Grammar Summary

I. The subject – Predicate Analysis:

A modifier changes, clarifies, qualifies, or limits a particular word in a sentence in order to add emphasis,
explanation, or detail. Modifiers tend to be descriptive words, such as adjectives and adverbs. Modifier
phrases, such as adjective clauses and adverbial phrases, also exist and tend to describe adjectives and
adverbs.

Phrase Express Function Form

Noun expresses or names a person, the subject or object of  a noun (the head or primary element)
animal, place, thing, substance, a clause or as and may include dependents—a
the complement of a determiner (the, a, this, his, some) and
event, quality, action, concept and
preposition. modifiers such
more. A noun phrase includes as adjectives or prepositional
determiners and modifiers that phrases or clauses.
specifically add information about  The Modifier Noun
the noun.

Verb expresses an action or activity serves as the a verb and one or more auxiliaries: a

predicate of the modal, have or be. 
clause  Auxiliared Verb
Adjective describes a noun or a pronoun and A modifier that modify  Adjective
adjective noun, pronoun,  Adverb Phrase-Adjective
adjective  Adjective-Prepositional Phrase
 Adjective-Verb Phrase
 Adjective-Noun Clause
 Adverb Phrase-Adjective-
Prepositional Phrase
 Adverb Phrase-Adjective-Verb
Phrase
 Adverb Phrase-Adjective-Noun
Clause
Adverb An adverb modifies a wide variety A modifier that modify  Adverb Verb Adverb
of sentence elements: a verb, an verb, adjective,  Adverb Adjective
adjective, a prepositional phrase, a
adverb  Adverb Adverbs
clause (finite or nonfinite).
 Adverb prepositional phrase
Preposition It’s accurate to say that almost  Preposition + After Noun:
every sentence has at least a Noun phrase -She doesn’t seem to have worry
preposition. Prepositions used in a about anything in life.
sentence are commonly placed After adjective:
immediately after a noun, an -Not being confident about their
adjective, or a verb. Just as future, they decided to emigrate.
common are prepositions coming After verb:
before a noun phrase. Prepositions -We laughed at her funny jokes.
are also used after a direct object. Preposition follows direct object of
transitive verb
-She forgives him for going out with
the other girl.
Preposition in front of a prepositional
phrase.
-I still remember the sun sets in the
west.
Adverbial Adverb Phrase, Prepositional Phrase,
Noun Phrase
Complement Adjective Phrase, Noun Phrase,
Prepositional Phrase, a Clause

 The simple sentence

Subject + Verb (Intransitive) The visitors have arrived.

Subject + Verb + Object (Transitive) The kids have eaten all the sandwiches.
Subject + verb + Complement (Linking verb) This jacket is nice.
Subject +Verb + Adverbial The match is tomorrow.
We got on the bus.
The meeting is every month.
Subject+ Verb + Object + Object We should give the children presents.
Subject + Verb + Object + Complement The project keeps everyone very busy.
All the publicity made the song a big hit.
Subject + Verb + Object + Adverbial I put my mobile in my pocket.
Subject + Verb + Complement + Adverbial The lift was out of order last week.
(linking verb)

II. Noun:

Uncountable Noun Countable Noun Material/Concrete Noun Abstract Noun

Determiners include the following common types:

- Articles (to referring): a/an, the
- Demonstratives (to referring): this, that, these, those
- Possessives (to referring): my, your, his, her, its, our, their, x’s (possessive ’s)
- Quantifiers (to show quantity): (a) few, fewer, (a) little, many, much, more, most, some, any, etc.
- Numbers (to quantifying): one, two, three, etc.
Use determiners Count Noncount
 Singular
- Articles - Articles
- Demonstratives - Demonstratives
- Possessives - Possessives
- Quantifiers
Plural
- Articles
- Demonstratives
- Possessives
- Quantifiers
X
- Numbers

Abstract Noun: refer to Count: Singular In the nouns below, the What a life she
things that aren't concrete. A count noun is a unit, an item in determiner  a before the has!  
They cannot be seen, a group that can be counted. A You have a count noun expresses a
touched, heard, smelled, or number can be placed before thought but is it a particular, specific event,
tasted. They refer to it: three dollars.  It can take the good one? "true of one situation".  In
emotions, ideas, concepts, plural form. Most count nouns Plural some cases, an adjective
traits, experiences, or belong to a collective group may be included.
states of being which is not countable. I'm sending
positive thoughts your
way. (wishes to you)
Noncount: Singular form The noncount use of the Life is
A noncount noun is a group, equivalent (same) word complicated.
mass or collective noun. It is not Your project needs expresses a more general
countable because it is too small, more thought. meaning, "true for all
a particle, liquid, gas, concept or situations or events".  
activity. A collective noun has no
plural form. (A dollar is a unit
within the group: money.)
Material/Concrete Count: Singular The count noun use below I received an
Noun: refer to thing that A count noun is a unit, an item in expresses a particular one. In email from him
can be tasted, touched, a group that can be counted. A The dollar is here. some cases, an adjective today.
seen, heard, or smelled number can be placed before may be included with the
it: three dollars.  It can take the article "a".
plural form. Most count nouns
Plural
belong to a collective group
which is not countable.
The dollars are here.
Noncount: Singular form The noncount use of the I get so
A noncount noun is a group, equivalent (same) word much email that
mass or collective noun. It is not The money is here.  expresses a more general I can't read
countable because it is too small, meaning.  An adjective may it all.
a particle, liquid, gas, concept or be included.
activity. A collective noun has no
plural form. (A dollar is a unit
within the group: money.)

