12 - Bioenergetics

University of San Agustin
General Luna St., Iloilo City 5000, Philippines

www.usa.edu.ph
COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS, SCIENCES, AND EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS
Module 9
Bioenergetics
Instructor: ________________________
Email:________________________________
Virtual Consultation time:____________________________
Introduction
Living organisms need to process the food before it can be utilized by the body. There are many
biochemical processes that occur simultaneously inside the cell in order to cope with the biological
demand. In this module, metabolism will be discussed, giving emphasis on glucose metabolism, citric acid
cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
Course Outcomes:
1. Explain how living organisms extract energy from the surroundings to perpetuate life
2. Explain how chemical reactions are regulated inside the living cell
3. Apply key concepts in biochemistry to explain its practical applications in the field of nutrition,
agriculture, medicine, pharmacy and allied fields
Learning Outcomes:
1. Understand the importance of enzymes in metabolism
2. Differentiate catabolism from anabolism
3. Identify the different catabolic and anabolic pathways
4. Explain how ATP is produced in from metabolites of catabolism and electron transport chain
5. Compute for the net ATP formed from a given biomolecule
DESCRIPTION TIME FRAME

8.1 Metabolism Overview (Reading Materials, Assignment) 30mins
8.2 Glycolysis (Reading Materials, Assignment) 45mins
8.3 β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids (Reading Materials, Assignment) 45mins
Synchronous class 45mins
topics to be covered: 8.1 and 8.2
8.3 Citric Acid Cycle (Reading Materials, Assignment) 1 hr
8.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation (Reading Materials, Assignment) 1 hr
Synchronous class 45mins
topics to be covered: 8.1 – 8.4
Module Quiz 30mins
Total: 6hrs
SUBTOPIC 8.1: Metabolism Overview
Metabolism is the sum total of all

biochemical reactions that supports the
Catabolism biological functions of a living organism. In
general, the metabolic reactions can be
simple classified into two broad categories: catabolism
units and anabolism. Catabolism is the process of
Complex breaking down molecules to produce energy.
units Anabolism On the other hand, anabolism is the process
energy
of synthesizing molecules and it consumes
energy as the reaction proceeds.
Figure 8.1 Simple representation of catabolic and anabolic
reaction.
Metabolic pathway is a series of biochemical
reactions that occur in the cell in an organized manner. These pathways can either be linear or
cyclic 2. Linear pathway is a series of reactions that yields a final product. Cyclic pathway
usually generates by-products but the series of reactions will lead to the regeneration of its
starting reactants.
Quick Test:
Classify the following chemical reactions as catabolic or anabolic
a) Synthesis of nucleotide from a nucleoside and phosphate
b) Hydrolysis of a trisaccahride to form three monosaccharides
c) Formation of triacylglycerol from glycerol and fatty acids
d) Breaking down of pentasaccharide into five monosaccharides
Answer:
a) Anabolic: Subunits are combined to form a larger unit
b) Catabolic. A complex unit is broken down to its simple units
c) Anabolic. A larger unit is assembled from its smaller subunits
d) Catabolic. 5 simple compounds were produced by breaking down a larger compound
Important molecules that are repeatedly used in metabolism

 Acetyl CoA. Its main function is to deliver acetyl to the Krebs Cycle.
 ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). An organic compound that serves as fuel for many
biological processes.
 ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate). The degraded form of ATP. It is charged by adding
another phosphate group, converting it back to ATP.
 Enzyme. A biological catalyst that increases the rate of a chemical reaction.
 FAD (Flavin Adenin Dinucleotide). A coenzyme and is required in many redox
metabolic reactions
 FADH2. The reduced form of FAD and utilized during the Electron Transport Chain.
 Kinase. An enzyme that facilitates the transfer of phosphate group from a high-energy
source.
 Phophate. It is a charged particle ion and its chemical formula is PO43- Inorganic
Phosphate is represented by Pi.
 NAD+(Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide). A coenzyme and important in the
biosynthesis of fats and sugars.
 NADH. The reduced form of NAD+. This is oxidized back to NAD+ in the electron
Transport Chain.
Bettelheim, F., Brown, W.,Campbell, M.K., Farell, S. Torres, O. 2013. Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry, 10th Edition. 2
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Stephen Stoker, H. 2010. General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, 5th Edition. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
The food that we eat undergoes a series of biochemical reactions in order for our body
to utilize them. These macromolecules are largely converted into energy that fuels our daily
activities such as walking, breathing and thinking. Even biological functions at the molecular
level, e.g. DNA replication, protein synthesis, cell repair are energy demanding processes. To
generate energy from the food, the body uses different catabolic pathways for each type of
compound. All these pathways are congregated to one common catabolic pathway. Common
catabolic pathway is consists of the 1) Tricarboxylic Acid cycle, also known as the citric acid
cycle or the Krebs cycle and the 2) oxidative phosphorylation. The conversion of food to energy
can be summarized into four steps:
Food and Drinks Stage 1:

