson recruited Alfred Sharpe to assist him in the area of the lower Luangwa valley.
Another man who was influential in the occupation of North-eastern Rhodesia was Joseph
Thompson a personal representative of Cecil Rhodes.
The British Occupation of North-Eastern Rhodesia was achieved later towards the end of the
19th century. This was because both Rhodes and Johnson were busy in Southern Rhodesia and
Malawi respectively. In addition, powerful groups such as the Ngoni of Mpezeni, the Lunda
of Mwatakazembe, and the Bemba under Chitimukulu occupied the areas.
The British realized that these warrior groups were likely to resist and therefore force might
be required.
From January 1890, Alfred Sharp tried to negotiate for treaties with chiefs and headmen of
the lower Luangwa valley area. He was not very successful because;
The Ngoni Chief Mpezeni was friendly but suspicious of white men’s motive. In addition,
Mpezeni was confident that his strong Ngoni state would never need British protection.
Therefore, Mpezeni refused to sign any treaties with the B.S.A. Company officials. However,
Mpezeni was very friendly with a German adventurer called Karl Wiese and gave him a
concession of mineral rights over 2590000 hectares in return for Portuguese Protection
against the British. In 1891, Wiese sold his concession to a Portuguese company called
Mozambique Gold Land and Concession Company. This forced the British to claim that their
concession seekers were first in the territory though they did not obtain any concessions from
Mpezeni.
The British formed a rival Company called the North Charterland Exploration Company
where most of the Shares were owned by the B.S.A COMPANY. The Company started
negotiating with the Portuguese company and obtained some of the mineral rights.
Mpezeni tried to resist the influx of Europeans in the Kingdom especially his son Nsingu
wanted to drive out the British by force
However, by December 1897 the relation between the Ngoni and the British had deteriorated
and both sides were preparing for war. By 1900, the Ngoni had been defeated and subdued.
Fort Jameson was established as the colonial capital of North Eastern Rhodesia
Treaties with the Mwatakazembe.
In the Luapula valley of Present day Zambia, Alfred Sharpe managed to sign treaties with
Nsama of the Tabwa and the Mwatakazembe. The Terms of the Treaty with the
Mwatakazembe were;
The Mwatakazembe accepted British Protection from the Swahili who were interfering in the
Kingdom.
The Mwatakazembe granted the B.S.A Company Mineral and land rights in the Kingdom.
In October 1899 a British force under Captain E.C. Margessson matched into the
Mwatakazembe Kingdom but met little resistance because the Kingdom had greatly declined
due to internal and external factors.
Treaty with the Bemba Kingdom
The Bemba kingdom was colonized as a result of the internal problems of the Kingdom that
forced the Chitimukulu to ask for British protection. After the Death of Chitimukulu
Chitapankwa, there was a succession dispute between his successor Sampa and Senior Chief
Mwamba Chipoya. Through the influence a White fathers Missionary Bishop Joseph
Dupont, the Chitimukulu request for British Protection, which was granted to him. Therefore,
the British occupation of the Bemba Kingdom was met with little resistance.
The British Occupation of North-Western Rhodesia.
The African Ruler who was responsible for the British Occupation of North-Western
Rhodesia was Lewanika of the Lozi Kingdom. Lewanika had faced a lot of internal and
external problems since he came to power in 1878. He faced problems from members of the
Mulongwanji Council. In 1884, members of the council led by Tatila Akufuna temporarily
overthrew him. When he was restored to power, he did everything possible to hold on to
power. In addition, Lewanika was also afraid of external threats i.e. the possible attack from
the Ndebele under Mzilikazi and the Europeans who were encroaching on his Kingdom i.e.
The Germans, the Portuguese and the British.
Therefore, Lewanika Made friends with outsiders who would help him. He became friends
with a missionary François Coillard of the PEMS, Chief Khama of the Ngwato of
Bechuanaland and George Westbeech a German Trader. Chief Khama in Particular Persuaded
Lewanika to seek British protection since he had the previous year. As a result, Lewanika
signed several treaties with the British.

The Ware Concession-1889.

British could respond to his request for protection, Lewanika signed the Ware Concession
with a German trader Henry Ware in June 1889. The terms of the Ware Concession were;
Ware was allowed to prospect for minerals in Tongaland and if found to mine for a period of
20 years.
