DepartmentofElectronics&CommunicationEngineering

Unit –I

LECTURE NOTES
ON

FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOMEDICAL
APPLICATIONS

IV B.Tech II semester (JNTUH-R18)

E SREENIVASULU

Faculty Name HOD Director Principal

1
 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

SUBJECT: T&T

MAIN INDEX A.Y: 2021-22

SNO TOPIC PAGE NO REMARK

COURSE OUTCOMES,
1 2
FUTURE SCOPE
2 SESSION PLANNER 3-4
3 LECTURE NOTES 5-17
4 TUTORIAL BANK 18-20
5 DESCRIPTIVE BANK 21
6 OBJECTIVE BANK 22
7 UNIT TEST PAPER 23-26
8 SEMINAR TOPICS 27
9 ASSIGNMENT BANK 28
REAL TIME
10 29
APPLICATIONS
11 NPTEL 30
12 BLOOM TAXONAMY 31

2
Course Outcomes:
 Upon completion of this course the student shall be able to understand the
working of basic fault and fault diagnosis
 The working of Test faults
 The working of generalized controllability and observability.
 Students to identify methods of faults.
 To Analyze different types of faults.

FUTURE SCOPE:

In recent times, testing is seen as a good professional career for many. From

being a test engineer, one can grow to become a senior test engineer, from a test
lead to a test manager; or alternatively, one can become a QA lead or QA
Manager. Moreover, the options available in the testing tools side are vast.

3
 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Session Planner
` A. Y: 2021-2022
Name of the Faculty: E.SREENIVASULU Subject: FBA
Designation: Asst. Professor Branch: ECE
Year/Sem: IV/I B.TECH W.E.F:
6/9/2021

Text/ Date
SN Un Cla Date
Topic Reference conducte
O it ss planned
book d
UNIT-1: Basic of Tests
1 LH1 Introduction Basic of tests and need of testing T1
2 LH2 Problems in digital design testing T1
3 LH3 Problems in Analog design testing T1
4 LH4 Problems in mixed digital design testing T1
5 LH5 Printed circuit board testing R1
6 LH6 Software testing R1
I
7 LH7 Introduction of fault in digital circuits T1
8 LH8 Fault models T1
9 LH9 Stuck in faults T1
10 LH10 Bridging faults R1
11 LH11 CMOS Technology consideration T1
12 PPT/ REVISION
13 UNIT TEST-01
UNIT-2: Test pattern generator
14 II LH1 Introduction to Test pattern generator T2
15 LH2 Test pattern generator for combinational circuits T1
16 LH3 Manual test pattern generator T1
4
17 LH4 ATPG T2
18 LH5 Different types of Boolean methods T2
19 LH6 Problems T1
20 LH7 Roth D algorithm T1
21 LH8 Development of Roth D algorithm T2
22 LH9 Pseudorandom test pattern T1
23 LH10 Problems T1
26 PPT/ REVISION
26 UNIT TEST-02
UNIT-3:
27 LH1 Introduction to Pseudorandom test pattern T1
28 LH2 Design test pattern generator T1
29 LH3 LFSRS T1
30 MID 1 EXAMS
31 LH4 T1
32 LH5 T1
33 III LH6 T1
34 LH7 T1
35 PPT/ REVISION
36 UNIT TEST-03
UNIT TEST-04 Therapeutic Equipment

37 LH1 R1
38 LH2 R1
39 LH3 R1
40 LH4 R1
41 LH5 R1
42 IV LH6 R1
43 LH7 R1
44 LH8 R1
45 PPT/ REVISION
46 UNIT TEST-04
UNIT – V
EEG, EMG and Respiratory Measurements
47 V LH1 T1
5
 48 T1
49 LH2 T1
50 T1
51 T1
52 T1
53 LH3 T1
54 T1
55 LH4 T1
56 LH5 T1
57 LH6 T1
58 PPT/ REVISION
59 UNIT TEST-05/MID II
60 Revision of All Units
97

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Medical Instrumentation – Application and Design, John G. Webster, John Wiley and sons Inc.,
3rd Ed., 2003
2. Hand Book of Biomedical Instrumentation, Khandpur R.S. Tata McGraw Hill, 1994
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Joseph J. Carr ad John M. Brown, Introduction to Biomedical Equipment Technology, Pearson
Education, 2001.
2. Bronzino Joseph D, Hand Book of Biomedical Engineering, CRC Press, 1995.

