Hydraulic Machines

[ME 724]
Session 2021-22
Part - A
A brief outline of Part – A
It comprises of
•
• Principle of Similarity and Dimensional Analysis
•
• Model & Prototype Relationship
•
•Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

• Derivation of Generalized Theory on Rotodynamic Machines

•
•
•

9/15/2020 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 2

Introduction to Fluid Machines
In general a machine may be defined as a collection of mechanisms
interposed between the source of power and the work for the
purpose of adapting the conversion from one form to the other.
The fundamental objective of any machine is to transmit force or
torque from the source of power to perform some useful
mechanical work.
A hydraulic machine is a type of fluid machine which, converts the
one form of energy into other form where water is used as working
fluid. The energy stored by a fluid mass appears in the form of
potential, kinetic and intermolecular energy which converts into
mechanical energy, by a rotating shaft or movement of a piston rod.
Rotating shaft hydraulic machines also termed as Turbomachines or
Rotodynamic Machines. The prefix turbo- is a Latin word meaning
“spin” or “whirl,” appropriate for rotating devices.
9/15/2020 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 3
Turbomachines divide naturally into those that add energy (pumps) and
those that extract energy (turbines).
The pump which is a type of Turbomachines, is the oldest fluid energy
transfer device known. According to “Turbomachinery – from Paddle
Wheel to Turbojets by D. G. Wilsons, at least two designs date before
Christ:
1. The undershot-bucket waterwheels, or norias, used in Asia and Africa
(1000 B.C.)
2. Archimedes’ screw pump (250 B.C.), still being manufactured today to
handle solid–liquid mixtures. and
Machines that deliver liquids are simply called pumps, but if air or gases
are involved, three different terms are in use, depending on the pressure
rise achieved. If the pressure rise is very small (a few inches of water
column), a air or gas pump is called a fan; up to 1 atm, it is usually called a
blower; and above 1 atm it is commonly termed a compressor.

9/15/2020 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 4

Undershot-bucket waterwheels or norias

Archimedes Screw Pump

Hydraulic machines may be classified as

• Based on energy principle
• Based on operation
• Based on the direction of fluid motion
• Based on fluid used

9/15/2020 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 5

Based on Energy Principle

Energy Producing Devices: it converts the energy held by the fluid into mechanical
energy by means of a rotating part. It generally termed as Turbine. Hydraulic Turbine,
Steam Turbines, Gas Turbines etc. are the examples of energy producing devices.
Energy Absorbing Devices: it converts mechanical energy from the moving parts of the
device to the fluid to increase its stored energy. These are generally termed as Pump,
Compressor Blower and Fan.
9/15/2020 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 6
Classification Based on Operation

Fluid Machines

Positive Displacement
Rotodynamic Machines
Machines

Centrifugal Reciprocating
Pumps Turbine Pump
I C Engines

Rotodynamic machines: in these machines the change in angular momentum takes

place within the machine. There exists a relative motion between the fluid and the
rotating parts of the machine. The rotating element of the machine usually
consisting of a number of vanes or blades is known as rotor or impeller or runner
while the fixed part is known as stator. The change of angular momentum of fluid
occurs imparting torque to the rotating member takes place within the rotor or
impeller.
Positive Displacement Machines: in these machines change of volume takes place
within the machine by a physical displacement of the boundary of a certain fluid
mass as a closed system. This principle is utilized in practice by the reciprocating
motion of a piston within a cylinder.
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Based on Direction of Fluid Flow

Hydraulic
Machines

Radial Mixed
Axial Flow
Flow Flow
In radial flow machine, the main direction of flow in the rotor is radial while in axial flow
machine, it is axial. For radial flow turbines, the flow is towards the centre of the rotor,
while, for pumps and compressors, the flow is away from the centre.

If the flow is partly radial and partly axial, the term mixed-flow machine is used. Figure 1
(a) (b) and (c) are the schematic diagrams of various types of impellers based on the
flow direction.

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 Different flow direction within the rotor

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Based on Fluid Used
Fluid Machines

Liquid Gas

Water pump, Steam Turbines, Gas

Hydraulic Turbines, Turbines, Wind
Petrol Engines, Diesel Turbines, Compressor,
Engines Blower, Fan

The fluid machines use either liquid or gas as the working fluid depending upon the
purpose. When a machine uses liquid, is termed as a pump, and when it uses air it is
termed as a compressor or a fan or a blower, when it uses gas or air.
For all practical purposes, liquid used by the turbines producing power is water, and
therefore, they are termed as water turbines or hydraulic turbines. Turbines handling
gases in practical fields are usually referred to as steam turbine, gas turbine, and air
turbine depending upon whether they use steam, gas (the mixture of air and products of
burnt fuel in air) or air.
9/15/2020 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 10
 Lecture 4, September 09, 2021

Hydraulic Machines
[ME 724]
Session 2020-21
Part - A
It has already discussed that fluid machines can be classified based on operation as

Fluid Machines

Positive
Rotodynamic Displacement

Here, we shall discuss the basic principle of rotodynamic machines. The

important element of a rotodynamic machine, in general, is a rotor consisting
of a number of vanes or blades. There always exists a relative motion between
the rotor vanes and the fluid. The fluid has a component of velocity and hence
of momentum in a direction tangential to the rotor is exists, which is
responsible to the rotation of the rotor. In a turbine, the tangential momentum
of the fluid is reduced and therefore work is done by the fluid to the moving
rotor. But in case of pumps and compressors there is an increase in the
tangential momentum of the fluid and therefore work is absorbed by the fluid
from the moving rotor.
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 Basic equation of Energy Transfer in Rotodynamic Machines

The basic equation of fluid dynamics relating to energy transfer is

• Same for all rotodynamic machines and
• It is a simple form of Newton's Laws of Motion,
• The continuity equation; momentum equation and general energy
equation are applied to a fluid element traversing a rotor.
Here we shall make use of the angular momentum principle as applicable
to a fluid element while flowing through fixed and moving vanes. Figure 1
represents diagrammatically a rotor of a generalised fluid machine, with 0-
0 the axis of rotation and ω the angular velocity. Fluid enters the rotor at 1,
passes through the rotor by any path and is discharged at 2. The points 1
and 2 are at radii r1 and r2 from the centre of the rotor, and the directions of
fluid velocities at 1 and 2 may be at any arbitrary angles. The examples of
Rotodynamic Machines are Francis Turbine, Kaplan Turbine, Propeller
Turbine, Centrifugal Pump, Centrifugal Compressor, Blower.

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Here we use the following symbols:
= mass flow rate of fluid through the rotor or impeller
Q = volume flow rate of fluid through the rotor or impeller
Ρ = density of the fluid
V or C = absolute velocity of fluid
u = peripheral velocity of blade at point considered
Vr or W = relative velocity between the fluid and blade
Vw or = velocity of whirl i.e. component of absolute velocity of fluid in
direction tangential to rotor or impeller circumference
r = radius
ω = angular velocity of runner
Suffix 1refers to conditions at inlet to impeller or outlet from rotor
Suffix 2 refers to conditions at outlet from impeller or inlet to rotor

10/5/2021 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 14

For the analysis of energy transfer due to fluid flow in this situation,
we assume the following:
(a) The flow is steady and axisymmetric that is, the mass flow rate is
constant across any section (no storage or depletion of fluid mass in
the rotor or impeller).
(b) The rate of heat and work interactions between the rotor or
impeller and its surroundings is constant.
(c) Velocity is uniform both in magnitude and in the angle made
with the radius, over any area normal to the flow. This means that
the velocity vector at any point is representative of the total flow
over a finite area. This condition also implies that there is no leakage
loss and the entire fluid is undergoing the same process.

10/5/2021 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 15

 Any velocity may be resolved into three components along
the three Cartesian coordinate axes.

10/5/2021 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 16

The velocity at any point may be resolved into three mutually
perpendicular components as shown in the figure.
• The axial component of velocity Va or Cw is directed parallel to
the axis of rotation.
• The radial component Vf or Cr is directed radially through the
axis to rotation.
• The tangential component Vw or Cθ is directed at right angles to
the radial direction and along
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the tangent to the rotor at that part. 17
Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM)
The change in magnitude of the axial velocity components Va or
Cw causes a change in the axial momentum. This change gives
rise to an axial force, which must be taken by a thrust bearing. So
it has does not any effect.
The change in magnitude of radial velocity components Vf or
Cr causes a change in momentum in radial direction. However, for
an axisymmetric flow, this does not result in any net radial force
on the rotor.
The tangential component Vw or Cθ only has an effect on the
angular motion of the rotor. So we are concerned about the
changes of momentum in the tangential or circumferential
direction only. In consideration of the entire fluid body within the
rotor as a control volume, we can write the force about the axis
is
for pump
for turbine
10/5/2021 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 18
Let us consider at inlet any small fluid element of mass δm has
momentum along tangential direction is δmVw or δmCθ. Thus its
angular momentum is δmVwr or δmCθr.
So, the total angular momentum of the entire fluid entering the
rotor or impeller is or
Similarly, the total angular momentum of the entire fluid leaving
the rotor or impeller is or .
Thus rate of increase in angular momentum along tangential
direction is

for Pumps

for Turbines
The above equations may be written as

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T is the torque exerted by the moving fluid on the rotor or torque
exerted by the impeller on the fluid.

Thus the power developed at the rotor or power developed by the

impeller

for pumps

for turbines
Since u = ωr, the above equation may be written as

for pumps

for turbines
10/5/2021 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 20
Thus the rate of work per unit weight i.e. head is given as

or

for pumps

or

for turbines

This expression was first given by Leonard Euler (1707-83) and it is

also known as Euler’s Head.

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Rotodynamic machines have a number of advantages over the
positive displacement type. The flow from most positive
displacement machines is unsteady whereas, for normal condition
of operation, that form a rotodynamic machine is steady. Most
positive displacement machines require small clearances between
moving and stationary parts, and so are unsuited to handling
fluids which may contain solid particles; in general, rotodynamic
machines are not restricted in this way. If the discharge from a
positive displacement pump is prevented by closing the delivery
valve, the pressure within the pump rises and so either pump stops
or some part of the bursts or motor will burns, if the discharge
valve of a rotodynamic pump is closed, however the rotating
impeller churns the fluid round and the energy consumed is
converted in to heat. Moreover, for dealing with a given overall
rate of flow a rotodynamic machine is usually less bulky than one
of positive displacement type.
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 Velocity Vector Diagram of a Centrifugal Pump

10/5/2021 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 23

From the velocity triangle,
Since or
Thus for inlet velocity triangle
=
So
Similarly it may be shown for outlet velocity triangle

the expression of Euler’s Head may be written as by replacing and

for Pump

for Turbine
10/5/2021 Hydraulic Machines Part A (ANM) 24
The above equation is an important form of the Euler's equation relating to
fluid machines since it gives the three distinct components of energy
transfer as shown by the pair of terms in the first brackets. These
components throw light on the nature of the energy transfer. The first term
indicates change in specific kinetic energy of the fluid i.e. contributing the
impulse effect of the rotor. The second term indicates change in specific
energy due to centrifugal action. The third term indicates the change in
static pressure. Thus the last two terms indicate the change of pressure
energy inside the rotor passage.