Lewanika was to receive an annual amount of 200 pounds as mineral royalties.
In this treaty, Lewanika had exaggerated the area of Lozi Political control to include the Ila
and Tonga areas in the South and as far as Katanga in the North.
The Lochner Concession-1890.
After Cecil Rhodes heard of the signing of the Ware Concession, He decided to persuade
Henry Ware to sell him the Concession. Cecil Rhodes decided to buy the Ware Concession
because it was part of his aim to achieve the Cape to Cairo Dream.
In addition, he wanted to control the copper producing area in the North, which Lewanika
claimed to be under Lozi control.
Rhodes sent his personal representative Frank Lochner in early 1890 to Lewanika. He was
to inform Lewanika that the Ware Concession had been bought by the B.S.A Company. He
was also to give Lewanika the impression that he was dealing directly with the British
Government. With the encouragement of Chief Khama of the Ngwato and François Coillard
who had become a personal friend and adviser, Lewanika signed the Lochner Concession in
1890. The terms were;
Lewanika gave the British exclusive mineral and land rights in rights in Tongaland.
Lewanika also promised never to make any treaties with other Europeans.
Lewanika was in turn promised an annual salary of 2000 pounds and mineral royalties.
He was also promised protection against Ndebele attacks.
Lewanika was also to allow a British Representative resident at Lealui.
The B.S.A Company was to build schools for Lozi children and promote trade and industry in
Bulozi.
However, for over 7 years, the British did not follow up on some of the terms of the Lochner
Concession especially the sending of a resident representative to Lealui.
The Lawley Treaty of 1898.
This treaty was merely a revision of the Lochner Concession of 1890. It was signed between
Lewanika and Arthur Lawley who was a British Administrator of Matebeleland. The terms
of the Treaty were;
Revised the terms of the Lochner Concession and addition were made.
The Treaty allowed the B.S.A Company administrative authority over all areas that were
claimed to have been under Lewanika’s rule
The Western borders of the Kingdom were also extended and more land taken as part of the
Lozi Kingdom.
However, this treaty was never signed because British decided to exert more political control
in areas were the B.S.A Company operated. The British Government had lost confidence in
the B.S.A.Company rule after events that had been happening in Southern Rhodesia i.e. the
Ndebele and Shona Uprisings. The British passed a special law called The Barotseland
Order-in-Council. Under this law, Bulozi was now to be called North Western Rhodesia or
Barotseland. The Law also provided for an Administrator who was nominated and appointed
by the Company but approved by the British Government through the High Commissioner at
the Cape. The First administrator of Barotseland was Robert Coryndon.
Victoria Falls Treaty or The Coryndon Treaty-1900.
This treaty was signed between the new administrator Robert Coryndon and Lewanika. The
aim of this treaty was to clarify and confirm the terms of the Lawley Treaty that was not
signed. The terms of this treaty were;
i. The B.S.A. Company was given right to give land grants to European Settlers in any
part of the Lozi Kingdom apart from Barotseland Proper (the original area of the Luyi
rulers in the flood plains).
ii. The Company was also given judicial powers to try cases especially those concerning
Witchcraft in any part of the Lozi Kingdom but never in Barotseland proper.
iii. Under this treaty, Lewanika’s annual allowance was reduced from the Agreed 2000
pounds to only 850.
The signing of this treaty led to the loss of political power and influence for Lewanika. He
lost control over the Tribute as the conquered chiefs were now under British Protection and
were required to pay tax to the Company. In addition, the British started interfering in the
affairs of Barotseland proper. This further weakened Lewanika as a political figure.
The Lewanika Treaty of 1916.
This was a treaty that the British South African Company forced Lewanika to sign. By this
treaty, Lewanika was forced to claim the territory f the Lamba people in the Copper belt area.
This was after the discovery of copper in the area, which the Company wanted to claim.
By 1916, Lewanika had lost all his political and economic powers and had become a mere
puppet of the British. By this time, the British had fully occupied Northern Rhodesia.
 AFRICAN RESISTANCE TO COLONIAL RULE
- African resistance to colonial rule was in two forms:
1. PRIMARY RESISTANCE
- The earliest form of resistance to colonial rule put up by Africans was called primary
resistance. These started in the late 19 th Century through to the outbreak of the First World
War. These included the Ndebele-Shona rebellions and the formation of Independent African
Churches.