Carbohydrates, Fats and
Proteins are broken downs to its
simple units. Each compound
Fats Carbohydrates Proteins undergoes different catabolic
pathway
Fatty acids and glucose Stage 2:

Amino acids
glycerol Simple units are converted into
Acetyl CoA. These pathways are
interrelated. However, this
Pyruvate module will only focus on
glycolysis and β-oxidation of
fats. ATP and NADH are already
Acetyl
NADH CoA produced at this stage.
c4 c6
Stage 3:
c4 c6 The converted biomolecules
enters the common catabolic
pathway. The first phase is the
c4 Citric Acid Cycle
c5 Citric Acid Cycle. NADH and
FADH2 are produced in this
phase.
c4 c4
Stage 3:
NAD
The NADH and FADH2 are
ATPase ATP
H Electron Transport Chain utilized in the oxidative
FADH phosphorylation. Oxidative
2
phosprylation consists of the
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Electron transport Chain and
the Phosphorylation. More
Figure 8.1 Overview on the metabolic pathway of glucose to ATP ATPs are produced
Figure 8.4 Diagram of a mitochindrion
source: Bettelheim, F . et.al. 2013. p.756
Figure 8.3 General representation of an animal cell.
Source: Stephen Stoker. H. 2010. p779
It is a common knowledge that the mitochondrion is called the powerhouse of the cell. The
common metabolic pathway occurs in the mitochondrion and most ATPs are produced.
Key areas in energy production:
1) Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol.

Pyruvates are generated in the cytosol. They enter the matrix and are converted into acetyl
CoA so it can participate in the Citric Acid Cycle.
2) Citric Acid Cycle takes place in the matrix

Once the pyruvates are oxidized into acetyl coA, it enters the Citric Acid Cycle.
3) The protein complexes involved in the oxidative phosphorylation are embedded in the inner
membrane.
Outer membrane
Inter membrane space

Mitochondrion
ATPase
Electron Transport Chain Inner membrane
Oxidative Phosphorylation matrix
Figure 8.5 Simplified representation of the mitochondria and the location of oxidative phosphorylation
SUBTOPIC 8.2: GLYCOLYSIS Refer to chapter 28 of your book
Glucose
ATP Energy is CONSUMED FIRST PHASE

1
 6-Carbon Stage
ADP
 The sugars involved in
Glucose- this stage contain 6
6-phosphate carbons.
 Energy is consumed
2
Fructose-
6-phosphate
ATP
3 Energy is CONSUMED
ADP
Fructose-
1,6-
bisphosphate
NOTE:
4
This two sugars are isomers. Since
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is utilized
further in glycolysis,
Dihydroxyacetone Glyceraldehyde- dihydroxyacetonephosphate is always
Phosphate **** 3-phosphate converted into gl-3-phosphate. Therefore,
the second phase happens twice and
product yield is doubled.
5 SECOND PHASE
NAD + Pi  3-Carbon Stage
 The compounds
NADH + H+
involved in this
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate stage contain 3
carbons.
ADP Energy is PRODUCED
 Energy is
6
ATP produced
3-phosphoglycerate
2-phosphoglycerate
8 H2O
Phosphoenol pyruvate
ADP
Energy is PRODUCED
9
Figure 8.6 Schematic ATP
diagram of glycolysis
pyruvate
STEP KEY PROCESSES ENZYME INVOLVED
1)Phosphorylation -Phosphate is added to the glucose molecule,
forming glucose-6-phosphate Hexokinase:
glucokinase
-Phosphate is taken from an ATP molecule;
therefore, an energy is consumed. Hexokinase requires
Mg2+ ion for its activity.
2) Isomerization - Glucose-6-phosphate is isomerized to