III. Verbs:

Normal Verb Major Verb Verbs + Three Verbal

 1. Normal Verb:
Intransitive Verb

Transitive Verb + Object + Object/Complement/Adverbial

Normal Verb
Linking verb

2. Major Verb:

Causative Verbs – Get, Have, Make, Let, Help.

Causative # 1 – HAVE/GET SOMETHING DONE

This means that someone does something for you
because you pay or ask them to do it , but you
don’t say who this person is.

Causative # 2 – HAVE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING

This means that someone does something for you
because you pay or ask them to do it, but you
also say who this person is.

Causative # 3 – GET SOMEONE TO DO

SOMETHING
This means someone does something for you
because you persuade (= encourage, tell them
that you’d like them to do something)  them to
do it. So this construction feels less neutral than
the previous ones.
Causative # 4 – MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING
This means that you force someone/something to
do something for you.

Causative # 5 – LET SOMEONE/SOMETHING DO

SOMETHING
This means that you allow ( = let, give permission
to do something) someone to do something or
you allow something to happen.

Causative # 6 – HELP SOMEONE (to) DO

SOMETHING
This means that you help (= assist) someone (to)
do something. This structure is most often used
without ‘to’.
 Major Verbs: Be, Have, Have got, Do, Make, Get, Go, Take, See, Let, Suggest and Recommend, Prefer
and Would Rather.