FACULTY HOD PRINCIPAL

(Chandrika Saxena)

6
 LECTURENOTES

Introduction
We use the term “bio” to denote something related to life. When basics of physics and chemistry
get applied to the living things, and we name them as Biophysics and Biochemistry. So when the
discipline of engineering and medicine interacts, it is called Biomedical Engineering. Biomedical
engineering is the application of knowledge and technologies to solve the problem of the living
system. It involves diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease in human. As the medical field is
emerging, the area of Biomedical Engineering is expanding.

Biomedical Instrumentation
It involves measurement of biological signals like ECG, EMG, or any electrical signals generated
in the human body. Biomedical Instrumentation helps physicians to diagnose the problem and
provide treatment. To measure biological signals and to design a medical instrument, concepts of
electronics and measurement techniques are needed.

Components of Biomedical Instrumentation System

Any medical instrument consists of the following functional basic parts
1. Measurand: The measurand is the physical quantity, and the instrumentation systems measure
it. Human body acts as the source for measurand, and it generates bio-signals. Example: body
surface or blood pressure in the heart
2. Sensor / Transducer: The transducer converts one form of energy to another form usually
electrical energy. For example, the piezoelectric signal which converts mechanical vibrations into
the electrical signal. The transducer produces a usable output depending on the measurand. The
sensor is used to sense the signal from the source. It is used to interface the signal with the human.
3. Signal Conditioner: Signal conditioning circuits are used to convert the output from the
transducer into an electrical value. The instrument system sends this quantity to the display or
recording system. Generally, signal conditioning process includes amplification, filtering, analogue
to digital and Digital to analogue conversions. Signal conditioning improves the sensitivity of
instruments.
4. Display: It is used to provide a visual representation of the measured parameter or quantity.
Example: Chart recorder, Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO). Sometimes alarms are used to hear the
audio signals. Example: Signals generated in Doppler Ultrasound Scanner used for Fetal
Monitoring.
5. Data Storage and Data Transmission: Data storage is used to store the data and can be used
for future reference. Recent days Electronic Health records are utilized in hospitals. Data
7
transmission is used in Telemetric systems, where data can be transmitted from one location to
another remotely.

General Instrument Performance Parameters

Systematic and Random Error

Systematic errors are errors that consistently occur in a measurement in the same direction. The
common sources of systematic errors are inaccurate calibration, mismatched impedances,
response-time error, nonlinearities, equipment malfunction, environmental change, and loading
effects. Systematic errors are often unknown to the user. The best way to detect systematic errors
are to repeat the measurement with a completely different technique using different instruments.

Random errors tend to vary in both directions from the true value randomly (or stochasticly).
With properly designed instruments, random errors are generally small relative to the measurand
(the physical signal to be measured). Common sources of random error include electrical noise,
interference, vibration, gain variation of amplifiers, leakage currents, drift, observational error,
motion artifact (for contact sensors), random interfering inputs, etc.

Static Performance Parameters

Static characteristics describe the performance for dc or very low frequency inputs. The
properties of the output for a wide range of constant inputs demonstrate the quality of the
measurement.
8
 Accuracy
The accuracy of a single measured quantity is the difference between the true value and the
measured value divided by the true value:
True value  measured value
Accuracy  True value

Accuracy is often quoted as a percentage. Many times, the true value is unknown over all
operating conditions, so the true value is approximated with some standard.
Precision
The precision of a measurement expresses the number of distinguishable alternatives from which
a given result is selected. On most modern instrumentation systems the precision is ultimately
determined by the analog-to-digital converter (AID) characteristics.

Resolution
The smallest quantity that can be measured with certainty is the resolution. Resolution
expresses the degree to which nearly equal values of a quantity can be discriminated.

Reproducibility
The ability of an instrument to give the same output for equal inputs applied over some period of
time is called reproducibility. Drift is the primary limit on reproducibility.

Sensitivity
Sensitivity describes changes in system output for a given change in a single input. It is
quantified by holding all inputs constant except one. This one input is varied incrementally over
the normal operating range, producing a range of outputs needed to compute the sensitivity.

9
 Zero (Offset) Drift
Offset drift is one parameter determining reproducibility. It is measured by monitoring the
system output with no change in input. Any changes that occur are simply result of system offset.