INDEPENDENT AFRICAN CHURCHES
- Many educated African Christians complained about the attitude of White Missionaries.
When their grievances were not being met, the educated Africans decided to break away from
the main Churches such as the UMCA, LMS and the Livingstonia Missions. They formed
their own Churches known as the Independent African Churches.
ELLIOT KAMWANA
- Elliot Kamwana was one of the leading Africans who opposed colonial rule. He led the
Watch Tower Movement in Nyasaland. Elliot Kamwana was a Tonga educated by the
Livingstoia Mission at Bandawe.
- In 1901, he broke away from the Livingstonia Missions under the influence of Joseph Booth.
- He later founded the Jehovah’s Witnesses, also known as the Watch Tower Movement. Under
his influence, the work of the Watch Tower sprang up among the Tonga. Kamwana preached
against taxation and condemned the colonial oppressive laws.
- Kamwana preached about the coming of the New Faith and claimed that Jesus would come in
1914 and that he would punish the colonial masters and remove them from Malawi. Within
months, he had thousands of followers. He even conducted open-air baptisms. Kamwana’s
preaching worried both the Livingstonia Missions and the colonial government such that he
was imprisoned in June, 1909 and then deported from Malawi to South Africa.
JOHN CHILEMBWE
- Among all the independent African Church leaders, John Chilembwe was perhaps the most
remarkable figure in Nyasaland. His father was Yao from the Chiradzulu district of
Nyasaland.

After finishing his studies at Blantyre Mission in 1892, he became one of the followers of
Joseph Booth.
- In 1896 Chilembwe accompanied Booth to the United States of America (USA) where he
studied Theology. He returned to Malawi in 1900 and formed the Providence Industrial
Mission in the Chiradzulu area in Shire Highlands.
- By 1906, Chilembwe had opened six schools.
- Chilembwe spoke strongly against colonial injustices that existed in Malawi. His main
grievances were racial discrimination, hut tax, loss of land by Africans and other economic
and social injustices. He also condemned the involvement of Africans to fight in the First
World War which did not concern them.
The Chilembwe uprising (1915)
- As a result of the above grievances, Chilembwe organized an armed rebellion against the
colonial government. On 23rd January, 1925, the Chilembwe uprising began. His slogan was
‘strike a blow and die’. Chilembwe and his group attacked the white farms belonging to W.J
Livingstone and Bruce.
- The revolt was quickly suppressed. Chilembwe tried to escape to Mozambique but was killed.
- The rebellion was over by 4th February, 1915.
CHARLES DOMINGO
- Charles was a Kundawho completed his education as a pastor under the supervision of
Dr.Robert Laws in 1902. In 1908, he broke away from the Livingstonia Missio after
quarrelling with Donald Frazer. He joined the Seventh Day Adventist Church in Northern
Nyasaland and later opened the African Seventh Day Baptist Church in Mazimba and Rumpi
districts.
- Domingo criticized the European Society for racial discrimination and poor conditions of
work of Africans employed on European farms. He had also been influenced by Joseph
Booth, a British Missionary who supported the interests of Africans.
- Domingo also built schools and churches for Africans.
- He was later sent in exile.
WILLIE MOKOLAPA
- Mokolapa was a Sotho from Basutoland. He visited South Africa in 1900 and got the
influence of Ethiopian Church.
- Mokolapa worked among the Lozi at Lealui where he was opposed by Francis Coillard, a
missionary of the PEMS. King Lewanika supported the works of Mokolapa.
- In 1904, Mokolapa broke away from the PEMS and formed the Ethiopina Church in
Barotseland. He continued preaching against the works of colonialists. He opened up
schools.
- By 1907, the church had grown within Barotseland.
MATHEWS CHIGAGA ZWIMBA
- Zwimba was a Shona from Zimbabwe. He was a teacher who established himself as a
spokesperson for the people.
- Due to his influence among the people, he was transferred to Gatooma where he further
differed with his supervisors. This resulted in his dismissal as a teacher in 1907.
- He founded the ‘Church of the White Bird’ among the shona.
- Zwimba wrote the list of those killed in the 1896/97 Ndebele/Shona uprisings. These were
treated as saints and martyrs.