fructose-6-phosphate phosphoglucoisomerase
3) Phosphorylation -Another phosphate group is added to the Phosphofructokinase

fructose-6-phosphate.
-1,6-bisphospate is produced in this step. Phosphofructokinase
-Phosphate is taken an ATP requires Mg2+ ion for its
-energy is consumed activity.
4) Cleavage -The C6 sugar is split into two C3 sugar
(triose)
- The sugars formed are dihydroxyacetone Aldolase
phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate.
**** Isomerization -Because the two sugars are isomers,
dihydroxyacetone phosphate can be readily
converted into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. triosephosphate
- The equilibrium of the reaction will always isomerase
favor the production of glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate
5) Oxidation and - glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized to
Phosphorylation 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. glyceraldehyde 3-
-inorganic phosphate is used in this step phosphate
(instead of ATP molecule) dehydrogenase
-The coenzyme NAD+ is reduced, forming
NADH. coenzyme: NAD+
- The H+ is from the aldehyde group
6) Phosphorylation - The phosphate group in the first carbon is
of ADP transferred to the ADP phosphoglycerokinase
-An ATP molecule is produced
- because a phosphate group is removed, the
diphosphate species is converted into 3-
phosphoglycerate
7) Isomerization - the phosphate group is moved from carbon
3 to carbon 2. phosphoglyceromutase
-2-phosphoglycerate is formed
9) Dehydration - Phosphoenolpyruvate is formed.

- phosphoenolpryuvate is a high-energy Enolase
phosphate group because the phosphate
group is attached to a carbon involved in Enolaserequires Mg2+
carbon-carbon double bond. ion for its activity.
9) Phosphorylation - phosphoenolpryuvate transfers its high-
of ADP energy phosphate to ADP Pyruvate kinase
-an ATP molecule is formed
-pyruvate is produced
The net overall equation for the process of converting glucose to pyruvate:
Glucose + 2 NAD+ 2ADP + 2Pi 2pyruvate + 2NADH + 2ATP + 2H +2H2O
 For every molecule of glucose, 2 molecules of pyruvates, 2 NADH, 2 ATP, 2H and 2 H2O
are produced
 Because of the cleaving (step 4) and the isomerization of the triose sugar (****), the
second phase of glycolysis is repeated. Hence, the amount of products is doubled.
 Even though a total of 4 ADPs are used in phase 2 (step 6 & 9), 2ADPs are produced in
phase 1. There is a net usage of 2ADP
Pyruvate has three common fates after it has been generated by glycolysis. In the
section above, pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle after it is converted into Acteyl CoA.
However, pyruvate is also converted into lactate and ethanol in certain conditions:
B
C
lactate pyruvate Ethanol + Co2
NAD NAD
NADH + H +
NAD NADH + H+
A
NADH + H+
Acetyl CoA + CO2
Figure 8.7 The three common fates of pyruvate
A Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA and enters the citric acid cycle
 Pyruvate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation in the presence of
Coenzyme A (CoA-- SH)
 The enzyme involved is Pyruvate dehydrogenase
 Proceeds under aerobic conditions (oxygen-rich)
 Acetyl CoA and CO2 are produced in this process. Only Acetyl CoA
enters the Citric Acid Cycle.
B Pyruvate is converted to lactate

 Proceeds under anaerobic conditions
 Lactate dehydrogenase catalyzes the reaction
 The main purpose of this reaction is to produce NADH
 Lactate reverts back to pyruvate when aerobic conditions are established
 When doing strenuous activity, muscles often produce lactate
C Pyruvate is converted to ethanol
 Common in some microorganisms
 Common in yeast and is the primary mechanism behind bread
leavening, beer and wine fermentation
The net overall reaction for processing glucose to acetyl CoA is:
Glucose + 4NAD+ 2ADP + 2Pi+ 2 CoA-SH 2 acetyl CoA + 4NADH + 2ATP + 4H +2H2+ 2CO2
 CoA – SH is the coenzyme A added to the pyruvate