BE Auxiliary verb in Continuous tenses, passive form, Linking verb

Identity & definition: Anna is my neighbors .
Nationality & Origin: They’re not French.
Someone’s job: My mom was a lawyer.
Age: It’s about 400 years old.
Personality, Character, Feelings, Behavior: She is friendly. I was tired this morning.
Properties, Qualities: The exam was easy.
Possession: This is our car.
Time, days, dates: The bus was late. It was May 5th
Weather, temperature: It’s sunny. It isn’t cold.
Price, cost: The trousers are USD 50. How much is the bill?
Something exists or doesn’t exist – there + be: There’s a train at 3.30. There hasn’t been much rain
recently.
HAVE Auxiliary verb in Perfect tenses
Semi-modal verb – have (got), necessity, obligation: What time do we have to be at the airport? You’re
got to be joking!
Causative verb.
Have + noun:
Meals – have breakfast/dinner: We’re having a late lunch today.
Food & drink – have a drink/ a burger/ a coffee.. : I will have a coffee and a croissant please.
Everyday activities – have a shower/ a rest/ a walk/ a nap : She always has a little nap after lunch.
Events – have a lesson/ a meeting/ a party/ a holiday : Suki’s having a party next Friday.
Experiences – have fun/ a good time/ a laugh/ a problem/ an argument : Did you have a good time?
Have a + noun – have a look, have a taste, have a guess – instead of using a verb: I can’t open the
window. Will you have a go? (try)
HAVE GOT Possession, characteristics, features, qualities – have got + noun: I’ve got two brothers. Jane’s got long
hair. Has the school got a swimming pool?
Have sth in our possession at the moment – have got…on/ with me: I haven’t got any money on me.
Have you got your laptop with you?
Things being available in shop & restaurant: Have you got this dress in a size ten? They’ve got lots of
vegetarian dishes.
Illness, medical condition: I’ve got a headache. He’s got a heart condition.
DO Auxiliary verb in Simple tense
Expression – do + noun – do your best/ do an exercise/ do some damage.: I’m doing a computer course.
Can you do me a favor.
Household activities – do + the/ some + gerund (cooking, cleaning, gardening, ironing, shopping,
washing, washing up): I need to do some washing.
Sport – athletics/ gymnastics/ judo/ karate/ yoga/ a bungee jump/ a marathon: have you ever done
yoga? I’d never do a karate.
How fast a vehicle travel – do + a speed: A formula one car can do 300kph.
Be involved, connected with, be responsible for – nothing/ something + to do with: This mess has
nothing to do with me. The problem is something to do with your anti-virus software.
Be enough – will do: A sandwich will do, I’m not hungry. Will 10 dollars do as a tip?
Greeting: How do you do?
MAKE Construct, create: They make the Mini in Oxford. My daughter made me a new dress.
 Produce, prepare: I made dinner last night. Who made this mess?
Perform an action – make + noun phrase: I need to make a phone call. Don’t make promise you can’t
keep.
Attend – make (it to): Did you make it to the meeting? I won’t make the lecture this afternoon.
Be in time for sth – make/ make it (to somewhere): If we hurry, we’ll make the 10.15 bus. Do you think
we’ll make it to the station in time?
Achieve, success: Chloe’s got the talent to make it to the top.
Have the necessary qualities – make + adj + noun: Do you think he’ll make a good prime minister? Julia
and Danny make a lovely couple, don’t they?
Formed, produced, manufactured from – be made from (material is altered)/ of: Glass is made from
sand. The sculpture is made of ice.
Causative verb
GET Obtain, receive – get + noun: I got a new laptop for my birthday. I got 85% in my English test.
Thing we buy, earning money, illnesses: I’m going to the shop to get some bread. I got Dave a shirt in the
sale. Tina got me a book for my birthday.
I got 10 dollars for cleaning my dad’s car. We all got food poisoning on holiday.
Bring, fetch – get + noun: Can you get my glasses from the kitchen-table? I’m just going to get Lauren’s
coat from car.
Become somethings, thing changing – get + adj: We got wet when it rained. Are you getting ready? Isn’t
Jimmy getting tall?
Become sth – get + p.p – get dressed/ get lost/ get married/ get stuck: Sorry we’re late, we got lost. We
got married in 2008.
Travel, arrive somewhere – get + adverbial: How do you get to school? We got home at about midnight.
Call me when you get to the hotel.
How we travel: Let’s get a taxi. We got the 10.30 bus.
(Finally) start or do sth – get (on with/ round to) + gerund/ noun phrase: Let’s get going or we will be
late. Can you get on with the cooking? I’m sure he’ll get around to fixing the light one day.
Causative Verb.
Understand sth: I don’t get it. Do you get what I mean?
Have the opportunity to do sth/ succeed in doing st/ manage to do sth – get + to inf: We got to meet
the brand after the gig. Did you get to go on Jim’s motorbike? We didn’t get to see the film unfortunately.
GO Leisure activities, shopping – go + gerund – camping, diving, fishing, shopping, skating, skiing,
snowboarding, surfing, swimming, walking: We’re going surfing at the weekend.
Purpose, reason for going somewhere – go + to inf: I’m going to get some milk. Lupi’s gone to collect the
children.
Purpose – go + noun: I’m going for a shower.
Assessment of success or progress / state of sth: I think the interview went well. The lesson went really
slowly. The office relocation is going fine.
How ‘s it going?
Go right/ go wrong.
TAKE Take + noun phrase/ adverbial
Move, transport: Has anyone taken my keys? Can you take these reports to Andrew?
For leisure activities – take + someone + gerund: I took the children swimming this morning.
Reach for and hold sth: Can you take these books for a moment? George took his mother’s hand.
Duration of journey/ action – take + time: The bus takes five mins. How long does the journey take? It
takes an hour to get to work. How long does it take to get to Oxford?
***film/ appointment/ lesson: use “last” – This lesson lasts 45 mins
How many/ much of sth is needed – it + take + noun + to inf: It took 4 people to move the wardrobe. It
takes a lot of skill to make the perfect dish.
Accept/ receive: Are you going to take the job? All employees took a 5% pay cut.
 Being subjected to sth: The houses took a lot of damage in the storm. The team took a serious beating by
Arsenal and the final score was 4-0
SEE What is visible: You can see for miles from the top floor. I saw you in the supermarket earlier. I can’t see
anything without my glasses. I can’t see Roger’s car. Can you?
More prolonged or deliberate activities = watch: We saw the new film last night. Did you see the
fireworks display?
Meet, spend time with someone: I’m seeing Alison this evening. You should see the doctor. What do you
want to see me about?
Things we realize or learn – see + (that) clause: I see that Luke got promoted.
Take responsibility – see to + object: I’ll see to the dinner tonight. Don’t worry about booking the tickets,
I’ll see to it.
LET Suggestion, instruction – let’s (not) + inf without to: Let’s go for a coffee. Let’s not waste any more time.
Let’s not be late. Let us look in more detail at the result. Let us not forget the lessons of the past fifty
years.
Use “shall we” for question tag: Let’s get a taxi, shall we?
Thinking about or consider sth – let’s see/ let’s think/ let me see/ let me think: What’s the best way to
get to Jim’s house? Let’s think…
Offer to help, make a request– let + so + inf without to: let me help you. Let us take you to the station.
Let me have a look at your new phone. Let us hear your news, then.
Tell or inform so – let + so + know: Can you let Sara know about the party?
Allow: My parents never let me stay up late during the week. Do you think ur boss will let you leave early
on Friday?
SUGGEST/ Suggest/ recommend + noun: Claire suggested café for lunch. I recommended the pasta.
RECOMMEND Suggest/ recommend + finite clause (with or without that): I suggest we wait here for a few mins. Are
you suggesting that we start again?
My friend recommended we didn’t/ don’t eat here.
Suggest/ recommend + gerund: I suggest waiting here for a few mins. They recommend booking in
advance.
What do you suggest? What do you recommend?