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

INTRODUCTION
In general, a machine may be defined as a collection of mechanisms interposed between the source
of power and the work for the purpose of adapting the conversion from one form to the other. Thus,
the fundamental objective of a machine is to transmit force from the source of power to perform some
useful mechanical work.

A hydraulic machine converts the one form of energy into other form where water is used as working
fluid. The energy stored by a fluid mass appears in the form of potential, kinetic and intermolecular
energy. The mechanical energy, on the other hand, is usually transmitted by a rotating shaft.

Rotating shaft hydraulic machines also termed as Turbomachines. The prefix turbo- is a Latin word
meaning “spin” or “whirl,” appropriate for rotating devices. Turbomachines divide naturally into those
that add energy (pumps) and those that extract energy (turbines).

The pump which is a type of Turbomachines, is the oldest fluid energy transfer device known.
According to “Turbomachinery – from Paddle Wheel to Turbojets by D. G. Wilsons, at least two
designs date before Christ:
(1) The undershot-bucket waterwheels, or norias, used in Asia and Africa (1000 B.C.)
(2) Archimedes’ screw pump (250 B.C.), still being manufactured today to handle solid–liquid
mixtures.
Machines that deliver liquids are simply called pumps, but if gases are involved, three different terms
are in use, depending on the pressure rise achieved. If the pressure rise is very small (a few inches of
water), a gas pump is called a fan; up to 1 atm, it is usually called a blower; and above 1 atm it is
commonly termed a compressor.

Undershot-bucket waterwheels or norias

Archimedes Screw Pump

Hydraulic machines may be classified as
 Based on energy principle
 Based on operation
 Based on the direction of fluid motion
 Based on fluid used

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes Prepared by ANM Page 1

 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

A. Classification of hydraulic machines based on energy criteria:

The device in which the kinetic, potential or intermolecular energy held by the fluid is converted in the
form of mechanical energy of a rotating member is known as a turbine. The machines, on the other
hand, where the mechanical energy from moving parts is transferred to a fluid to increase its stored
energy by increasing either its pressure or velocity are known as pumps, compressors, fans or
blowers.

Hydraulic Machines

Energy Producing Energy Absorbing

Devices Devices

Energy Producing Devices: it converts the energy held by the fluid into mechanical energy by
means of a rotating part. It generally termed as Turbine. Hydraulic Turbine, Steam Turbines, Gas
Turbines etc. are the examples of energy producing devices. Here,

Fluid Power Shaft Power

Energy Absorbing Devices: it converts mechanical energy from the moving parts of the device to
the fluid to increase its stored energy. These are generally termed as Pump, Compressor Blower and
Fan. Here,

Shaft Power Fluid power

B. Classification of hydraulic machines based on operation:

Hydraulic Machines

Rotodynamic Positive Displacement

Machines Machines

Rotodynamic machines: in these machines the change in angular momentum takes place by the
fluid within the machine. Here the energy conversion is taking place by means of a rotating part of the
machine. There exists a relative motion between the fluid and the rotating parts of the machine. The
rotating element of the machine usually consisting of a number of vanes or blades is known as rotor
or impeller or runner while the fixed part is known as stator. Impeller or rotor is the heart of
rotodynamic machines, within which a change of angular momentum of fluid occurs imparting torque
to the rotating member.

Positive Displacement Machines: in these machines change of volume takes place within the
machine. The word positive displacement comes from the fact that there is a physical displacement of

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes Prepared by ANM Page 2

 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

the boundary of a certain fluid mass as a closed system. This principle is utilized in practice by the
reciprocating motion of a piston within a cylinder while entrapping a certain amount of fluid in it.
Therefore, the word reciprocating is commonly used with the name of the machines of this kind. The
machine producing mechanical energy is known as reciprocating engine while the machine
developing energy of the fluid from the mechanical energy is known as reciprocating pump or
reciprocating compressor.

C. Classification of hydraulic machines based on direction of fluid motion:

Hydraulic Machines

Radial Flow Machines Mixed Flow Machines Axial Flow Machines

For turbines, the work is done by the fluid on the rotor, while, in case of pump, compressor, fan or
blower, the work is done by the impeller on the fluid element. Depending upon the main direction of
fluid path in the rotor or impeller, the machine is termed as radial flow or axial flow machine.

In radial flow machine, the main direction of flow in the rotor is radial while in axial flow machine, it is
axial. For radial flow turbines, the flow is towards the centre of the rotor, while, for pumps and
compressors, the flow is away from the centre. Therefore, radial flow turbines are sometimes referred
to as radially inward flow machines and radial flow pumps as radially outward flow machines.
Examples of such machines are the Francis turbines and the centrifugal pumps or centrifugal
compressors. The examples of axial flow machines are Kaplan turbines and axial flow compressors.

If the flow is partly radial and partly axial, the term mixed-flow machine is used. Figure 1 (a) (b) and (c)
are the schematic diagrams of various types of impellers based on the flow direction.

Schematic of different types of impellers

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

D. Classification of Fluid Machines based on Fluid Used:

The fluid machines use either liquid or gas as the working fluid depending upon the purpose. The
machine transferring mechanical energy of rotor to the energy of fluid is termed as a pump when it
uses liquid, and is termed as a compressor or a fan or a blower, when it uses gas or air. The
compressor is a machine where the main objective is to increase the static pressure of a gas or air.
Therefore, the mechanical energy held by the fluid is mainly in the form of pressure energy. Fans or
blowers, on the other hand, mainly cause a high flow of gas or air, and hence utilize the mechanical
energy of the rotor to increase mostly the kinetic energy of the fluid. In these machines, the change in
static pressure is quite small.

For all practical purposes, liquid used by the turbines producing power is water, and therefore, they
are termed as water turbines or hydraulic turbines. Turbines handling gases in practical fields are
usually referred to as steam turbine, gas turbine, and air turbine depending upon whether they use
steam, gas (the mixture of air and products of burnt fuel in air) or air.

Detailed Classifications of Fluid Machines

In general, the basic fluid mechanical principle governing the energy transfer in a fluid machine and
also a brief description of different kinds of hydraulic machines along with their performances.
Discussion on machines using air or other gases is beyond the scope of the chapter.

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

Principle of Similarity and Dimensional Analysis

The principle of similarity is a consequence of nature for any physical phenomenon. The performance
of any fluid phenomena can be ascertained by any one of the following:

a) Through full size experimentation

b) Through the performance of one machine from the results on a geometrically similar machine
c) Through computer simulation

In many cases, theoretical analysis alone solves such problems, but it is thus frequently necessary to
turn to experimental results to complete the study. Even if a complete quantitative theory has been
worked out, experiments are still necessary to verify it, because theories are invariably based on
certain assumptions, which may not be precisely satisfied by actual fluids. In most of the occasions,
the full size experimentation is not viable economically, thus the designers are relied on the second
and third options. In the recent time, due to the advancement of computer hardware, computer
simulation has gained an immense popularity in predicting the any fluid flow phenomena, but it has
some limitations, like, if the physics of the problem is not understood then the prediction result will be
erroneous and more time to be spend to make sense of the results. Particularly, in the case of fluid
mechanics and thermal engineering the second option is the most popular to predict the performance
of any fluid flow phenomena. A large part of fluid mechanics study and its engineering applications of
the subject has come from experiments conducted on scale models. No aircraft, passenger vehicles
and commercial vehicles are now built before exhaustive tests have been carried out on small models
in a wind tunnel. The behaviour and power requirements of a ship are calculated in advance from
results of tests in which a small model of the ship is towed through water. Even the flood controls of
river, spillways of dams, harbour works and similar large-scale projects are studied in details with
small models, and the performance of turbines, pumps, propellers and other machines is investigated
with smaller, model machines. There are great economic advantages in testing and probably
subsequently modifying small-scale equipment saves both money and time. This is known as
Principle of Similarity or Similitude.

By making use of this principle, it becomes possible to predict the performance of one machine from
the results of tests on a geometrically similar machine, which is generally called model, and also to
predict the performance of the same machine under conditions different from the test conditions.

There are three similarity conditions that must be met in an experiment using model. They are

a) Geometric Similarity
b) Kinematic Similarity
c) Dynamic Similarity

Two machines are said to be geometrically similar, if their rotor, entrance and discharge passage,
condition of the tail race and head race, etc. must be identical in shape. This condition is known as
Scale Factor. Machines which are geometrically similar form a homologous series.

If two machines are said to be kinematically similar, if the velocity vector diagrams at inlet and outlet
of the rotor of one machine must be similar to those of the other. Geometrical similarity of the inlet and
outlet velocity diagrams is, therefore, a necessary condition for kinematic similarity.

The third condition, dynamic similarity, is achieved if all forces in the two machines have the same
direction with magnitudes of corresponding forces related by a single force scale factor.

From the Principle of Physical Similarity the most important condition for kinetic and dynamic similarity
is that certain dimensionless parameters, representing these ratios are the same for each of the
systems being compared.

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

Now, let us now apply dimensional analysis to determine the dimensionless parameters, i.e., the
terms as the criteria of similarity for flows through fluid machines. For a give fluid machine of a given
shape, and handling compressible fluid, the relevant variables are given in Table 1

Table.1 Variable Physical Parameters of Fluid Machine

List of Variables Symbols Dimensions

Rotor Diameter, chosen as a suitable measure of the size D [L]
of the machine
3 -1
Volume flow rate through the machine Q [L T ]
-1
Rotational Speed (rev/time) N [T ]
Difference of head across the machine, e. i. energy per unit H [L]
weight
Weight per unit mass G [LT-2]
Density of Fluid ρ [ML-3]
Viscosity of Fluid µ [ML-1T-1]
Coefficient of Elasticity of the fluid E [ML-1T-2]
Power transferred between the fluid and rotor P [ML2T-3]

It has been observed that a large number of variables involved in describing the performance
characteristics of a rotodynamic machines virtually demand the use of dimensional groups, which has
got two important uses:

a) Prediction of the prototype performance from test conducted on a scaled model.

b) Determination of most suitable type of machine on the basis of maximum efficiency for
specified range of H, Q, P and N.