 The overall reaction of glucose to acetyl CoA no longer reflects the pyruvate as it has
been converted to acetyl CoA
 A total of 2 acetyl CoA will be produced for each glucose molecule (because 2 pyruvates
are formed in every molecule of glucose)
 Additional 2 NAD are used and 2 NADH are produced during the conversion of pyruvate
to acetyl CoA (1 NAD and 1 NADH for each molecule of pyruvate)
Regulation of Glycolysis 3
1) Hexokinase – When there is abundant glucose-6-phosphate, the action of hexokinase is inhibited.

High levels of glucose-6-phosphate signals that the cell no longer requires the conversion of
glucose to energy.
2) Phosphofructokinase – High concentration of ATP allosterically inhibits phosphofructokinase.

Allosterism is an enzyme regulation wherein a regulator binds to the enzyme and modifies the
ability of the enzyme to bind with its substrate. ATP inhibitory action is elicited when it binds to a
specific regulatory site. Conversely, AMP reverses the inhibitory action of ATP. Therefore, the
activity of the enzyme increases when ATP/AMP ratio is lowered (less ATP, more AMP). When
phosphofructokinase is repressed, the concentration of fructose-6-phosphate rises.
Consequently, glucose-6-phosphate also rises because it is in equilibrium with fructose-6-
phosphate. Therefore, the suppression of phosphofructokinase also leads to the suppression of
hexokinase.
3) Pyruvate kinase- High levels of ATP signals the inhibition of the enzyme pyruvate kinase.
Animated summary of glucose to Acetyl CoA:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j7IAxWTUXX4
Glycolysis discussion:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ArmlWtDnuys
Regulation of glycolysis:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TxDC0aHjsU4
SUBTOPIC 8.3: β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids Refer to chapter 28 of your book
Triacylglycerols (TAGs) are stored mainly in the adipose tissue by the cell adipocyte. Dietary
TAGs stored in the adipose tissue need to undergo a series of hydrolysis in order for the body to
use it. The hydrolysis of TAGs followed by its release into the bloodstream as fatty acids and
glycerol is called the Triacylglycerol mobilization.
Figure 8.8 Schematic representation of Triacylglycerol Mobilization

Source: GOB 5th Ed. 2010. Stoker. H.S. C&E Publishing. Inc. p845
 In order for the body to utilize the stored fats in the adipose tissue, mobilizes the TAGs
through a series of hydrolysis.
 The use of TAGs in energy production is triggered by several hormones including
Epinephrine
 The interaction of hormones with the adipocyte receptor triggers the production of cAMP,
which eventually stimulates the activation of Hormone-Sensitive Lipase (HSL). HSL is
needed in the hydrolysis of TAGs
 The hydrolysis of TAGs produces Fatty acids and glycerol which are released into the
bloodstream
 Glycerol, once released into the bloodstream, travels to the kidney and liver and is
converted into dihyroxyacetone phosphate.
 Dihyroxyacetone phosphate is an intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
(production of glucose)
 The Fatty Acids undergo the process of β-oxidation which produces Acetyl CoA, FADH2
and NADH.
Conversion of free fatty acids can be divided into three parts: 1) Activation of the fatty acid
by coenzyme A, 2) Transportation of the fatty acid into the matrix by a shuttle system and 3)
β-oxidization of fatty acids to produce Acetyl CoA, FADH2 and NADH.
1) Activation of fatty acids

 Activation of fatty acids takes place in the outer mitochondrial membrane
 Fatty acids are converted into Acyl CoA (high-energy derivative of coenzyme A)
Acyl CoA Synthase

+ HS---CoA
ATP
 AMP + 2Pi
 R is the representative of a hydrocarbon chain and may vary according to the
number of carbon present in the fatty acid.
 Acyl CoA is the activated fatty acid. The difference between Acyl CoA and Acetyl
CoA is that Acyl CoA can have a varied number of carbon while Acetyl CoA is
strictly a two-carbon chain attached to Coenzyme A.
2) Transportation of the Fatty acid
 Acyl CoA is too large to pass

through the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
 Acyl CoA attaches to