PREFER/ Noun Gerund Inf Inf without Alternative

WOULD RATHER to
Prefer I don’t I prefer ski. I prefer to I prefer
drink much watch coffee to
coffee, I film. tea.
prefer tea.
Would I’d prefer I’d prefer I’d prefer
prefer peas. to go by to stay
train. here
tonight
rather than
drive/
driving
home at
this time.
Would I’d rather go I’d rather
rather by train. go by train
than by bus
 Would prefer/ rather + finite clause (past subjunctive):
They’d prefer we met at John’s house.
I’d rather leave now if possible.
I’d rather stay here if you don’t mind.
I’d prefer tea if that’s ok.

3. Verb + three Verbal:

Three verbal: Infinitive, Gerund, Participle are formed from verbs, but are never used alone as action
words in sentence. Instead, verbal functions as N, Adj, Adv.

Three Verbal
Infinitive Gerund Participle
Base form of verb with to Ends in –ing functions as a Noun. -Usage: function as Adj
functions as a N, Adj, Adv - Usage: describing the experience or the full used to form verb tenses
- Usage: describing just the activity. -Form of the participle:
action or a potential/ future -Form of the gerund:
experience.
Combine:
-We are considering offering
to help. Present participle
-I’m afraid I failed to learn to Simple gerund The  present participle  does not in itself
ski. The  simple gerund  can refer to the same indicate the time of the action that it refers
-I refuse to risk losing so time as that of the  verb in the main clause: to. However, it does show that this time is
much money. I  hate  arguing  with you. (arguing refers to the same as the time of the  preceding
the same time as hate: I hate when we verb  or the  verb in the main clause:
argue.) I watched the storm approaching.
Tom  suggested  going back  to our (approaching  refers to the same time
tents. (going refers to the same time as  watched: I watched as the storm was
as suggested: Tom suggested that we should approaching.)
go back to our tents.) Having nowhere to sit, she stood in the back
The  simple gerund  can also refer to a time of the lecture hall.  (having  refers to the same
before that of the  verb in the main clause: time as  stood: As she had nowhere to sit, she
I  don't remember  saying  anything like stood in the back of the lecture hall.)
that. (saying refers to a time before don't Are you waiting for the bus? (waiting refers to
remember: I don't remember that I said the same time as are: present)
anything like that.) We will be arriving in Prague
She  regretted  not studying  harder when she soon.  (arriving  refers to the same time as  will
was at school. (not studying refers to a time be: future)
before regretted: She regretted that she Perfect participle
hadn't studied harder when he was at The  perfect participle  indicates that the time
school.) of the action that it refers to is before that of
Perfect gerund the  verb in the main clause:
The  perfect gerund  refers to a time before Having taken the wrong turn, he ended up in
 that of the  verb in the main clause. a dangerous neighborhood.  (having
However, it is only used if the time of the taken  refers to a time before  ended up: After
action expressed by the gerund is not he had taken the wrong turn, he ended up in a
obvious from the context: dangerous neighborhood.)
He  denied  being  married. (the simple The  past participle  can refer to the same time
gerund being refers to the same time as the  verb in the main clause  or to a time
as denied: He denied that he was married.) before that:
He  denied  having been  married. (the perfect Sue has all the qualifications required for the
gerund having been refers to a time job. (required refers to the same time as has:
before denied: He denied that he had been Sue has all the qualifications that are required
married.) for the job.)
If it is clear that an earlier time is meant, we Damaged  badly by the flood, the school  had
use the simple gerund: to  be rebuilt. (damaged refers to a time
He  denied  stealing  the car. (He denied that before had to: As the school had been badly
he had stolen the car.) damaged by the flood, it had to be rebuilt.)
Passive gerunds If we want to emphasis an earlier time, we
Passive forms are also possible: use the  passive  perfect participle:
I hate  being lied to. (passive simple gerund: I Having been nominated three times for an
hate it when people lie to me.) Oscar, he is one of today's most acclaimed film
He complained of  having directors. (He has been nominated three times
been  unjustly  accused. (passive perfect for an Oscar, and he is one of today's most
gerund: He complained that they had unjustly acclaimed film directors.)
accused him.) The past participle can have an active or a
passive meaning. When used with a passive
meaning, it is sometimes called the passive
participle:
The  fallen  leaves covered the garden
path. (the leaves that had fallen, active
meaning)
This is the first time I've  been  here. (present
perfect tense in active voice, active meaning)
There was a  handwritten  note on the table. (a
note that had been written by hand, passive
meaning)
When was the last time the lawn
was  mowed? (past simple tense in passive
voice, passive meaning)

Function Example
To inf N= S, DO; ADJ; ADV To jump is fun. (S)
Main verb is I like to ski. (DO)
Transitive She had a suggestion to offer. (Adj)
He called to warn her. (Adv)

Gerund N= S, O Jumping is fun. (S)