In almost all fluid machines flow with a free surface does not occur, and the effect of gravitational
force is negligible. Therefore, it is more logical to consider the energy per unit mass gH as the
variable rather than H alone so that acceleration due to gravity does not appear as a separate
variable. Thus the corresponding dimension will be [L2T-2]. Therefore, the number of separate
variables becomes eight: D, Q, N, gH, ρ, µ, E and P. Since the number of fundamental dimensions
required expressing these variable are three, the number of independent terms (dimensionless
terms), becomes five. Using Buckingham's theorem with D, N and ρ as the repeating variables, the
expression for the terms are obtained as,

= Discharge Coefficient (1)

= Head Coefficient (2)

= (3)

= Power Coefficient (4)

= (5)

We shall now discuss the physical significance and usual terminologies of the different terms. All
lengths of the machine are proportional to D, and all areas to D2. Therefore, the average flow velocity
at any section in the machine is proportional to Q/D2. Again, the peripheral velocity of the rotor is
proportional to the product ND. The first term can be expressed as

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

| |
= = ∝ | |
(6)

For all practical purposes, under the normal range of speed and size, the flow through fluid machines
is highly turbulent thus the influence of viscosity is small and thus the term may be disregarded as
an insignificant parameter. Again for a fluid machine, handling incompressible fluid, the term can
also be dropped. Therefore the significant parameters are

= ; = and = (7)

Now, = = (8)
( )

ρQ(gH) represents the power supplied by the fluid in passing through the turbine otherwise power
absorbed by the fluid in passing through the pump. P represents the power transferred between the
fluid and the rotor or impeller. Thus the relation

represents the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine and

( )

( )
represents the hydraulic efficiency of the pump.

Since the performance or operating conditions for a turbine handling a particular fluid are usually
expressed by Power (P), rotational speed (N) and Discharge (Q) and for pump those are expressed
by Discharge (Q), Rotational Speed (N) and Head (H). It is important to know the range of these
operating parameters covered by a machine of a particular shape (homologous series) at high
efficiency. Such information enables us to select the type of machine best suited to a particular
application, and thus serves as a starting point in its design. Therefore a parameter independent of
the size of the machine D is required which will be the characteristic of all the machines of a
homologous series. By elimination of the D terms from the significant terms we get,

( ) √
= = for turbine (9)
( ) ( )

( )
= = for pump (10)
( ) ( )

These expressions are known as dimensionless Specific Speed of the turbine and pump and denoted
KST and KSP respectively. In some of the books it also denoted by NST and NSP. Therefore, in general

√
= for turbine (11)
( )

= for pump (12)

( )

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

The machines of particular homologous series, that is, of a particular shape, correspond to a
particular value of KS for their maximum efficient operation. Machines of different shapes have, in
general, different values of KS. Thus the parameter KS (KST & KSP) is referred to as the shape
factor of the machines. Considering the fluids used by the machines to be incompressible, (for
hydraulic turbines and pumps), and since the acceleration due to gravity dose not vary under this
situation, the terms g and ρ are taken out from the expressions of KST and KSP. The expressions
reduces to dimensional Specific Speed and it is given as

= for turbine (13)

= for pump (14)

The dimensionless specific speed or dimensional specific speed is defined as the speed of a
hypothetical machine which is a member of the same homologous series as the actual machine thus
reduced in size as to generate unit power under a unit head of fluid at maximum efficiency in case of
turbine and working under unit head delivers unit flow rate at maximum efficiency in case of pump. KS
is dimensionless but NS is not dimensionless.

The dimension of NS can be found from their expressions as mentioned in the equations (11) & (12)
above. The dimensional formula and the unit of specific speed are given as follows:

Specific speed Dimensional formula Unit (SI)

1/2 -5/2 -1/4
NST(turbine) M T L kg 1/2/ s5/2 m1/4
NSP(pump) L 3/4 T-3/2 m 3/4 / s3/2

Table 2 Dimensionless Specific Speed of Various Turbines

Pelton Turbine Francis Turbine Kaplan Turbine
Dimensionless Specific Speed (rev) 0.015 – 0.055 0.055 -0.37 0.3 – 0.75
Head (m) 100 – 1770 20 – 900 6 – 70
Maximum Power (MW) 500 800 300
Optimum Efficiency (%) 90 95 94
Regulation Method Needle Valve & Stagger angle of Stagger angle of
deflector plate guide vanes rotor blades
Transformation of radial to axial with the variation of shape factor
Dimensionless Specific Speed
(rev)

0.055

0.11

0.20

0.40

0.77

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

The rotodynamic machine designer is often faced with the basic problem of deciding what type of
machine will be the best choice for a given duty. At the outset of the design process some overall
requirements of the machine will usually be known. For a hydraulic pump these would include the
head required H, the volume flow rate Q, and the rotational speed N. In contrast, if a high speed gas
turbine was being considered, the initial specification would probably cover the mass flow rate m, the
specific work Δh0, and the preferred rotational speed ω or in other words the power developed by the
fluid P, effective head at the turbine entry and rotational speed N. The non-dimensional parameters
called the shape factor, KS often used to decide upon the choice of the most appropriate machine.
The specific speed is derived from the non-dimensional groups defined in above expression in such a
way that the characteristic diameter D of the rotodynamic machine is eliminated. The value of KS or
NS gives the designer a guide to the type of machine that will provide the normal requirement of high
efficiency at the design condition. Similarly, the specific diameter is derived from these groups by
eliminating the speed, N.

This is to be noted that all rotodynamic machines are operating under same condition of flow and
head for pumps or same condition of power and head for turbines, having the same specific speed
irrespective of the actual physical sizes of the machine. From the expression of specific speed it is
evident that head is inversely proportional to the specific speed so, as the available head of the
turbine decreases the specific speed is also increases. Thus from the Table 2 it can be seen that the
Pelton Turbine has the minimum specific speed whereas the Kaplan Turbine has the maximum
speed.

Fig 1 Range of Specific Speed of various types of Rotodynamic Machines

Choosing the type of the turbine to be adopted for being used on the recovering of the hydraulic
power, begins by using the application tables – as showed on Fig. 2 , deployed by the manufacturers
of the equipment, on function, basically, of the flow and the available head of the water. at desired
place. For some specific data ranges, there is the possibility of using the turbines depending of its
specification.

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

Fig 2 Hydraulic Turbine Selection Chart

From the Fig. 2, it is evident that for high head and moderate available discharge the Pelton turbine is
the best suited for installation. It can also be observed that as the head decreases and available
discharge increases the turbine is shifted from impulse to reaction turbines. Reaction turbines like,
Francis, Kaplan and Bulb turbines are all applicable for high available discharge. Out of these three
reaction turbines Francis turbine is most suited for high discharge as well as moderate head. But Bulb
turbine is most suited for low head and high available discharge. The Kaplan and Propeller turbines
lie in between the Francis and Bulb turbines.
For Turbine
√
Traditional definition of Shape Factor in SI system of turbines is =
( )
where

N is in rev per second or radian per second = 2 60

P is Power in Watt
ρ is density of water in Kg/m3 = 1000 Kg/m3
g is acceleration due to gravity in m/s-2 = 9.81 m/s-2
H is head in m

Specific Speed is metric system of turbine =

where

N is in RPM
P is Power in Kw
H is Head in M

When converting
NST x K = KST
The typical value of K in Metric system K = 1.90644 x 10-4

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

Selection of the pump can be done by using the chart given in the Fig 3.

Fig. 3 Selection Chart for Volute casing Pumps

In the Fig. 3, it can be observed that there are various envelopes are shown for different head and
different discharge. Pumps in each envelope belonging to a same homologous series and each
envelope consist of two numbers, the first number indicates diameter of the discharge pipe and the
second number indicates diameter of the impeller. From the figure it can be seen that up to a
particular discharge as the head increases the diameter of the discharge pipe remains constant but
the impeller diameter increases. Similarly, up to a particular head as the discharge increases the
diameter of the impeller remains constant but the discharge pipe diameter increases.

For Pump

Traditional definition of Shape factor for pumps is =

( )
where
N is rev per sec or rad per sec = 2 60
Q is in m3/s
H is in m
g is 9.81 ms-2

Specific Speed is metric system of pump =

Where
N is in RPM
Q is flow rate i.e. m3/s
H is head in m

When converting
NSP x K = KSP
Typical value of K in metric system is 1.89 x 10-2

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

Model Analysis

Prediction of performance of a prototype machine from the results obtained from experiments on
models is called model analysis. In all dynamic situations, it is necessary that a model be
geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar to the prototype. From the Principle of Similarity

= ; = and =
The model and prototype relationship are expressed as follow:

= (15)

This expression is known as Model to Prototype Ratio of Discharge.

= (16)

This expression is known as Model to Prototype Ratio of Head.

= (17)

This expression is known as Model to Prototype Ratio of Power.

Now, for a given diameter ratio, i.e. =

Then from Equ. (15)

or, =

i.e. ∝ (18)

Again from Eqn No. (16)

or, =

i.e. ∝ √ (19)

From Eqn (18) it is evident that ∝ √ (20)

Again from Eqn (17)

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

i.e. ∝ (21)

So from Eqn. (19)

⁄
∝ (22)

Again we know that the power is the product of torque and angular velocity, i.e.

And =

So, =

Since, ∝ ,

thus ∝ (23)

From Eqn (19) it is evident that ∝ (24)

These relations ∝ , ∝ , ∝ are often known as the Affinity Laws for rotodynamic
machines. They allow the performance characteristics of a rotodynamic machine at one speed to be
predicted from the results of experiments carried out at a different speed.

Unit Quantities

Unit quantities give a comparative evaluation of the operational characteristics of different machines
working under different conditions of speed, head, power and discharge. It also provides the
prediction of performance of given machine under any head from knowledge of its action under one
head. The three unit quantities that are commonly used are discussed below.

Unit Speed: Unit speed of a turbine is defined as the speed that it would attain under a head of one
meter. In the case of a centrifugal pump, unit speed is the speed at which it would run when it
develops a manometric head of one metre.

Let N = speed at head H and Nu = speed at a head of 1 m for two geometrically similar machines.

From eqn. (19) ∝ √ or = √ , where C = constant

Thus substituting the values

= √ (25)

= √1 (26)

Dividing Eqn. (26) by Eqn. (25), we get

=
√

Therefore, the Unit Speed is given as

= (27)
√

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

Unit Discharge: Unit Discharge of turbine is the rate of flow that a turbine would consume under a
head of 1 m. Unit discharge of a centrifugal pump is the rate of flow that it would deliver when the
manometric head is 1 m.

Let Q be the discharge at head H and Qu be the discharge at 1 m head for two geometrically similar
machines.

From Eqn. No. 20 ∝ √ or, = √ , where C = constant

Now substituting the value in the equation,

= √ (28)

and = √1 (29)

Now dividing Eqn (29) by Eqn (28), we get

=
√

Therefore the Unit Discharge is given as

= (30)
√

Unit Power: Unit power is the power developed by a turbine under a head 1 m. Unit power of a
centrifugal pump is the power consumed by the pump under a head of 1 m.