Sensitivity Drift
Sensitivity drift is the second primary contributor to irreproducibility. It causes error
proportional to the magnitude of the input. These drift parameters are summarized in a typical
sensor sensitivity curve below.

10
 This is the simple expression of the superposition principle for a linear system. There are many
ways to express deviations from linearity for a practical system. For dynamic systems, multitone
tests are often used, where the magnitude of beat frequencies between the individual tone
frequencies can quantify the level of nonlinearity. For static systems, independent nonlinearity
measures as shown below are often used

Dynamic Range
The dynamic range defines the ratio between the maximum undistorted signal (i.e., maximum
input signal satisfying the linearity specification for the sensor) and the minimum detectable
signal for a given set of operating conditions. Often the dynamic range is quoted on a logarithmic
scale (i.e., dB scale).

Input Impedance
The instantaneous rate at which energy is transferred by a system (i.e., the power) is proportional
to the product of an effort variable (e.g., voltage, pressure, force) with a flow variable (current,
flow, velocity). The generalized impedance, Z, is the ratio of the phasor equivalent of the steady-
state sinusoidal effort variable to the phasor equivalent of the steady-state flow variable:
~ V~
Z
11
 ~
I
where the tilde denotes phasor variables (i.e., magnitude and phase—a complex number). The
phase is related to the response lag of the system to a sinusoidal input - more about this for
dynamic systems.

General Dynamic Performance Parameters

Dynamic characteristics require a full differential equation description of system performance.
Complete system characteristics are usually approximated by the sum of static and dynamic
characteristics.

Most biomedical instruments must process signals that change with time. The dynamics of the
measurement system, therefore, must be chosen to properly reproduce the dynamics of the
physiologic variables the system is sensing. In this course we will only consider linear, time
invariant systems unless otherwise explicitly noted. For such systems, the dynamics can be fully
described by simple differential equations of the form:

where x(t) is the input signal (usually the physiologic parameter of interest), y(t) is the output
signal (usually the electronic signal), and the a and b coefficients are constants determined by the
physical characteristics of the sensor system. Most practical sensor front-ends are described by
differential equations of zero, first or second order (i.e., n=0,1,2), and derivatives of the input are
usually absent, so m=0.

12
 TUTORIAL BANK

1. Define Resting Potential and Action potential

Resting potential is defined as the electrical potential of an excitable cell
relative to its surroundings when not stimulated or involved in passage of an
impulse. It ranges from 60mVto -100mV Action potential is defined as the
change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse
along the membrane of a cell.
1. Define depolarization and repolarisation.
Depolarization is when a cell membrane's charge becomes positive to generate an
action potential. This is usually caused by positive sodium and calciu
m ions going
into the cell.Repolarization is when a cell membrane's charge returns to
negative after depolarization. This is caused by positive potassium ions moving out of
the cell.

2. What is electrode? List out the types and explain

It is a component used to pickup the biopotential signals. Bascially there
are 2 types of electrode polarizable and non polarizable electrode.
 DESCRIPTIVE BANK

Q1. Define Absolute Refractory Period (ARP).

During the initial portion of the action potential, the membrane cannot respond to any stimulus, no
matter how intense the stimulus is. This interval is called ARP.

Q2. Define Relative refractory period (RRP).

ARP is followed by relative refractory period. During this period, action potential can be elicited by a
super threshold stimulus.

Q3. What are sensory nerves, motor nerves and mixed nerves?
The nerves that carry the information gathered by the sensory organs to the brain are called sensory
nerves. They serve as message carriers for the brain. Motor nerves carry back the orders from the brain
to the muscles and glands. Mixed nerves perform the function of the both sensory and motor nerves.

Q4. What are resting potential?

The membrane potential measured when a equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the
cell membrane negative on the inside and positive on the outside is called resting potential.

Q5. What is action potential?

When a stimulus is applied to a cell at the resting stage, there will be a high concentration of the
positive ions inside the cell. So there will be slightly high potential on the inside of the cell due to
imbalance of potassium ions. This is called action potential.Range:20Mv.

Q6. What is bio electric potential?

Certain systems of the body generate their own monitoring signals conveying useful information about
the functions they represent. Such signals are bio electric potentials and are related to nerve
conduction, brain activity, heart beat etc.