Carnitine, forming Acyl
Carnitine
 Acyl Carnitine is transported

into the mitochondrial matrix
and is converted back as Acyl
CoA
Figure 8.9 Transportation of Acyl CoA in the form of Acyl Carnitine

3) β-oxidation of fatty acids

 Consists of four reactions that repeatedly cleave two-carbon units from the
carboxyl end of the Acyl CoA molecule.
 It is called the β-oxidation because the second carbon from the carboxyl end
(called the β-carbon) is oxidized.
 Β-oxidation repeats until the Acyl CoA is converted into Acetyl CoA.
 Each cycle generates an Acetyl CoA and an Acyl Coa that has two fewer carbon
atoms
β -oxidation Pathway
Step 1: Oxidation (dehydrogenation)
Alkane
 Enzyme: Acyl CoA dehydrogenase

 An Alkene is produced: trans-Enoyl CoA
 FADH2 is produced in this step
Alkene Step 2: Hydration
 Enzyme: Enoyl CoA Hydrase

 A secondary Alcohol is produced: L-β-Hydroxyacyl CoA
Secondary Step 3: Oxidation (dehydrogenation)

Alcohol
 Enzyme: β-Hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase

 A Ketone is produced: β-ketoacyl CoA
Ketone Step 4: Chain Cleavage
 Enzyme: Thiolase
Acyl CoA with  A shorter Acyl CoA is produced and an Acetyl CoA
two carbons
 The shorter Acyl CoA repeats step 1 until it is
fewer
completely oxidized to Acetyl CoA
Video Animation:
Fatty Acid Oxidation Overview: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=acA5iF1zrDI
Fatty Acid Oxidation Part 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=epABNPUtkVc&t=6s
Fatty Acid Oxidation Part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITPKSc5NrQQ
SUBTOPIC 8.4: CITRIC ACID CYCLE Refer to chapter 27 of your book
Acetyl CoA
CoA
C2
1
Citrate
C6 2
Oxalo-
acetate
C4 Iso-
citrate
NADH
8 C6
NAD
3 NAD
Malate NADH +
H+
C4
α-keto
glutarate
7
C5
CoA
Fumarate 4 NAD + Pi
C4 NADH +
Succinyl
6 CoA H+
Succinate
FADH2 C4
C4 5
FAD CO2
GDP
CoA GTP
Figure 8.10 The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle also known as Citric Acid Cycle or Krebs Cycle
The net overall reaction for citric acid cycle is:
Acetyl CoA + 3NAD++ FAD + GDP + Pi + 2H2O  ‗

2CO2 + CoA – SH + 3NADH + 2H+ + FADH2 + GTP
STEPS Processes Involved Enzyme involved
1) Formation of Citrate -Acetyl CoA (2 carbons) with oxaloacetate Citrate
(4 carbons) forming Citrate (6 carbons) synthase
-The acetyl group is transferred to the
oxaloacetate and the CoA is released.
- The Acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate are
condensed to form citryl CoA. Then the
citryl CoA is hydrolyzed to form citrate while
releasing the CoA
2) Formation of -First, the citrate is dehydrated to cis- aconitase

Isocitrate aconitate.
-The cis-aconitate is hydrolyzed to form
isocitrate. --Instead of going back to citrate,
its less symmetrical isomer, isocitrate, is
favored in this reaction.
3) Oxidation of -isocitrate is oxidized, forming Isocitrate
Isocitrate and oxalosuccinate. dehydrogenase
Formation of - two H+ are released. 1 H+ forms NADH
α-ketoglutarate and the other is released in the system.
-The oxalosuccinate undergoes
decarboxylation (CO2 is removed),
producing α-ketoglutarate
4) Oxidation of a- -Coenzyme A (CoA—SH) is needed in this α-ketoglutarate

Ketoglutarate and step dehydrogenase
Formation of Succinyl -NADH, H+ and CO2 are released complex
CoA
5) cleavage in - A GDP (Guanosine triphosphate) is Succinyl
Succinyl CoA and produced. GDP is the same as ADP, but CoA synthetase
Phosphorylation of guanine is used instead of adenine.
GDP - GTP also stores energy and drives many
biochemical processes such as
neurotransmission.
6) Oxidation of - The oxidizing agent is the FAD, instead of Succinate