Let P be the power at Head H and Pu be the power at 1 m head for two geometrically similar
machines.

⁄
From Eqn. (22) ∝

⁄
or, = where, C = constant

Now substituting the values in the equation

⁄
= (31)

⁄
and = 1 (32)

Now dividing Eqn. (32) by Eqn. (33) we get

= ⁄

Thus = ⁄ (33)

Similarly the Unit Torque can be shown as

= (34)

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

Numerical Problems

Prob 1. A water turbine is to be designed to produce 27 MW of power when running at 93.7 RPM
under a head of 16.5 m. A model turbine with an output of 37.5 kW is to be tested under dynamically
similar conditions with head of 4.9 m. Calculate the model speed and scale ratio. Assuming a model
efficiency of 88%, estimate the volume flow rate.

Solution of Prob 1.

Given data,

For Prototype For Model

P = 27 MW P = 37.5 kW
N = 93.7 RPM N=?
H = 16.5 m H – 4.9 m
η = 88%
Q=?
Scale Ratio = ?

Since power of both prototype and model are give so from the expression of prototype to model ratio
of power

Or, = = = 0.000875
.

⁄
Or, = 0.245 (1)

Again from the expression of prototype to model ratio of head

16.5
= = = 3.367
4.9

Or, = 0.0195 (2)

Equating (1) and (2)

⁄
= 12.564

Therefore, = 559.537

Now from (2) , Scale Ratio = = 1 0.0195 559.537 = 0.0917

Again the efficiency of a turbine is given as

= =

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

Substituting the values of the model turbine

37.5 10
0.88 =
1000 9.81 4.9

Therefore Q = 0.8865 m3/s

Prob 2. A quarter scale turbine model is tested under a head of 10.8 m. The full scale turbine is
required to work under a head of 30 m and to run at 7.14 rev/s. At what speed must the model be
3
run? If it develops 100 kW and uses 1.085 m of water per second at this speed, what power will be
obtained from the full scale turbine, its efficiency being 3% better than that of the model? What is the
dimensionless specific speed of the full scale turbine?

Soln of Prob 2

From the expression of prototype to model ratio of head

Since for a particular elevation g is constant, so

10.8 4
= = 7.14
30 1

So, = 17.136 /

Now from the expression of prototype to model ratio of discharge

.
So, = = 1.085 = 28.933 m3/s
.

Now power input to the model = = 1000 9.81 1.085 10.8 = 114.954

Thus efficiency of the model = = = 86.99 % ≅ 87 %

.

Since efficiency of the prototype is 3 % better than the model, so the efficiency of the prototype will be
90 %.

Now power developed by the prototype = = 0.9 1000 9.81 28.933 30

= 7.663

. √ .
Dimensionless Specific speed of the prototype = KST = ⁄ =
√ ( . ) ⁄

= 0.512

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

Prob 3. A model Francis turbine at 1/5 full scale develops 3 kW at 350 RPM under a head of 1.8 m.
Find the speed and power of the full size turbine when operating under a head of 5.8 m. Assume that
both units are operating at maximum efficiency level.

Soln of Prob 3.

From Affinity Law

= (1)

= (2)

From (1)

= (3)

Again from (2)

= (4)

Substituting the value of Np/Nm in Equ. (3)

5.8
=3 (5)
1.8

So the power produce by the full size turbine = Pp = 433.805 kW

Again from Equ (4)

5.8 1
=
350 1.8 5

Therefore Np = 125.654 RPM

3
Prob. 4: In a hydroelectric station, water is available at the rate of 175 m /s under a head of 18 m.
The turbine runs at a speed of 150 rps with overall efficiency of 82%. Find the number of turbines
required if they have the maximum dimensionless specific speed of 0.442.

Soln of Prob 4

Here given,

Availability of water = Q =175 m3/s, available head = H = 18 m, Speed = N = 150 rps,

efficiency = η = 82% and shape factor = Ks = 0.442

From the expression of shape factor or dimensionless specific speed

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

√ √ √
KST = ⁄ = =
( ) √ ( . ) ) .

√
or, 0.442 = ∴ P = 12951.4473 Kw
.
Now power supplier by the fluid to the turbine = Pt = γQH = 9.81 x 1000 x 175 x 18 x 0.82
= 25339.230 Kw
.
Therefore the number of units required = = 1.964 ≈ 2 nos.
.
Therefore 2 units to be needed.

Prob. 5: Specifications for an axial flow coolant pump for one loop of pressurised water in nuclear
reactor are:

Head = 85 m; Flow rate = 20,000 m3/hr; Speed = 1490 rpm; Diameter = 1200 mm;

Water density = 714 kg/m3; Power = 4 MW (electrical)

The manufacturer plans to build a model. Test conditions limit the available electric power to 500 KW
and flow to 0.5 m3/s of cold water. If the model and prototype efficiencies are assumed equal, find the
head, and scale ratio of the model. Calculate the dimensionless specific speed of the prototype and
confirm that it is identical with the model.

Soln of Prob. 5.

From the equation of flow coefficient

= = 11.11 (1)
.
Also from Power coefficient
1000
= = 11.11 = 1371.331
714

i.e.

= 1371.331 , thus scale factor Dm/Dp = 0.3

So from (1) Np/Nm = 3.3

Again from head coefficient

1 1
= = = 1.02 ≅ 1.0
3.3 0.3

Now dimensional specific speed of the prototype is given as

1490 20000
60 3600
= = = 0.377
( ) (9.81 85)

Similarly the dimensional specific speed of the model is given as

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 Introduction to Hydraulic Machines & Similitudes

1490 3.3
= = 60 (0.5) = 0.374
( ) (9.81 85)

Thus it is confirmed that the dimensionless specific speed of the prototype and the model are same.

Prob. 6:

Following data related to a test on a Francis Turbine

Power produced = 160 Kw
Head = 12 m
Discharge = 2 m3/s
Speed = 240 rpm
Diameter of runner = 1.1 m
Compute the values of speed discharge and power produced if the head of the turbine is changed to
5 m.

Soln of Prob. 6:

Here the same machine is using with a reduced head, so the machines may be considered as two
machines belonging to a same homologous series. Thus from the concept of unit quantities

=
√

=
√

= ⁄

To predict the performance of a turbine a turbine under different heads

=
√ √

240
( ) = √ = √5 = 154.919
√ √12

=
√ √

2
( ) = √ = √5 = 1.291
√ √12

160
( ) = =5 = 43.033
12

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 Francis Turbine

Generalized Equation of Rotodynamic Machines

Here, we shall discuss the basic principle of rotodynamic machines and the performance of
different kinds of those machines. The important element of a rotodynamic machine, in
general, is a rotor consisting of a number of vanes or blades. There always exists a relative
motion between the rotor vanes and the fluid. The fluid has a component of velocity and
hence of momentum in a direction tangential to the rotor. In a turbine, the tangential
momentum of the fluid is reduced and therefore work is done by the fluid to the moving
rotor. But in case of pumps and compressors there is an increase in the tangential momentum
of the fluid and therefore work is absorbed by the fluid from the moving rotor.

Rotodynamic machines have a number of advantages over the positive displacement type.
The flow from most positive displacement machines is unsteady whereas, for normal
condition of operation, that form a rotodynamic machine is steady. Most positive
displacement machines require small clearances between moving and stationary parts, and so
are unsuited to handling fluids which may contain solid particles; in general, rotodynamic
machines are not restricted in this way. If the discharge from a positive displacement pump is
prevented by closing the delivery valve, the pressure within the pump rises and so either
pump stops or some part of the bursts or motor will burns, if the discharge valve of a
rotodynamic pump is closed, however the rotating impeller churns the fluid round and the
energy consumed is converted in to heat. Moreover, for dealing with a given overall rate of
flow a rotodynamic machine is usually less bulky than one of positive displacement type.

Basic Equation of Energy Transfer in Rotodynamic Machines

The basic equation of fluid dynamics relating to energy transfer is same for all rotodynamic
machines and is a simple form of Newton's Laws of Motion, the continuity equation;
momentum equation and general energy equation are applied to a fluid element traversing a
rotor. Here we shall make use of the angular momentum principle as applicable to a fluid
element while flowing through fixed and moving vanes. Figure 2 represents diagrammatically
a rotor of a generalised fluid machine, with 0-0 the axis of rotation and ω the angular
velocity. Fluid enters the rotor at 1, passes through the rotor by any path and is discharged at
2 and the directions of fluid velocities at 1 and 2 may be at any arbitrary angles. Here we use
the following symbols:

̇ = mass flow rate of fluid through the rotor or impeller

Q = volume flow rate of fluid through the rotor or impeller
Ρ = density of the fluid
V or C = absolute velocity of fluid
u = peripheral velocity of blade at point considered
Vr or W = relative velocity between the fluid and blade
Vw or = velocity of whirl i.e. component of absolute velocity of fluid in direction
tangential to rotor or impeller circumference
r = radius
ω = angular velocity of runner
Sufix 1 refers to the conditions at inlet to rotor or impeller

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 Francis Turbine

Suffix 2 refers to conditions at outlet from rotor or impeller

For the analysis of energy transfer due to fluid flow in this situation, we assume the
following:

(a) The flow is steady and axisymmetric that is, the mass flow rate is constant across any
section (no storage or depletion of fluid mass in the rotor or impeller).

(b) The rate of heat and work interactions between the rotor or impeller and its surroundings
is constant.
(c) Velocity is uniform both in magnitude and in the angle made with the radius, over any
area normal to the flow. This means that the velocity vector at any point is representative of
the total flow over a finite area. This condition also implies that there is no leakage loss and
the entire fluid is undergoing the same process.
The velocity at any point may be resolved into three mutually perpendicular components as
shown in Figure 2.

The axial component of velocity Va or Cw is directed parallel to the axis of rotation, the radial
component Vf or Cr is directed radially through the axis to rotation, while the tangential
component Vw or Cθ is directed at right angles to the radial direction and along the tangent to
the rotor at that part.
The change in magnitude of the axial velocity components Va or Cw through the rotor causes
a change in the axial momentum. This change gives rise to an axial force, which must be
taken by a thrust bearing to the stationary rotor casing. So it has does not any effect on the
axial force which is being neutralized by the thrust bearings.
The change in magnitude of radial velocity components Vf or Cr causes a change in
momentum in radial direction. However, for an axisymmetric flow, this does not result in any
net radial force on the rotor. In case of a non uniform flow distribution over the periphery of
the rotor in practice, a change in momentum in radial direction may result in a net radial force
which is carried as a journal load.
The tangential component Vw or Cθ only has an effect on the angular motion of the rotor.
Thus our present concern, therefore, is with changes of momentum in the tangential or
circumferential direction only. In consideration of the entire fluid body within the rotor as a
control volume, we can write the force about the axis is

= ̇( − ) for pump

= ̇( − ) for turbine

At inlet any small fluid element of mass δm has momentum along tangential direction is
δmVw or δmCθ. Thus its angular momentum is δmVwr or δmCθr.