THE CENTRAL AFRICAN FEDERATION

 The Central African Federation was the uniting of Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland into one territory under one government, which was referred to as the Federal
Government.
 However, each state was supposed to have its own government to decide on its affairs. The
Federation was also referred to as the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and it came into
existence in 1953.
 The Federation came to an end in 1963 due to strong African opposition. This was because
the White minority from Southern Rhodesia mostly controlled the Federal Government and
Africans did not benefit much from the Federation.
(Map showing the Central African Federation)
 REASONS FOR FEDERATION
 The idea to amalgamate Northern and Southern Rhodesia started as early as 1930s by the
white settlers in both areas. There were both economic and political reasons for advocating
for federation. These were:
 Whites in Northern and Southern Rhodesia wanted to maintain white domination in both
territories.
 The white settlers also wanted to achieve economic inter-dependence of the three territories.
This was because each of the three territories produced different commodities i.e. food, coal
and tobacco from Southern Rhodesia, copper from Northern Rhodesia and labor from
Nyasaland.
 White settlers in Southern Rhodesia wanted to have control of the copper in Northern
Rhodesia.
 The White settlers in Northern Rhodesia hated the Policy of African Paramountancy, which
was introduced in the 1930s by the Passified Memorandum. They wanted to get rid of this
policy by joining with the settlers in Southern Rhodesia.
 Federation would also lead to co-operation in many areas e.g. telecommunications,
hydroelectric power, research and development in fields of health, agriculture, industry and
education.
ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST FEDERATION
 The white settlers both in Northern and Southern Rhodesia and some Africans in Southern
Rhodesia who were attracted to the promised policy of partnership argued for the formation
of the federation. However, Africans in Northern Rhodesia as well as the British Government
initially opposed the idea of federation.
Arguments for Federation
 Federation would bring economic prosperity to all the three areas, as they would complement
each other economically.
 All three states would share in the economic benefits from the Gold and copper mines in
Southern and Southern Rhodesia.
 Federation would lead to a stronger British State in Central Africa that would check or stop
the spread of South African Racial policies.
 Africans in Southern Rhodesia Supported Federation because they were attracted to the
concept of Partnership as opposed to the policy of racial discrimination that had existed
earlier.
Arguments against Federation
 The Africans in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland opposed Federation because:
 Since the two were protectorates of the British government, they were used to the policy of
African Paramountancy and were aware that a federation would be controlled and dominated
by the whites that were in the minority.
 They also did not want the policy of racial discrimination that prevailed in Southern Rhodesia
to be introduced in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland as well.
 Some white settlers in Southern Rhodesia preferred a union with South Africa rather than a
federation with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland because they wanted to continue with their
racial policies.
 The joining of the two Rhodesia’s and Nyasaland would have been difficult due to the fact
that Southern Rhodesia was a colony and followed a policy of Direct rule while Northern
Rhodesia and Nyasaland were Protectorates and followed indirect rule.
 The British opposition Labor and Liberal Parties opposed federation because they did not
want to force Africans into it.
 Africans were also skeptical of the proposed policy of Partnership and believed that the only
kind of partnership that would ever exist between the two races would be like that of “a rider
and a horse.”
 Despite the opposition to the Federation, it was introduced in October 1953. This was because
it was decided that the arguments for federation outweighed those against.
THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
 In order to prepare for the federation constitution, there were several meetings that were held
between 1949 and 1953. In February 1949, representatives from the three territories met at the
Victoria Falls Conference to make proposals for the formation of the Federation. However,
the Labor Party Government rejected the Proposals because Africans were not represented.
 In 1951, the Conservative Party came to power in Britain under Winston Churchill. He was
sympathetic to the white settlers wish for a Federation. In the same year, another conference
was held at the Victoria Falls. Although Africans were represented, they did not agree to the
proposed constitution.
 In 1952, the Conservative Government under Churchill called for another conference in
London to finalize discussions on the Federal constitution. At this conference, all were
represented including Africans.
 The African representatives still protested against the Federal constitution. However, the
British government sent a conservative politician to Central Africa to find out the African
views on Federation. He falsely reported that Africans were for Federation. Therefore, in
October 1953, the British Government approved the federal constitution that led to the
formation of the federation.
 Sir Godfrey Huggins who had been the Prime minister of Southern Rhodesia became the
First Federal Prime Minister.