Q7. What are the different types of muscles?

Voluntary muscles: work at our will (arm muscle). Involuntary muscles: work without our knowledge
(muscle in the food canal). Cardiac muscles: help in functioning of the heart and are working day and
night without tired.

Q8. Define Linearity.

Linearity of an instrument is defined as the degree to which variations in the output of an instrument
follow input variation. Whenever the sensitivity of the instrument is constant overall levels of the
input, then that instrument has better linearity. Linearity is essential to get accurate values.

Q9. State all or nothing law.

Regardless the method of excitation of cells or the intensity of the stimulus, which is assumed to be
greater than the threshold of stimulus, the action potential is always the same for any given cell. This
is known as the all or nothing law.

Q10. What is meant by sodium pump?

It is an active process, by which the sodium ions are quickly transported to the outside of the cell and
the cell again becomes polarized& assumes its resting potential. The operation of this pump is linked
with the influx of potassium into the cell, as if a cyclic process involving an exchange of sodium for
potassium existed.
 OBJECTIVE BANK
1. Source of Bioelectric potential is ____________ in nature.
a) electronic
b) electric
c) ionic
d) mechanical
2. Palsied muscles mean _____________
a) paralyzed muscles
b) active muscles
c) voluntary muscles
d) involuntary muscles
3. The principal ion that is not involved with the phenomena of producing cell potentials is
______________
a) sodium
b) potassium
c) chlorine
d) hydrogen
4. What is the relatively static membrane potential of quiescent cells called?
a) half-cell potential
b) action potential
c) resting membrane potential
d) cell potential
5. The variation of the electrical potential associated with the passage of a pulse along the membrane of a
muscle cell or a nerve cell is called __________
a) muscle potential
b) action potential
c) resting potential
d) half cell potential
6. Cells depolarize and action potential in generated as soon as a stimulus is applied.
a) True
b) False
7. After a cell is stimulated, a finite period of time is required for the cell to return to its pre-stimulus state.
This period is known as ____________
a) restoration period
b) refactory period
c) regain period
d) regenerative period
8. Electrooculography (EOG/E.O.G.) is a technique for measuring what?
a) abnormal function of the retina
b) heart rate
c) respiration rate
d) cornea-retinal standing potential
9. EKG stands for _________________
a) Electrocardiography
b) Electroencephalography
c) Electromyography
d) Electrtokinetcography
10. Phonocardiography is listening to __________
a) arm muscle sound
b) lungs sound
c) heart sound
d) respiratory tract sound
 UNIT TEST PAPERS
NAME OF THE STUDENT: HT.NO: Class: MARKS: 10M

Unit Test-1
Subject : fundamentals of biomedical applications
Date Conducted:
Faculty : S. Chandrika
SET NO: 1

SET NO: 2

SET NO: 3

(
 SET NO: 4

SEMINAR TOPICS

1. Medical Instrumentation System

2. Generation of action potential
3. refractory periods
4. Organization of Cell
5. Static and dynamic characteristics
 ASSIGNMENT BANK

1. Medical Instrumentation System

2. Generation of action potential
3. refractory periods
4. Organization of Cell
5. Static and dynamic characteristics
 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS

Biomedical application is an exciting and emerging interdisciplinary field that

combines engineering with life sciences. The relevance of this area can be perceived in our
everyday lives every time we go to hospital, receive medical treatment or even when we buy
health products such as an automatic blood pressure monitor device. Over the past years we
have experienced a great technological development in health care and this is due to the joint
work of engineers, mathematicians, physicians, computer scientists and many other
professionals. practical applications in Biomedical application in the area of Biomedical Signal
Processing and Modelling, Biomaterials and Prosthetic Devices, and Biomedical Image
Processing.
 NPTEL

https://nptel.ac.in/

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/102/101/102101068/

Modules / Lectures

Motivation of biomedical application

By
Prof. sudipta mukhopadhyay
Dept of bioscience dept
IIT.

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/105/108105101/

Modules / Lectures

Why biology for engineers

By
Prof. sanjeeva srivastava
Dept of bioscience & bioenginnering dept
IIT bomboy.
 Blooms Taxonomy

S. Blooms Taxonomy
QUESTION Level

1 Evaluation
2 Analysis
3 synthesis
4 Analysis
5 Understand