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 Francis Turbine

So, the total angular momentum of the entire fluid entering the rotor or impeller is ̇
or ̇ .

Similarly, the total angular momentum of the entire fluid leaving the rotor or impeller is
̇ or ̇ .

Thus rate of increase in angular momentum along tangential direction is

= ̇ − = ̇ − for Pumps

= ̇ − = ̇ − for Turbines
The above equations may be written as

= − = − for Pumps

= − = − for Turbines

where T is the torque exerted by the rotor on the moving fluid or torque exerted by the
impeller on the fluid.

Fig 2 Components of flow velocity in a generalised fluid machine

Thus the power developed at the rotor or power developed by the impeller

= = − = − for pumps

= = − = − for turbines

Since u = ωr, the above equation may be written as

= = − = − for pumps

= = − = − for turbines

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 Francis Turbine

Thus the rate of work per unit weight i.e. head is given as

= = − or = − for pumps

= = − or = − for turbines

This expression was first given by Leonard Euler (1707-83) and it is also known as Euler’s
Head.

Components of Energy Transfer It is worth mentioning in this context that the expression of
Euler’s Head is applicable regardless of changes in density or components of velocity in other
directions. Moreover, the shape of the path taken by the fluid in moving from inlet to outlet is
of no consequence. The expression involves only the inlet and outlet conditions. A rotor or
impeller, the moving part of a fluid machine, usually consists of a number of vanes or blades
mounted on a circular disc. Figure 3a shows the velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet of a
rotor. The inlet and outlet portions of a rotor vane are only shown as a representative of the
whole rotor.

(a) Velocity triangles for a generalised (b) Centrifugal effect in a flow of fluid
rotor vane with rotation
Fig 3 Velocity Triangle and centrifugal effect
Vector diagrams of velocities at inlet and outlet correspond to two velocity triangles,
where Vr is the velocity of fluid relative to the rotor and α1 and α2 are the angles made by the
directions of the absolute velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively with the tangential
direction, while β1 and β2 are the angles made by the relative velocities with the tangential
direction. The angles β1 and β2 should match with vane or blade angles at inlet and outlet
respectively for a smooth, shockless entry and exit of the fluid to avoid undesirable losses.
Now we shall apply a simple geometrical relation as follows:

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 Francis Turbine

Fig 4 Velocity vector diagrams of Centrifugal Pump

From the velocity triangle,

Since ⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗ or ⃗ = ⃗ - ⃗ , thus
Thus for inlet velocity triangle
= + − 2 = + −2

So = + −

Similarly it may be shown for outlet velocity triangle = + −

Thus the expression of Euler’s Head may be written as by replacing and

= ( − )+ ( − )− − for pumps

= ( − )+ ( − )− − for turbines
In other symbols the expression may be written as

= [( − )+ ( − )− ( − )] for pumps

= [( − )+ ( − )− ( − )] for turbines

The above equation is an important form of the Euler's equation relating to fluid machines
since it gives the three distinct components of energy transfer as shown by the pair of terms
in the first brackets. These components throw light on the nature of the energy transfer. The
first term indicates change in specific kinetic energy of the fluid i.e. contributing the impulse
effect of the rotor. The second term indicates change in specific energy due to centrifugal
action. The third term indicates the change in static pressure. Thus the last two terms indicate
the change of pressure energy inside the rotor passage.

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 Francis Turbine

Francis Turbine

The first reaction turbine that gave a reasonable power output was developed by Fourneyron
in 1826. It was a radial outward flow type could not gain its application due to a number of
fabrication difficulties. The first radial inflow type of turbine built and tested in 1849 by J. B.
Francis and it is considered as the first commercially and technologically viable reaction
turbine. Francis turbine is best suited for low head application. Francis turbine can be used
where the availability of head varies between 20 m to 900 m also it can produce maximum
power out of all hydraulic turbines when used as a single unit. The purely radial flow
configuration of runner vanes of the original Francis turbine has undergone considerable
modification as a result of increasing demand for higher power without unduly increasing the
runner diameter and as a consequence the width of the runner increases to accommodate
more flow, which transform them as mixed flow turbine with the water entering the runner
radially and leaving it axially. The transformation from radial to axial is shown in the figure.
Dimensionless Specific Speed
(rev)

0.055

0.11

0.20

0.40

0.77

Fig. 1 Transformation from radial flow to axial flow

The advantage and disadvantage of Francis turbine over Pelton Wheel
Advantages:
The Francis turbine claims the following advantages over Pelton wheel:
1. In Francis turbine the variation in operating head can be more easily controlled.
2. In Francis turbine the ratio of maximum and minimum operating head can be even
two.
3. The operating head can be utilized even when the variation in the tail race level is
relatively large when compared to total head.
4. The mechanical efficiency of Pelton wheel decreases faster with wear and tear than
Francis turbine.
5. The size of the runner, alternator and power house required is small and economical if
the Francis turbine is used instead of Pelton wheel for same power generation.

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 Francis Turbine

Disadvantages:
1. Contaminated water can cause very rapid wear in high head Francis turbine.
2. The overhaul and inspection is much more difficult compare to Pelton wheel.
3. Cavitation is an ever-present problem for Francis turbine.
4. Water hammer effect is more troublesome with Francis turbine.
5. If Francis turbine runs below 50% head for a long time, it will not only lose its
efficiency but also the cavitation danger will become more serious.
Operating principle of Francis Turbine
The fluid enters a spiral casing called a volute or scroll casing, which completely surrounds
the runner. The cross sectional area of the volute decreases along the fluid path in such a way
as to keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude. From the volute the fluid passes between
stationary guide vanes mounted all round the periphery of the runner. The function of these
guide vanes is to direct the fluid on to the runner at the angle appropriate to the design. Each
vane is pivoted and by a suitable mechanism, all may be turned in synchronism so as to alter
the flow rate through the machine, and hence the power output, as required by the governing
gear. These vanes are also known as wicket gates. In the passage through the runner the fluid
is deflected by the runner blades so that its angular momentum is changed.
From the centre of the runner the fluid is turned into the axial direction and flows to tail race
via the draft tube. The lower end of the draft tube must, under all conditions of operation, be
submerged below the level of the water in the tail race.

Fig. 2 Inward Radial Flow Francis Turbine

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 Francis Turbine

Components of Francis Turbine

Fig. 3 The components of a Francis Turbine

1. Scroll Casing or Spiral Casing
Water conveyed to the turbine through a large flow passage known as penstock. Scroll or
spiral casing is used to deliver the water evenly at constant velocity to the guide vanes from
the penstock. The spiral casing has a reducing area of section in the direction of flow and is a
closed passage except at the centre of the spiral where the guide vanes are located. The cross-
section in most cases is circular but rectangular sections are sometimes used if the casing is
made of concrete. The materials commonly employed are listed below:
i) Upto 30 m head – concrete
ii) H = 30 to 100 m – welded or riveted steel plate
iii) H > 100 m – cast steel.
2. Inlet Guide Vane
The purpose of the inlet guide vanes to direct the water on to the runner blades and to convert
a part of pressure energy to kinetic energy. The opening of the guide vanes is controlled by a
governing mechanism to regulate the flow.

Fig. 4 Guide Mechanism

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 Francis Turbine

As the regulating ring is moved by the governor, the guide vanes move about their pivots so
as to vary the area between them. The water is accelerated as it passes through the guide
vanes and is also a tangential velocity component as it enters the runner. The rotation of
guide vanes has the additional facility of varying the angle of entry of water to the runner
from almost 0° to 40°. The guide vanes are generally made of cast steel have an aerofoil
section to avoid the eddies.
3. Runner and runner vanes
The Francis runner consists of 8 to 24 curved blades fitted between two plates. The general
direction of flow is radial at entry and axial at exit. The height of the runner depends upon the
specific speed of the turbine. Low specific speed means the slow runner where as high
specific speed specifies as fast runner. The term ‘slow’ or ‘fast’ runner refers to the specific
speed and not the actual speed. The actual speed of rotation of a slow runner is invariably
higher than the fast runner. The width to diameter ratio of the runner varies from 0.08 for
slow runner and 0.5 for fast runner. Blades of large runners made of sheet metal and are
transported separately and are welded to the ring at the site. The material used is polished cast
iron or cast steel. Stainless steel or bronze are used if there is likelihood of corrosion.
Number of guide vanes depends on diameter of the guide wheel and it should be even in
number.
Specific Speed Diameter of Guide Wheel No. of Vanes
Up to 250 mm 8
Less than 200
250 – 400 mm 10
400 – 600 mm 12
600 – 800 mm 14
Above 200 but 800 – 1000 mm 16
less than 300 1000 – 1250 mm 18
1250 – 1700 mm 20
1700 and above 24
300 mm 8
300 – 450 mm 10
450 – 750 mm 12
750 – 1050 mm 14
Above 300
1050 – 1350 mm 16
1350 – 1700 mm 18
1700 – 2100 mm 20
2100 mm above 24
4. Runner shaft
Majority of the reaction turbine have vertical shafts except small Francis turbine which may
have horizontal shaft. Shafts are generally made of forged steel. The draft tube will more
efficient and can be conveniently fixed to the turbine if the setting is vertical. Vertical shafts
are provided with heavy thrust bearings as they have to support the load of the turbine runner
and electric alternator.
5. Draft Tube
All reaction turbines required a draft tube which is closed passage that conducts the water
from the runner exit to the tail race. For small units, the draft tubes are made of cast iron or
steel. In a majority of reaction turbine settings, draft tubes are made of reinforced concrete.
The draft tube serves the following two functions:

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 9

 Francis Turbine

i) It permits the turbine to be set at a convenient height above the tail race water
level. This is because a partial vacuum is created at the top of the draft tube to
compensate for the height of turbine setting.
ii) Its progressively diverging passage reconverts a large part of kinetic energy of
water that leaves the runner exit into useful pressure energy which can be
clearly witnessed by a higher negative pressure at the turbine exit, which
ultimately increases the effective head on the turbine.
Head Across a Reaction Turbine

Fig. 5 Head across a reaction turbine

The total head H1 at the entrance to the turbine can be found by applying Bernoulli’s equation
between the free surface of the head race say (level 0) and the inlet to the turbine as
0
+ + = + + +ℎ
2 2
So,
= +
+ + ℎ
2
Thus the net head at the entrance to the turbine is given as
= − ℎ = + + …. …. …. …. (1)
2
Where,
= ℎ ℎ ℎ

= ℎ ℎ ℎ
2
= ℎ
ℎ =ℎ ℎ

Again effective head across the turbine for the conversion of mechanical work
= head available at the inlet – head available at the exit of the turbine i.e. at draft tube
+ + − + +0 = + + − = − … … (2)
2 2 2 2 2
Now applying Bernoulli’s equation between levels 2 and 3 assuming no losses in the draft
tube,
+ + = + + 0
2 2

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 10

 Francis Turbine

Or,
+ + =
2 2
Or,
−
= − + … … … … (3)
2
Since vd < v2, the expression within the bracket is always positive and is always
negative, which means that the static pressure at the outlet of the rotor is always below the
atmospheric pressure. Thus incorporation of draft tube allows a turbine to set above the tail
race without any drop of available head. It is obvious that p2 must be greater than the vapour
pressure at its operating temperature to avoid cavitation.