Succinate NAD dehydrogenase
-FADH2 is released in this step
7) Hydration of -water is added to the double bond of the Fumarase
Fumarate fumarate
8) Oxidation of L- -NAD+ reacts with malate Malate dehydrogenase
Malate to Regenerate -This step releases NADH
Oxaloacetate. -oxaloacetate then participates in step 1.
Hence, the reaction has finished 1 cycle.
The net overall reaction for citric acid cycle is:
Acetyl CoA + 3NAD++ FAD + GDP + Pi + 2H2O ‗

2CO2 + CoA – SH + 3NADH + 2H+ + FADH2 + GTP
Feedback system in the Citric Acid Cycle:
1) ATP, NADH, NAD and ADP regulate the citric acid cycle. When ATP and NADH are
abundant, the citric acid cycle is slowed down or shut down. ATP and NADH inhibit the action of
the enzymes that catalyzes the citric acid cycle.
2) Conversely, ADP and NAD stimulate the activity of the enzymes.
Citric Acid Cycle Overview:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_SkPwVO9BFI
Citric Acid Cycle detailed discussion: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=juM2ROSLWfw
SUBTOPIC 8.5: OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION Refer to chapter 27 of your book
In the electron transport chain, electrons and hydrogen ions pass through intermediate
carriers in order to react with molecular oxygen and ultimately produce water. NADH and FADH2
are oxidized in this process. There are 4 protein complexes and 2 electron carriers involved in
this chain.
Complex I: NADH–coenzyme Q reductase

Complex II: Succinate–coenzyme Q reductase
Complex III: Coenzyme Q–cytochrome c reductase
Complex IV: Cytochrome c oxidase
Two electron carriers: coenzyme Q and cytochrome c,
Figure 8.11 Summary of the Flow of Electrons Through the Four Complexes
Key notes in the electron transport chain:

 The electron transport chain does not produce ATP.
 The main function of the electron transport chain is to create a proton (H+) gradient
wherein the inter membrane space has higher concentration of H+ than the matrix.
 Only complex I , III and IV pumps H+. Complex II does not directly pump H+ to the
intermembrane space.
 NADH enters the complex I and FADH2 enters the complex II
 Oxygen is the ultimate receiver of electrons, not ATP.
+
Figure 8.12 Summary of the H pumped by the protein complexes
Figure 8.13 Schematic Diagram of the ATP production during the oxidative phosphoryltaion
Chemiosmotic theory states that the accumulation of protons in the intermembrane space
creates osmotic pressure.
 There will be a spontaneous flow of ions from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration.
 Because there is an accumulation of protons in the intermembrane space and less
concentration of protons inside the matrix, the protons will flow back to the matrix
 The protons will pass through ATPase in order to enter the matrix.
 The protons passing through the ATPase will drive the ―rotation‖ of the ATPase,
allowing the conversion of ADP to ATP.
 The action of ATPase can be related to a water turbine. The flow of water makes the
turbine rotate which eventually creates energy.
Oxidative phosphorylation animation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQmTKxI4Wn4

ATPase: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kXpzp4RDGJI
Oxidative phosphorylation detailed discussion: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J30zpvbmw7s
How many ATPs are produced in every molecule of glucose?
Pathway Amount of NADH/FADH2/ATP/GTP ATP

produced Value
Glycolysis 2 pyruvates ----
2 ATP 2
2 NADH 5 Important Values
to Remember:
Pyruvate 1 Acetyl CoA  2 Acetyl CoA --- 1 NADH= 2.5 ATP
dehydrogenase 1 NADH  2 NADH 5 1 FADH2= 1.5 ATP
Complex Because you get 2 pyruvate per 1 glucose 1 GTP= 1 ATP
1 ATP= 1 ATP
Citric Acid Cycle 3 NADH  6 NADH 15
1 FADH2  2 FAHD2 3
1 GTP  2 GTP 2
Because you get 2 Acetyl CoA that enters the Citric
Acid Cycle per 1 glucose
Total 32
Why do the values differ in some references?