Terms of the Federal Constitution
 The constitution provided for a federal parliament to be based in Salisbury, which was the
federal capital. The Federal Parliament would consist of 36 members of parliament, 18 from
Southern Rhodesia, 11 from Northern Rhodesia and 7 from Nyasaland. Of the 36, only 6
would be Africans.
 The Constitution also provided for a Federal Government that would be based in Salisbury
and in 1954, Sir Geoffrey Huggins became the First federal Governor/Prime minister. The
Federal Governor was also responsible for the appointment of a federal cabinet.
 The Federal Constitution also provided for an African Affairs Board. This board was made
up of 3 Europeans representing Africans and 3 Africans from the three territories. The duties
of the African Affairs Board included protesting against any bill segregating against Africans.
 Franchise was given to all white settlers of voting age but very few Africans were allowed to
vote.
 The Federal Government would control Finance, trade, communication, industry and defense.
While the territories and their local governments would be responsible for Education, land,
agriculture and health.
 Federal Revenue came from income tax from all three territories but the bulk came from
Northern Rhodesian copper. The Revenue was divided into; 60% for the federal government,
17% for Southern Rhodesian Government, 17% for the Northern Rhodesian Government and
only 6% percent for Nyasaland.
 The Federal Constitution was to be reviewed within 7years. If it worked well, the Federation
would be given independence from the British Government.
 The British Government also retained some powers over the review of the constitution,
 African affairs and defense.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FEDERATION
Northern Rhodesia
Advantages
 Economically, federation led to an increase in employment and this raised the standards of
living for most Africans.
 Northern Rhodesia also benefited from the cheap hydro-electrical scheme at Kariba and this
boosted production in the mines.
 Northern Rhodesian agriculture was also boosted with the wheat and rice growing schemes on
the Kafue Flats.
 Politically, Federation was advantageous to Northern Rhodesia in that it led to the rise of
African Nationalism. This was a positive move towards African Independence.
Disadvantages
 Federation led to a lack of broad based economy for Northern Rhodesia as much emphasis
was placed on the production of copper which was a wasting resource.
 Besides, most of the income from Northern Rhodesia went to develop the Federal
Government and Southern Rhodesia.
 Education in Northern Rhodesia was also neglected and this led to lack of trained manpower
at the time of independence.
 Racial discrimination was also on the increase in the mines, shops and hotels.
 Besides, Northern Rhodesia did not benefit as much as she was supposed to from the Hydro-
electrical power on the Kariba Dam. It would have been more advantageous if the Power
station had been on the Kafue River.
Nyasaland
Advantages
 The Federation led to improvements in Agriculture in Nyasaland i.e. the Tea growing scheme
and tea became the main cash crop of Nyasaland.
 The Federation also created job opportunities for the people of Nyasaland who went to work
in the copper mines of Northern and Southern Rhodesia.
 Most people from Nyasaland also benefited from the federation by improving their education
in Southern or abroad.
 Like Northern Rhodesia, Nyasaland also benefited from the Federation politically as it led to
the rise of African Nationalism. The Federal Government also passed laws that contributed to
the gaining of independence for Nyasaland.
Disadvantages
 Federation delayed the development of Nyasaland as she was used as a mere labor reservoir
for Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia.
 This lack of development was also as a result of the insufficient share of the Federal income,
which was not adequate for development.
 Africans in Nyasaland had limited voting rights in the Federal and territorial elections.
 The Federation also delayed the independence of Nyasaland as most educated Africans left
for better economic opportunities in Northern and Southern Rhodesia.
Southern Rhodesia.
Advantages
 Southern Rhodesia benefited more from the Federation than the two other territories.
Southern Rhodesia got a larger percentage of the Federal income i.e. 60% for the Federal
Government based at Salisbury and 17% for Southern Rhodesia as a territory. This
Contributed to the development of Infrastructure.
 Africans were also encouraged to put into practice them policy of Partnership by allowing
some Africans to participate in elections.
 Southern Rhodesia also benefited more from the Hydro-electrical power station.
Disadvantages
 The disadvantages were minimal for Southern Rhodesia.
 The two main disadvantages were that Federation contributed to an increase in racial
discrimination.
 It also greatly delayed Southern Rhodesian independence in comparison to the other two
territories.
 The federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland came to an end as a result of Protests from
Africans in 1963.