Efficiency
If H is the net head across the turbine and discharge is Q, then
Hydraulic power input to the turbine = ρgQH, thus hydraulic efficiency ηhyd is given as

ℎ −
= =
ℎ
−
=
For radial discharge reaction turbines, hydraulic efficiency is given as
=
Mechanical efficiency is given as
ℎ
= =
ℎ −
Overall efficiency is given as
ℎ
= =
ℎ
=
Hydraulic efficiency generally varies from 85 to 95% and overall efficiency varies from 80 to
90%.
Working proportions of a Francis turbine
The following are the working proportions of a Francis turbine:
1. Ratio of width to diameter
The ratio of width to diameter of the runner at the inlet is represented by n. It is given
as
=
where B1 and D1 are the width and diameter of the runner at inlet. The value of n
varies from 0.1 to 0.45.
2. Flow Ratio
Flow ratio is the radial component of the absolute velocity at the inlet to the
theoretical velocity of the turbine inlet and it is given as

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 11

 Francis Turbine

=
2

The value of Kf varies from 0.15 to 0.3.

3. Speed Ratio
Speed ratio is the ratio of the peripheral speed at inlet to the theoretical velocity of the
turbine at inlet and it is given as

=
2
The value of Ku varies from 0.6 to 0.9.
4. Vane thickness coefficient:
The vane thickness coefficient generally denoted by Kt. It accounts for the area
occupied by the thickness of the blades. Kt is generally taken as 10% of the rotor
circumference.
The fluid enters in to the turbine is given as
=
Where,
Kt = vane thickness coefficient
D1 = diameter of the rotor at inlet
B1 = width of the runner at the inlet
Cr1 = radial component of absolute velocity at the inlet.
Again the ratio between the rotor width to rotor diameter is given as

N varies between 0.05 to 0.66. Thus

= =

∴ =

Again Q can be calculated as

= (1 − )

Fundamental theory of Reaction Turbine

In reaction turbine part of the total head available is converted to velocity head. Euler’s head
for turbine is given as

1 1
= − = [( − )+ ( − )− ( − )]
2

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 12

 Francis Turbine

The first term indicates change in specific kinetic energy of the fluid i.e. contributing the
impulse effect of the rotor. The second term indicates change in specific energy due to
centrifugal action. The third term indicates change in static pressure. Thus the last two terms
indicate the change of pressure energy inside the rotor passage.

The parameter characterizing the proportions of change in the dynamic and static head in the
rotor of a fluid machine is known as Degree of Reaction and it is given as the ratio of the
energy transfer by the change in static head to the total energy transfer in the rotor. Thus,

∆
= = =
∆

where, Hs = Static pressure head and Ho = total pressure head.

Again total pressure rise = static pressure rise + dynamic pressure rise i.e.

1
∆ = ∆ + ( − )
2
Again total pressure rise inside the fluid machine is same as the Euler’s Head i.e.

∆ = = −

1
, − = ∆ + ( − )
2
1
, ∆ = − − ( − )
2
1 1
, ∆ = [( − )+ ( − )− ( − )] − ( − )
2 2
1
, ∆ = [( − )− ( − )]
2
So the degree of reaction is given as

[( − ) − ( − )]
=
[( − )+ ( − )− ( − )]

For Pelton turbine,

u1 = u2 and w1 ≈ w2, so R = 0

Again the expression for degree of reaction may be written as

1
− − 2( − ) ( − )
= =1−
− 2 −

For all practical purpose, the second term of the above expression cannot be zero. So R ≠ 1.
Thus 1he 100% reaction machine is not possible.

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 13

 Francis Turbine

Generally the degree of reaction lies in between 0.3 to 0.7 for Francis turbine and in the level
of 0.75 for Kaplan turbine and propeller turbine.

Why the absolute velocity at the outlet makes radial

The flow through a reaction turbine at any cross section of the runner is given as
Q = Area of flow x velocity of flow = Circumference of rotor x width x velocity of flow
= πD x B x Cr
Where,
D = diameter of the runner
B = width of the runner
Cr = radial component of the absolute velocity of the fluid

Kinetic energy of fluid per unit weight at the outlet of turbine is which lost in the
transition. This loss reduces the efficiency of the turbine. Thus it is desired to keep the value
to be minimum. For same discharge for a particular set of turbines with same runner diameter
and runner width but different outlet vane angles, the magnitude of will be same for all
the cases. Thus for same , c2 will be minimum when α2 = 90° i.e. radial outflow and Cθ2 =
0. All the reaction turbines are usually designed in this way. Such discharge at outlet is called
Radial Discharge i.e. direction of the absolute velocity at the outlet is perpendicular to that of
tangential velocity. The value of Cr2 and C2 depends upon the angle of vane at outlet. In
general β2 is taken as 15°.
Runner of Francis Turbine
Euler’s equation for hydraulic turbine in energy form is given as
= −
In Francis turbine, the radial component of velocity remains constant throughout i.e. =
.
Again since in Francis turbine absolute velocity at the outlet is radial so = 0. Thus the
above equation reduces to
=
So the energy per unit mass of fluid is given as

= = ( ) … … … … (1)

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 Francis Turbine

At inlet velocity triangle

tan = , = ∴ = … … (2)
And
( − ) =
−
, = , = + … … … (3)
−
So,
= +
Now from equation (1)
= = + = ( + )

Again loss of kinetic energy per unit mass is given as 2. Thus neglecting friction, the
blade efficiency is given as
2 2 ( + )
= = =
2 +2 ( + )+
+ 2
Since for Francis Turbine, = then,
2 ( + ) 2 ( + )
= =
2 ( + )+ 2 ( + )+ 1
or,
1
=1−
2 ( + )+ 1
Thus Degree of Reaction is given as

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 15

 Francis Turbine

−
=
Or,
− 1 2( − ) ( − )
= =1−
2
Since for radial discharge reaction turbine = =
So ( − ) = − = =
cot
∴ =1− =1−
2 ( + ) 2( + )
So the degree of reaction of reaction turbine depends on the inlet guide vane angle α1 and
vane angle β1.
In general,
β1 varies from 45° - 120°
α1 varies 10° - 40°
B/D ratio varies from 1/20 – 2/3
Ns varies from 50 – 400
Expression for Specific Speed
The dimensional specific speed of a turbine is given as
⁄
= ⁄

Again power generated by the turbine = P =

So,
( ) ⁄
( ) ⁄ ⁄
= ⁄
=

Again u1 = πD1N

or, = and

= + = + = ( + )
( + )
∴ =

Again available head H = head developed + head loss at exit i.e

Available energy/unit mass = energy developed/unit mass + energy lost/unit mass

= + = ( + )+
2 2
Or,

= [1 + 2 ( + )]
2
Thus,

= [1 + 2 ( + )]
2

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 16

 Francis Turbine

Then
( ) ⁄ ⁄
=
Or,
⁄
( + ) ⁄
= ( ) [1 + 2 ( + )]
2
Again Q = πD1Bcr1

∴ =

Therefore,
⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
= 2 ( ) ( + ) [1 + 2 ( + )]

For Francis Turbine due to the variations of geometrical parameters the range of specific
speed lies in between 50 and 400. Higher specific speed corresponds to low head.
Effects on Blade Curvature

The head across a reaction turbine is given as

1
= −
For radially discharge turbine, = 0, so
1
=
Again from inlet velocity triangle
=
−
Or,
− = = = −
Thus
= − = − = −
The above equation may be written as H = A + BQ, which is an equation of a straight line.
Where = a positive constant for a particular speed u1 and =− is another
constant for a given speed and inlet vane angle.
From the above expression
 When β1 = 90°; H= a constant valid for radial vane

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 17

 Francis Turbine

 When β1 < 90°; H < valid for forward vane

 When β1 > 90°; H > valid for backward vane

The expression can be represented in graphical form as follow.

H
Backward

Radial

Forward

Turbine Losses
Turbine losses can be related in terms of an energy balance through the turbine:
P = Pm + Pr + Pc + Pl + Ps
where,
Pm = mechanical power loss
Pr = runner power loss
Pc = casing and draft tube loss
Pl = leakage loss
Ps = shaft power output
P = water power available
Pr, Pc and Pl are the components of hydraulic power loss. Runner power loss Pr is due to
friction shock at impeller entry and flow separation and results in a head loss hr associated
with a flow rate through the runner of Qr.
Pr = ρgQrhr Nm/s
Leakage power loss Pl is caused by a flow rate q leaking past the runner and therefore not
being handled by the runner, thus
Q = Qr + q
And with a total head Hr across the runner, the leakage power loss becomes
Pl = ρgHrq Nm/s
Casing power loss Pc is due to friction, eddy and flow separation losses in the casing and
draft tube. If this head loss is hc, then
Pc = ρgQhc Nm/s
Thus total energy balance is given by

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 18

 Francis Turbine

ρgQH = Pm + ρg(hrQr + hcQ + Hrq) + Ps

where,
H = net available head
ρ = density of water
Then over efficiency is give by
Shaft output power
=
Fluid power available at inlet

=
+ (ℎ + ℎ + ) +
Cavitation
Non-uniformity of flow in machines may cause the pressure, even in a given cross-section, to
vary widely. There may thus be, on the low-pressure side of the rotor, regions in which the
pressure falls to values considerably below atmospheric. In a liquid, if the pressure at any
point falls to the vapour pressure (at the temperature concerned), the liquid boils and small
bubbles of vapour form in large numbers. These bubbles are carried along by the flow, and on
reaching a point where the pressure is higher they suddenly collapse as the vapour condenses
to liquid again. A cavity results and the surrounding liquid rushes in to fill it. The liquid
moving from all directions collides at the centre of the cavity, thus giving rise to very high
local pressures (up to 1 GPa). Any solid surface in the vicinity is also subjected to these
intense pressures, because, even if the cavities are not actually at the solid surface, the
pressures are propagated from the cavities by pressure waves. This alternate formation and
collapse of vapour bubbles may be repeated with a frequency of many thousand times a
second. The intense pressures, even though acting for only a very brief time over a tiny area
can cause severe damage to the surface. The material ultimately fails by fatigue, aided
perhaps by corrosion, so the surface becomes badly scored and pitted. Parts of the surface
may even be torn completely away. Associated with cavitating flow there may be
considerable vibration and noise; when cavitation occurs in a turbine or pump it may sound
as though gravel were passing through the machine. Not only is cavitation destructive: the
large pockets of vapour may so disturb the flow that the efficiency of a machine is impaired.
Everything possible should therefore be done to eliminate cavitation in fluid machinery, that
is, to ensure that at every point the pressure of the liquid is above the vapour pressure. When
the liquid has air in solution this is released as the pressure falls and so air cavitation also
occurs. Although air cavitation is less damaging to surfaces than vapour cavitation, it has a
similar effect on the efficiency of the machine. Since cavitation begins when the pressure
reaches too low a value, it is likely to occur at points where the velocity or the elevation is
high, and particularly at those where high velocity and high elevation are combined. In a
reaction turbine the point of minimum pressure is usually at the outlet end of a runner blade,
on the leading side. For the flow between such a point and the final discharge into the tail
race, where the total head is atmospheric) the energy equation may be written by applying
Bernoulli’s equation between the turbine exit and tail race level
+ + = + ℎ … … … (1)
2
Here hf represents the head lost to friction in the draft tube and the pressure is absolute.