Main verb is he liked skiing. (O)
Intransitive
Participle ADJ A laughing man is stronger than a suffering man.
Do not waste time staring at a closed door.
Having heard the news, he quickly sold his brother's record
collection.
A participle phrase is an  adjective phrase  that starts with
a  participle.
-A participle phrase will often appear at the start of a sentence
to describe something in the main clause.
Removing his glasses, the professor shook his head with
disappointment.
(When a sentence is structured this way, use a comma to
separate the participle phrase from whatever it's modifying
(the professor in this example).)
-A participle phrase can also appear immediately after
whatever it's modifying.
I saw Arthur running for the bus.
(There is no comma when a participle phrase is placed
immediately after its noun (Arthur in this example).)
-It is also possible to use a participle phrase at the end of a
clause and not immediately after whatever it's modifying.
Paul loved his boxing gloves, wearing them even to bed.
(There is a comma when the participle phrase is used farther
down the sentence than its noun (Paul in this example).)
 Modal verb Main Uses Example
2. CAN - Ability (be able to) - Erica can speak English
- Possibility - We can get the bus home
- Permission (be allowed to) - You can’t park here
- Deduction (guess) - This can’t be correct
2. COULD - Past ability - I could walk at nine months
- Past possibility - We couldn’t get a ticket
- Past permission - I couldn’t leave work early
- Deduction - This could be jack’s coat
2. MUST - Obligation - You must wear a suit
- Necessity (have to) - We must leave in five minites
- Deduction - You must be Jonh
- Advice/ suggestion - You must visit the Blue Mosque
4. MIGHT - Likelihood - I might get a new phone
- Deduction - This might be Jane’s car
4. MAY - Likelihood - There may be a delay
- Deduction - This may be our taxi
3. SHOULD - What is correct (be supposed to) - The gree light should be on
- Advice/ suggestion (had better) - You should exercise more
- Expectation - We should arrive soon
WOULD - Hypothesis - What would you do?
- Tentativeness - There would seem to be a problem
- Past typical behavior - We would never a gree on anything
1. WILL - Volition (would not mind) - I’ll help you
- Prediction/ assumption - You’ll love the exhibition
- Supposition - That’ll be Alex at the door
- Habit - We’ll watch TV most everning
SHALL - Suggestion - Shall we meet at 7:30?
IV.
 V. TENSES:

Prolong & repeated Past perfect continuous

Before past
Not prolong & repeated Past perfect

PAST Prolong & repeated Past continuous

After past
Not prolong & repeated Past
TENSE
Prolong & repeated Present perfect continuous
Effected by past
PRESENT Not prolong&repeated Present perfect

Not effected by past Prolong & repeated Present continuous

Not prolong&repeated Present

- I had wondered => trong quá khứ tôi đã tự hỏi

- I had been wondering => trong quá khứ tôi luôn tự hỏi
- I wondered => Tôi đã có lần tự hỏi
- I was wondering => Tôi đã luôn tự hỏi
- I have wondered => Từ đó tới giờ tôi tự hỏi
- I have been wondering => Từ đó tới giờ tôi luôn tự hỏi
- I wonder => Tôi tự hỏi
- I am wondering => Tôi đang tự hỏi
- I am going to wonder => Tôi sẽ tự hỏi
 1.Past 2.Present 3.Be to/ be 3.Be to/ 4.Present 5.Be going 5.Be going 6.Will 6.Will 6.will
subjunctive simple about to be about continuous to to
to
Imaginary Timetable Officially Happen Arrangement Predict Action Action Predict Events
(if, Itinerary arranged very soon Agreed based on planed instant based on future
suppose, Programme events/ Finalized present intended decision felling inevitability
imagine) & communication/ (see evidence or fact
Desire news report arrangement
(wish) as existing
now)

1. Past subjunctive is the same as Before speaking Speaking

the past simple form of the verb. 6. Ex: It’s raining. I’ll take an umbrella.
The past subjuctive of ‘be’ is I’m sure this rain won’t last long. It’ll
‘were’. be nice later.
Ex: It’s time we went home. I’ll be at work all day tomorrow. 5.It’s ten already. We’re going to be late.
I’d rather you arrived a bit before This wall is going to fall down soon.
seven. I was going to do some shopping, so I
Suppose you failed your exam took my credit card with me.
what would you do? I’m sorry, I was going to finish the report,
Imagine you won the lottery. but I really didn’t have time.
What’s the first thing you’d go 2. be, arrive, land, take off, come, go, leave,
out and buy? depart, set off, start, begin, end, finish, 4. I’m seeing Dan tomorrow night. We’re going to café.
It’s high time politicians stopped open, close. I’m staying in tonight. I’m doing my homework and then I’m having an
making empty promises. His plane lands at 6.40. sleep early night
It’s about time you grew up and The train leaves soon. I’ll think of you next week while I’m lying on the beach.
started acting your age! I’ll text you when we get to the hotel. Let me know the next time you’re working here in New York.
Wait here until I tell you. I’ll phone you when I’m feeling better.
Call me as soon as Carlos arrives.