Check this out: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXgOsy8yQuk
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
References:
1
Bettelheim, F., Brown, W.,Campbell, M.K., Farell, S. Torres, O. 2013. Introduction to General,
Organic, and Biochemistry, 10th Edition. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
2
Stephen Stoker, H. 2010. General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, 5th Edition. Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning
3
Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L. Biochemistry. 5th edition. New York: W H Freeman; 2002.
Section 16.2, The Glycolytic Pathway Is Tightly Controlled. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22395/
HarvardX. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKJyv_uNh3LhYFKmwaB63bA

Retrieved date: 07/2020
Khan Academy. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC4a-Gbdw7vOaccHmFo40b9g

retrieved date: 07/2020
McGraw-Hill Animations. Retrieved from:

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCxUHVv2k31uTOiCm4njuRfQ retrieved date: 07/2020
Study Force: Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCk_uf-xmXWXK0jgVLiBksxg retrieved

date: 8/2020

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University of San Agustin

General Luna St., Iloilo City 5000, Philippines

DESCRIPTION TIME FRAME

Metabolism is the sum total of all

Important molecules that are repeatedly used in metabolism

Food and Drinks Stage 1:

Fatty acids and glucose Stage 2:

Key areas in energy production:

1) Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol.

2) Citric Acid Cycle takes place in the matrix

Inter membrane space

Oxidative Phosphorylation matrix

ATP Energy is CONSUMED FIRST PHASE

2) Isomerization - Glucose-6-phosphate is isomerized to

3) Phosphorylation -Another phosphate group is added to the Phosphofructokinase

9) Dehydration - Phosphoenolpyruvate is formed.

Glucose + 2 NAD+ 2ADP + 2Pi 2pyruvate + 2NADH + 2ATP + 2H +2H2O

Acetyl CoA + CO2

Figure 8.7 The three common fates of pyruvate

B Pyruvate is converted to lactate

 CoA – SH is the coenzyme A added to the pyruvate

1) Hexokinase – When there is abundant glucose-6-phosphate, the action of hexokinase is inhibited.

2) Phosphofructokinase – High concentration of ATP allosterically inhibits phosphofructokinase.

Animated summary of glucose to Acetyl CoA:

Figure 8.8 Schematic representation of Triacylglycerol Mobilization

1) Activation of fatty acids

Acyl CoA Synthase

2) Transportation of the Fatty acid

 Acyl CoA is too large to pass

 Acyl CoA attaches to

 Acyl Carnitine is transported

Figure 8.9 Transportation of Acyl CoA in the form of Acyl Carnitine

3) β-oxidation of fatty acids

 Enzyme: Acyl CoA dehydrogenase

Alkene Step 2: Hydration

 Enzyme: Enoyl CoA Hydrase

Secondary Step 3: Oxidation (dehydrogenation)

 Enzyme: β-Hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase

Ketone Step 4: Chain Cleavage

The net overall reaction for citric acid cycle is:

Acetyl CoA + 3NAD++ FAD + GDP + Pi + 2H2O  ‗

2) Formation of -First, the citrate is dehydrated to cis- aconitase

4) Oxidation of a- -Coenzyme A (CoA—SH) is needed in this α-ketoglutarate

6) Oxidation of - The oxidizing agent is the FAD, instead of Succinate

Acetyl CoA + 3NAD++ FAD + GDP + Pi + 2H2O ‗

Feedback system in the Citric Acid Cycle:

Citric Acid Cycle Overview:

Citric Acid Cycle detailed discussion: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=juM2ROSLWfw

Complex I: NADH–coenzyme Q reductase

Key notes in the electron transport chain:

Oxidative phosphorylation animation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQmTKxI4Wn4

Pathway Amount of NADH/FADH2/ATP/GTP ATP

Why do the values differ in some references?

HarvardX. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKJyv_uNh3LhYFKmwaB63bA

Khan Academy. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC4a-Gbdw7vOaccHmFo40b9g

McGraw-Hill Animations. Retrieved from:

Study Force: Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCk_uf-xmXWXK0jgVLiBksxg retrieved

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