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 19

 Francis Turbine

Equation (1) incidentally shows a further reason why the outlet velocity v of the fluid from
the runner should be as small as possible: the larger the value of v the smaller is the value of
pmin and the more likely is cavitation.
Rearranging the equation gives
− ℎ = − −
2

For a particular design of machine operated under its design conditions, the left-hand side of
this relation may be regarded as a particular proportion, say σc, of the net head H across the
machine. Then
− −
=
For cavitation not to occur pmin must be greater than the vapour pressure of the liquid pv, i.e.
σ>σc where
− −
= … … … (2)
The expression in equation (2) is known as Thoma’s cavitation parameter, after the
German engineer Dietrich Thoma (1881–1944) who first advocated its use.
If either z (the height of the turbine runner above the tail water surface) or H is increased, σ is
reduced. To determine whether cavitation is likely in a particular installation, the value of σ
may be calculated: if it is greater than the tabulated (empirical) value of σc for that design of
turbine, cavitation should not be experienced.
In practice the expression is used to determine the maximum elevation zmax of the turbine
above the tail water surface for cavitation to be avoided:

= − − … … … … (3)

From the equation (3) it is evident that the greater the net head H on which a turbine operates,
the lower it must be placed relative to the tail race level.
The following figure shows that the turbines of high specific speed have higher values of σc
and so they must be set much lower than those of smaller specific speed. For a high net head
H it might be necessary to place the turbine below the tail water surface, thus adding
considerably to the difficulties of construction and maintenance. This consideration restricts
the use of Propeller and Kaplan turbines to low heads. From the appended figure, it should be
realized, is no more than a useful general guide; in practice the incidence of cavitation
depends very much on details of the design.

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 20

 Francis Turbine

Fig. Cavitation limits for reaction turbines

(a) Francis (b) Fixed blade propeller (c) Kaplan
Cavitation is a phenomenon by no means confined to turbines. Wherever it exists it is an
additional factor to be considered if dynamic similarity is sought between one situation and
another. Similarity of cavitation requires the cavitation number to be the same at
corresponding points. Experiments suggest, however, that similarity of cavitation is difficult
to achieve.
Cavitation Number is given by
−
1
2
where,
p = pressure of a liquid at a particular point under consideration
pv = vapour pressure of the liquid at the temperature of that point
U = velocity of the liquid at that point
Draft Tube
In the Pelton turbine, all the available energy of water is converted by a nozzle to kinetic
energy at atmospheric pressure before the water jet comes in contact with the buckets of the
Pelton wheel. The wheel placed just above the tail race level. The water leaving a Pelton has
very little kinetic energy left in it unutilized and the exit velocity head loss typically ranges
between 1% to 4%. However in case of a reaction turbine the conversion of pressure head to
velocity head continues throughout the entire length of runner vane and water usually leaves
the runner with a good amount of kinetic energy remaining unutilized. For mixed flow
Francis runner this velocity head may range from 4% to 25%. For axial flow Propeller turbine
this velocity head may be as high as 20% of the net head or even more. To utilize this kinetic
energy at runner exit a divergent pressure conduit is fixed hermitically at runner outlet and
other end of this conduit being kept immersed in the tail race. This divergent conduit is called
draft tube. The draft tube is considered an integral part of a reaction turbine.
The important functions of a draft tube are:

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 21

 Francis Turbine

i. It makes possible the installation of the reaction turbine at a suitable height above the
tail race level without any loss of net head across the turbine.
ii. By reducing the exit velocity head loss the efficiency of the turbine is increased.
iii. It prevents the splashing of water, coming out of the runner and guides the flow
smoothly to the tailrace.
Draft tube efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual gain of pressure head in the draft tube to
the theoretically possible gains of the pressure head i.e.
ℎ ℎ
=
ℎ ℎ
−
− ℎ
2
=
−
2
Different types of draft Tubes
a) Straight divergent Tube
b) Moody’s Spreading Tube
c) Simple Elbow Tube
d) Elbow tube with change in cross section

Straight Divergent Tube d

This type of draft tube employed for low specific speed vertical shaft Francis turbine. The
tube must discharge sufficiently low under tail water level. The maximum efficiency of this
type of draft tube can yield is 85%. This type of draft tube improves speed regulation on
falling load. The height of the tube normally taken as 2.5 to 3.0 times of the diameter.
Moody’s Spreading Tube or Hyrdacone

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 Francis Turbine

This type of draft tube has large exit area which helps to reduce the whirl action of discharge
water. The efficiency of such draft tube is 85%.
Simple Elbow Tube

In order to minimize the construction cost, the vertical height of the draft tube should be
minimum. Simple elbow type draft tube will serve such a purpose and its efficiency is about
60%. The height of this type of tube generally taken as 2-2.5 times of the inlet diameter.
Elbow tube with change in cross section

Sometimes, the transition from a circular section in the vertical portion to a rectangular
section in the horizontal part is incorporated in the design to have a higher efficiency of the
draft tube. The horizontal portion of the draft tube is generally inclined upwards to lead the
water gradually to the level of the tail race and to prevent entry of air from the exit end. This
type of draft tube is most common type used in practice. The height of this type of draft tube
generally taken as 2-2.5 times of the inlet diameter.

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 23

 Numerical Problems on Francis Turbine

Numerical Problems
Problem 1

At what angles the wicket gates of a Francis turbine is set to extract 8000 kW of power from a flow of
30 m3/s, and running at a speed of 200 rpm? The diameter of the runner at inlet is 3.0 m and the
breadth of openings at inlet is 0.9 m. The flow can be assumed to leave the runner radially.
Solution
.
Peripheral velocity at the inlet = = = = 31.40 /
Discharge is given by
=
Thus,
30
= = 3.539 /
3.14 3 0.9
Again power developed = 8000 kW = 8000 x 1000 W and this is equal to −
But for radial discharge turbine = 0, so
8000 x 1000 = 1000 x 30 x 31.40 x
8000
= = 8.493 /
30 31.40
.
Thus inlet guide vane angle = α = = = 22.6°
.

Problem 2
A reaction turbine works at 450 rpm under a head of 115 m. The diameter of the inlet is 1.2 m and the
flow area is 0.4 m2. At the inlet the absolute and relative velocities make angles of 20° and 60°
respectively with the tangential velocity. Assume the velocity of whirl at the outlet is zero. Determine
a) Volume flow rate
b) The power developed
c) Hydraulic efficiency
Solution
At inlet
3.14 1.2 450
= = = 28.26 /
60 60
From the velocity triangle

=
40 120
28.26
∴ = 120 = 0.866 = 38.06 /
40 0.643
Thus the whirl velocity at inlet is given by
= 20° = 38.06 x 0.939 = 35.76 m/s
And radial velocity is given as
= 20° = 38.06 0.342 = 13.02 /
Thus discharge Q = π x D1 x b x = 0.4 13.02 = 5.208 /

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 Numerical Problems on Francis Turbine

Therefore the power developed = P = ρQ = 1000 5.208 28.26 35.76 = 5263.09

Hydraulic efficiency is given as
28.26 35.76
= = = 89.58 %
9.81 115
Problem 3
An inward flow reaction turbine has an inlet guide vane angle of 30° and edges of the runner blades
are at 120° to the direction of whirl. The breadth of the runner at inlet is a quarter of the diameter at
inlet and there is no velocity of whirl at outlet. The overall head is 15 m and the speed 16.67 rev/s.
The hydraulic and overall efficiencies may be assumed to be 88% and 85% respectively. Calculate the
runner diameter at inlet and power developed. (Thickness of the blades may be neglected).
Solution
Let the diameter of the runner at inlet = D1
So,

= = 16.67 = 52.370
60
From the inlet velocity triangle

30° = = 30°

Again,

= ∴ = 60°
90° 60°
So,
= 60° 30° = 52.370 sin 60° 30° = 39.2775
Again hydraulic efficiency for radially discharge reaction turbine is
39.2775 52.370
= . . 0.88 =
9.81 15
, = 0.06295 So D1 = 0.2509 m or 250.9 mm
Again,
= 30 = 60 30 = 52.370 60 30 = 22.677
Thus discharge is given as
3.14
= = 22.677 = 22.677 = 22.677 (0.2509)
4 4 4 4
3
= 0.2813 m /s
Power developed = P = = 9.81 1000 0.2813 15 0.85 = 35.185 .
Problem 4
An idealized radial turbine is shown in Figure. The absolute flow enters at 30and leaves
radially inward. The flow rate is 3.5 m3/s of water at 20C. The blade thickness is constant at
10 cm. Compute the theoretical power developed at 100% efficiency.