3. The Prime Minister is to visit Rome 2,4. After time conjunction: when, while, as soon as,
The two companies are to merge shorly. after, before, until, the moment, the minute, the
ID cards are to be introduced next year. second, by the time, the next time, if.
The meeting is due to take place today. I won’t know where I’m staying until I’ve heard from
The meeting is about to begin. John.
I’ll call you call you the second I hear any news.
Let me know if you need any help with the shopping.
 VI. PHRASE:

Noun Phrase Verb Phrase Prepositional Phrase/ Adverbial

VII. CLAUSE/ SENTENCE

Subordinate Clause Relative Clause Comparative Clause

 Subordinating Clause

Form Function Struture Example

That_Clause Package information That_Clause as Subject. -That we are not prepared for the
into content clause That_Clause + Verb + Complement future concerns us.
Be: is/ has been/ will be – was/ had -That there are two few new
been/ should be scientists is well-known.
That_Clause as Complement -We as a nation will regret that we
S + Verb + That_Clause are not well-prepared for the
Verb: have a list* future.

Direct speech Reported speech

Statement Restate quoted speech A quoted statement begins with A reported statement also begins
within a clause a main clause including the speaker with the main clause, but instead is
and a verb such as say or tell, and followed by the content of the
(reported or indirect
is followed by a comma and the quote as it relates to the speaker in
speech) exact words of the quote, enclosed time, person, place, and direction,
in quotation marks.  at the moment of speaking.
- She said, “It’s raining - She said that it was raining
here.” there.
*’That’ is often ommited after
commonly used verbs, such as
say, tell or think.
- Luke said (that) it was
raining there.
*’That’ is included after formal
verbs: announce, admit, declare,
explain
- Amy announced that she
was engaged.
Imperative Restate a command A quoted imperative includes A reported imperative usually
within a clause a main clause, often with the includes say or tell in the main
verb "say", and includes quoted clause followed by the content of
(reported or indirect
words enclosed in quotation marks the quote expressed as (1) a
speech) (the exact words of the quote) subordinate clause (that followed
by a clause) or (2) an infinitive
(to follwed by a plain form verb).  
- The doctor said, “Get some - The doctor said (that) I
rest.” should rest. 
- The doctor said to get
some rest.
 - The doctor said not to get
- The doctor said, “Don’t tired.
smoke.” - The doctor said not to
smoke.
- The doctor told me to not
smoke
Wh-Question Restate a question An interrogative pronoun—who, In a reported question, the wh-
within a clause what, where, when, why, or how—is word (used in the question)
used in an "open interrogative", a becomes the connective
(reported or indirect
question which accepts a wide pronounthat joins (subordinates)
speech) range of answers. (Compare this to the question-clause to the main
a "closed interrogative", a question clause. The wording of the
which accepts yes or no, limited subordinated clause returns to
answers). A wh-question may be statement word order (SVO)¹, and
restated within a clause.     the auxiliary verb is "reunited" with
the rest of the verb.
- My friend always asks, -My friend always asks where I
"Where have you been?" have been.
- My friend asked, "Who - My friend asked who I had
have you been hanging been hanging out with. 
out with?"
Yes-No Question Restate a question A quoted yes-no question begins A reported yes-no question also
within a clause with a main clause that includes the begins with the main clause, but is
speaker and the verbsay or ask, followed by the content of the
followed by a comma and the exact quote as it relates to the speaker in
words of the quote, enclosed in time, person, place, and direction,
quotation marks. The quoted at the moment of speaking.  A
speech may also be placed before subordinator
the main clause: "Are you OK?," (marker) if  or whether subordinate
my friend asked. s the reported speech to the main
clause.  
- My friend says, "Are you - My friend asked if I was
coming with us?" going with them.
Cleft Relocate information in
a clause for emphasis

Tense Adjustment Perspective Adjustment

Quote Backshifted Main clause Subordinate clause
General truth- state of As view from past My friend said,
existence - He said that the "I'll meet you at this cafe
earth turned.  tomorrow."  
- He said, "The
earth turns." - He said that
- He said, "I love rain."  he loved rain. 
Past mixed Changed status (1)  Add a subordinating that I will meet you at
- He said, - He said that marker to relate that the this cafe tomorrow.
"I was Canadian, but he had quoted speech is being
now I am a US been Canadian, recalled by another
citizen." but now he was a person
US citizen.
Single present event Same-time past (2) Adjust the subject, (that) she will meet me at this
 - He said, "I see a - He said that object and possessive cafe tomorrow.
rainbow."    he saw a rainbow.  pronouns to the
speaker's perspective
Single past event Earlier event (3) Adjust the verb tense (that) she would
- He said, "I forgot the - He said that and to the speaker's meet me at this cafe tomorrow
umbrella."  he had perspective. .
forgotten the
umbrella. 
Future event The time later than the (4) Adjust the adverbs (that) she would
- He said, "Rain is moment he spoke and prepositional meet me at that cafe the next
expected next - He said that phrases for time and day.
week."  rain was place to the speaker's
expected the next perspective.
week. (the coming
week)
My friend  said (that) she would meet me at that cafe
the next day.

Time Expressions with Reported Speech

Sometimes when we change direct speech into reported speech we have to change time expressions
too. We don't always have to do this, however. It depends on when we heard the direct speech and
when we say the reported speech.

For example:
It's Monday. Julie says "I'm leaving today".
If I tell someone on Monday, I say "Julie said she was leaving today".
If I tell someone on Tuesday, I say "Julie said she was leaving yesterday".
If I tell someone on Wednesday, I say "Julie said she was leaving on Monday".
If I tell someone a month later, I say "Julie said she was leaving that day".
So, there's no easy conversion. You really have to think about when the direct speech was said.

Here's a table of some possible conversions:

now then / at that time

today yesterday / that day / Tuesday / the 27th of June

yesterday the day before yesterday / the day before / Wednesday / the 5th of December

last night the night before, Thursday night

last week the week before / the previous week

 tomorrow today / the next day / the following day / Friday

 Relative clause (Adjective Clause)

Add descriptive or identifying information to a noun

That/Which Modifying the Subject of the Main Clause

Who/Whom Subject of Modifying Cls modifies Subject of The car is green. The car is small.
When/Where main cls.  The car that is small is green. (S-V-Adj)
Whose The seats are leather. The seats are inside.
 The seats that are inside are leather. (S-V-Pre)
Object of Modifying Cls modifies Subject of You drive the car. The car is green.
main cls. “That” can be omitted.  The car (that) you drive is green. (O-S-V)
We spoke to the guy. He seems fair.
 The guy who we spoke to seems fair. (O-S-V-
Pre)
He was looking at the passport. It had expired the week
before.
 The passport at which he was looking had
expired the week before. (Pre- O- S-V)
Modifying the Object of the Main Clause
Subject of Modifying Cls modifies Object of Jack drove the car. The car is small.
main cls.  Jack drove the car that is small. (S-V-Adj)

Object of Modifying Cls modifies Object of Jack drove the car. He liked the car.
main cls. “That” can be omitted.  Jack drove the car (that) he liked. (O-S-V)

Clause reduction (Subject of Modifying Cls)

Condition: The host is Jimmy. He continues to make audiences laugh.
- Pronoun is subject of modifying clause.  The host who is Jimmy continues to make audiences laugh. (S),
- Pronoun refers to the same noun as the same noun.
noun it modifies.
Do: He sits on the desk. The desk is to the left of the stage.
‘to be’  He sits on the desk that is to the left of the stage.
- Omit the subject pronoun  He sits on the desk to the left of the stage.
- Omit form of “to be"
Do: Clause-to-phrase reduction is a process. It consists of several steps.
‘Nomarl Verb’  Clause-to-phrase reduction is a process that consists of several
- Omit the subject pronoun steps
 - Replace an active verb (present, past, or  Clause-to-phrase reduction is a process consisting of several
progressive tenses)  by  a present steps.
participle
- Replace an passive verb by a past Prisoners were imprisoned on “the rock”. He experienced harsh
participle conditions.
 Prisoners who were imprisoned on “the rock” experienced
harsh conditions.
 Prisoners imprisoned on “the rock” experienced harsh
conditions.

Noun_That + be+Adj -> Adj + Noun The comedian is funny. The comedian is now the host on the Tonight
 Change position of Adj. Show.
 The comedian, who is funny, is now the host on the Tonight
Show.
 The funny comedian is now the host on the Tonight Show.

 Comparative Clauses

Express similarity or difference

Compare the The same as…as The apple is the same weight as the
similarities of two S + V + the same as + Noun (size, weigh, orange. 
items color,..) + as-pre + Noun/Cls-C

As/so/ such…as The apple is as heavy as the orange (is). 

S + V + as (degree adv) + Adj (quality)/ An apple grows as slowly as an orange
(does). 
Adv (manner) + as-pre + Noun/Cls-C
It's not so easy as that.
It's not as easy a decision  as that.
S + V + as (degree adv) + Adj (quality)/
Adv (manner)+ Noun + as-pre + Noun/Cls- He has taken the same courses as you. 
C He has taken the same courses as you
 Reduce the clause after second have. 
As to the subject or the auxiliary
form of the verb
 Compare the quality of two items or the manner of two actions
S + VERB + -ER/MORE/LESS + ADJ/ADV + THAN (PRE) + NOUN /CLS
-ER MORE LESS
With a one Syllable word or With an adjective or adverb of more- With an adjective or adverb of more-
a word ending in -y or -ly add than-one syllable, use more to create than-one syllable, use less to create
the suffix -er to form a the comparative phrase with than. the comparative phrase with than.
comparative phrase - The more beautiful apple is - The less beautiful apple is
with than. that one.  this one. 
- The redder apple - This apple is more - This apple is less
is the other one beautiful than that one (is).  beautiful than that one (is). 
- This apple - Can you drive more - Can you drive less
is better than that rapidly than this?  rapidly than this? 
one (is).
- Can you
drive faster than this
? 
Emphasizing Modifiers
S + VERB +MUCH/FAR/RATHER/ A BIT/A LITTLE/ A LOT (ADV) -ER/MORE/LESS + ADJ/ADV + THAN (PRE) +
NOUN /CLS
- This apple - This apple is far more
is much tasty than the other one
redder than the (is). 
other one (is)
Compare one item to the rest
S + VERB + THE + -EST/MOST/LEAST + ADJ/ADV + NOUN
-EST MOST LEAST
Add the suffix -est to Place most before an adjective or Place the least before an adjective or
a one-syllable word or a adverb of more-than-one syllable, adverb of more-than-one syllable,
word ending in -yor -ly add use most.  ("greatest quantity, use least. ("smallest in size, amount,
the suffix -est to form an degree, etc.; slightest")
amount, measure, degree, or
optional superlative phrase - This Golden Delicious apple is the
with "of all". number")
least desirable apple.
- This Golden - This Golden Delicious apple
Delicious apple is the most desirable apple.
is the
sweetest apple
THE BEST OF ALL FIRST EVER OF/IN
An individual or an item For record-setting For record-setting events, Use a superlative with a
becomes defined when events, use ever.  prepositional phrase (of, in,
the superlative is used. use first followed by - She is the from) to define the group.
It becomes unique, a an infinitive. youngest child ever  - She was
known one.  - She is the to sail around the the youngest child of 
- Today is the first child to world.  all to sail around the
best day of my sail around world.
life! the world.
- The
Honeycrisp
apple is the
best of all. 
 Express that two things vary together
THE + COMPARATIVE ADJ (MORE/LESS/-ER) + CLS + THE + COMPARATIVE ADJ (MORE/LESS/-ER) + CLS
- The more the building shook, the more we held on.
- The louder it became, the more we saw things falling down.
- The more we saw, the less we could believe.
- The more we looked, the fewer things we found to retrieve.  

 4 sentence types (clause types)

Form Function Word order Example

Declarative Statement: It tells us Subject + verb I like coffee.
something I do not like coffee.
Interrogative Question: It asks us Wh_word + auxiliary + subject + Do you like coffe?
something verb… Don’t you like coffee?
Imperative Command: It tells us to Base verb Stop!
do something Don’t stop!
Exclamative Exclamation: It What + adjective+ noun + subject What a liar he is!
expresses surprise + verb… What an exciting movie it was!
How + adjective/ adverb + How he lied!
subject + verb… How exciting the movie was!

 4 types of sentence structure

Simple

An independent clause contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.
- The earth goes round the sun.
- Mary did not go to the party.

Compound

Two (or more) independent clauses joined by a conjunction or semi-colon.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
- I like coffee and Mary likes tea.
- Mary went to work but John went to the party.
- Our car broke down; we came last.
Complex

A dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, and

contains a subject and verb, but does not express a complete thought.
 Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:
after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until,
when, where, whether, while
Here are the five basic relative pronouns:
that, which, who, whom, whose
- We missed our plane because we were late.
- Our dog barks when she hears a noise.
- He left in a hurry after he got a phone call.
- Do you know the man who is talking to Mary?
Compound - Complex

Consist at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
- John didn't come because he was ill so Mary was not happy.
- He left in a hurry after he got a phone call but he came back five minutes later.

 Conditional sentence: talk about the future (F) + make hypotheses (H)

Main clause:
Talk about the future => use modal & will
Make hypothese => use past modal (should/ would/could + have+Ved)

Conditional clause:
Talk about the future => use present tense.
Make hypothese => use past tense.

PAST PRESENT FUTURE

Did not happen (H) Does not happen (H) Will not happen (H)
Regrets, comments about past
situations.
If you had seen him, you could He could get a job if he really We would go by train if it
have spoken to him. tried. wasn’t so expensive
Might happen (H)
If he came tomorrow, we
could borrow his car
Happen (F)- when, ater, until
Habits, tendencies, rules, and
scientific facts.
-I will come home when I
finish/ have finished work.
Happen (F)- if, unless, even if
Probable future, predictions,
 promises, threats, and offers.
-we won’t be able to go out if
it is raining.

 Passive - voice sentence: Change the verb to a form of be + past participle (và chia theo thì)

Tense/form Active Passive Example

Present simple Do Am/is/are done The competition is held every day
Present continuous Am/is/are Am/is/are being done Our office is being decorated at the moment
doing
Past simple Did Was/were done Google was lauched in 1998
Past continuous Was/were Was/were being done The house was being renovated last summer
doing
Present perfect Have/has done Have/has been done The meeting has been cancelled
Past perfect Had done Had been done By 2000, a billion web pages had been set up
Be to + V Be to do Am/is/are to be done Elections are to be held in April
Be going to + V Be going to do Am/is/are going to be My job title is going to be changed
done
Will + v Will do Will be done The new law will be introduced next year
Modal verb + V Modal + do Modal be done We can be contacted until 5: 30
I think David might be invited to the party
Past modal verb + v Modal + have + Could/ might have You could have been hurt
done been done I think Jact might have been promoted
To inf + v To do To be done The car need to be taxed this month
Perfect to inf + v To have done To have been done We seem to have been removed from the
list
gerund Doing Being done Several games are in danger of being called
off
Perfect gerund Having done Having been done He has no memory of having been involved
in an accident

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