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 Numerical Problems on Francis Turbine

Solution
Here peripheral velocity at the inlet
3.14 0.7 135
= = = 4.946 /
60 60
3
Here discharge is 3.5 m /s, thus
Q= = 3.14 0.7 0.1
3.5
∴ = = = 15.924 /
3.14 0.7 0.1 0.2198
Here inlet guide vane angle is given as 30°, so from the inlet velocity triangle
15.924 15.924
tan = , = = = = 27.598 /
tan 30 0.577
The theoretical head of a turbine is given as
1
= −

For radial discharge turbine, = 0 so the head is

27.598 4.946
= = = 13.914 /
9.81
Thus theoretical power developed by the turbine is
= = 1000 9.81 3.5 13.914 = 477.75
Problem 5
A Francis turbines with constant flow velocity and discharge radially works at 650 rpm under
a head of 86.4 m. The following data pertain to this turbine:
Available shaft power = 397 kW
Ratio of wheel width to wheel diameter at inlet = 0.10
Ratio of inner diameter to outer diameter = 0.5
Flow ratio = 0.17
Hydraulic efficiency = 95 %
Overall efficiency = 83 %
Find the important dimensions and blade angles. Neglecting the blockage by the blades.
Solution
Here flow velocity is given as

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 Numerical Problems on Francis Turbine

= 2
where kf is the flow ratio. So
= 0.17√2 9.81 86.4 = 7 /
For Francis turbines
=
Again for radially discharge machines
= =
Here available shaft power is given as
=
So,
397000
= = = 0.551 /
0.85 1000 9.81 86.4
Again the discharge also given as
=
Thus,
0.551 = 3.14 0.1 7
Therefore the diameter of the runner at inlet is D1 = 0.5 m
and diameter of the runner at outlet is D2 = 0.5 D1 = 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25 m
Therefore the runner width at inlet = B1 = 0.1 x 0.5 = 0.05 m
Since the discharge of water at inlet and outlet is same, therefore
= =
=

= = =2 =2 0.05 = 0.1
0.5
Again peripheral velocity at inlet is
3.14 0.5 650
= = = 17.008 /
60 60
Hydraulic efficiency is given as
17.008
= =
9.81 86.4
0.95 9.81 86.4
= = 47.343 /
17.008
Since < the vane angle at the inlet will be greater than 90°.
From inlet velocity triangle

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 Numerical Problems on Francis Turbine

7
= = = 0.148
47.343
Therefore α1 = 8.4°
Again tan( − )= = = 0.231
. .

Therefore β1 = 167°
. .
Again = = = 8.504 /
So,
7
tan = = = = 0.823
8.504
Therefore α2 = 39.45° and β2 = 90°

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 Kaplan Turbine

Kaplan Turbine
The increasing need for more power during the early years of the twentieth century also led to the
invention of a turbine suitable for small heads of water, i.e., 3 to 9 m, in river locations where a dam
could be built. In 1913 Viktor Kaplan revealed his idea of the propeller (or Kaplan) turbine, which
acts like a ship’s propeller but in reverse. At a later date Kaplan improved his turbine by means of
swivelling blades, which improved the efficiency of the turbine appropriate to the available flow rate
and head.
Development of Kaplan Turbine
Francis turbine operates at high efficiency level at the design operating condition but its efficiency
degrades when operates in different load condition.
For a given power P
∝
Where available head H is very low n to obtain the same power Q has to be increased
In Francis turbine the volume flow rate Q is given as
=
Where,
D = Diameter of the runner
B = width of the runner
C = radial component of inlet velocity
In order to increase Q, either D or B or Cr1 to be increased.
If Cr1 increases the discharge becomes more axial.
If D is increases which leads to high manufacturing cost and for larger size the weight will
also be increases which leads to more attention for maintenance.
Thus only best option is to increase B which leads to mixed flow to axial flow runner and
ultimately further increase of B the flow tends to purely axial.
Kaplan turbine is known as axial flow turbine where water enters the wheel at the side and
flows parallel to the axis of the rotation. Thus Euler’s equation for Kaplan turbine is given as
1
= −

But for Kaplan turbine u1 = u2 = u, so

= −

For the radial discharge machine the equation reduces to

In Kaplan turbine, the numbers of blades are restricted to 4 to 6. Generally both propeller and
Kaplan turbines are known as axial flow turbine and 6 blades are provided on the runner of a
propeller turbine and 4 blades are provided on the runner of a Kaplan turbine. In case of a
propeller turbine, blades are fixed and in case of a Kaplan turbine the blades are adjustable.
Kaplan and Propeller turbines are suitable for heads from 1.5 m to 60 m as against the Francis
Turbine which are suitable for heads from 50 m to 500 m.
Important points for Propeller and Kaplan turbines
1. The direction of flow of water through the runner is parallel to the axis of rotation.
2. The peripheral speed is constant (u1 = u2)
3. The velocity of flow is constant i.e. the radial component of absolute velocity is
constant.

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 Kaplan Turbine

Advantages of Kaplan turbines over Francis turbines

1. Kaplan turbine is compact compared to Francis turbine
2. Kaplan turbine has higher part load efficiency compared to Francis Turbine.
3. Loss of energy due to friction is less in Kaplan turbine because of less no. of blades
compared to Francis turbine.
4. Kaplan turbine is suitable only for low heads.
5. Kaplan turbine has higher specific speed compared to Francis turbine.
The figure below represents an axial flow hydro turbine and is called Kaplan. The
arrangement of guide vanes is similar to that for a Francis Turbine. Between the guide vanes
and runner, the fluid in a Kaplan or Propeller turbine turns through a right angle in to the
axial direction and then passes through the runner. The latter usually has four or six blades
and closely resembles a ship propeller.
It has been seen that the flow approaching the runner blades closely approximates a free
vortex pattern in which the whirl component of velocity cθ becomes inversely proportional to
the radius. On the other hand blade speed u is directly proportional to the radius. To adjust for
the divergent requirements of the fluid velocity and blade speed with increasing radius, the
blades of axial flow turbines are twisted as shown in the figure, the angle with the axis of
rotation being greater at the tip than at the hub.

If the availability of head and demand of load are both fairly constant a fixed blade type
Propeller turbine may be used. But when these quantities are variable a Kaplan turbine is
used for optimum performance. In Kaplan turbine the blades may be turned about their their
own axes while the machine is running. When both guide vane angle and runner blade angle
may thus be varied, a high efficiency can be maintained over a wide range of operating
conditions.

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 Kaplan Turbine

Kaplan Turbine Design Factors

Ratio of Boss to Runner diameter
If D is the runner outer or tip diameter and d is the boss or hub diameter, the value of d/D
varies from 0.3 to 0.4.
Discharge is given as
= ( − )
4
Flow ratio
It is defined as
=
2
The usual range of Kf for Kaplan turbine is 0.5 to 0.8.
Speed ratio
It is defined as
=
2
The value of Ku for Kaplan turbine varies from 1.5 to 2.2

Turbine Losses
Turbine losses can be related in terms of an energy balance through the turbine:
P = Pm + Pr + Pc + Pl + Ps
where,
Pm = mechanical power loss
Pr = runner power loss
Pc = casing and draft tube loss
Pl = leakage loss
Ps = shaft power output
P = water power available
Pr, Pc and Pl are the components of hydraulic power loss. Runner power loss Pr is due to
friction shock at impeller entry and flow separation and results in a head loss hr associated
with a flow rate through the runner of Qr.
Pr = ρgQrhr Nm/s
Leakage power loss Pl is caused by a flow rate q leaking past the runner and therefore not
being handled by the runner, thus
Q = Qr + q
And with a total head Hr across the runner, the leakage power loss becomes
Pl = ρgHrq Nm/s
Casing power loss Pc is due to friction, eddy and flow separation losses in the casing and
draft tube. If this head loss is hc, then
Pc = ρgQhc Nm/s
Thus total energy balance is given by

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 Kaplan Turbine

ρgQH = Pm + ρg(hrQr + hcQ + Hrq) + Ps

where,
H = net available head
ρ = density of water
Then over efficiency is give by
Shaft output power
=
Fluid power available at inlet

=
+ (ℎ + ℎ + ) +
Cavitation
Non-uniformity of flow in machines may cause the pressure, even in a given cross-section, to
vary widely. There may thus be, on the low-pressure side of the rotor, regions in which the
pressure falls to values considerably below atmospheric. In a liquid, if the pressure at any
point falls to the vapour pressure (at the temperature concerned), the liquid boils and small
bubbles of vapour form in large numbers. These bubbles are carried along by the flow, and on
reaching a point where the pressure is higher they suddenly collapse as the vapour condenses
to liquid again. A cavity results and the surrounding liquid rushes in to fill it. The liquid
moving from all directions collides at the centre of the cavity, thus giving rise to very high
local pressures (up to 1 GPa). Any solid surface in the vicinity is also subjected to these
intense pressures, because, even if the cavities are not actually at the solid surface, the
pressures are propagated from the cavities by pressure waves. This alternate formation and
collapse of vapour bubbles may be repeated with a frequency of many thousand times a
second. The intense pressures, even though acting for only a very brief time over a tiny area
can cause severe damage to the surface. The material ultimately fails by fatigue, aided
perhaps by corrosion, so the surface becomes badly scored and pitted. Parts of the surface
may even be torn completely away. Associated with cavitating flow there may be
considerable vibration and noise; when cavitation occurs in a turbine or pump it may sound
as though gravel were passing through the machine. Not only is cavitation destructive: the
large pockets of vapour may so disturb the flow that the efficiency of a machine is impaired.
Everything possible should therefore be done to eliminate cavitation in fluid machinery, that
is, to ensure that at every point the pressure of the liquid is above the vapour pressure. When
the liquid has air in solution this is released as the pressure falls and so air cavitation also
occurs. Although air cavitation is less damaging to surfaces than vapour cavitation, it has a
similar effect on the efficiency of the machine. Since cavitation begins when the pressure
reaches too low a value, it is likely to occur at points where the velocity or the elevation is
high, and particularly at those where high velocity and high elevation are combined. In a
reaction turbine the point of minimum pressure is usually at the outlet end of a runner blade,
on the leading side. For the flow between such a point and the final discharge into the tail
race, where the total head is atmospheric) the energy equation may be written by applying
Bernoulli’s equation between the turbine exit and tail race level
+ + = + ℎ … … … (1)
2
Here hf represents the head lost to friction in the draft tube and the pressure is absolute.

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 Kaplan Turbine

Equation (1) incidentally shows a further reason why the outlet velocity v of the fluid from
the runner should be as small as possible: the larger the value of v the smaller is the value of
pmin and the more likely is cavitation.
Rearranging the equation gives
− ℎ = − −
2

For a particular design of machine operated under its design conditions, the left-hand side of
this relation may be regarded as a particular proportion, say σc, of the net head H across the
machine. Then
− −
=
For cavitation not to occur pmin must be greater than the vapour pressure of the liquid pv, i.e.
σ>σc where
− −
= … … … (2)
The expression in equation (2) is known as Thoma’s cavitation parameter, after the
German engineer Dietrich Thoma (1881–1944) who first advocated its use.
If either z (the height of the turbine runner above the tail water surface) or H is increased, σ is
reduced. To determine whether cavitation is likely in a particular installation, the value of σ
may be calculated: if it is greater than the tabulated (empirical) value of σc for that design of
turbine, cavitation should not be experienced.
In practice the expression is used to determine the maximum elevation zmax of the turbine
above the tail water surface for cavitation to be avoided:

= − − … … … … (3)

From the equation (3) it is evident that the greater the net head H on which a turbine operates,
the lower it must be placed relative to the tail race level.
The following figure shows that the turbines of high specific speed have higher values of σc
and so they must be set much lower than those of smaller specific speed. For a high net head
H it might be necessary to place the turbine below the tail water surface, thus adding
considerably to the difficulties of construction and maintenance. This consideration restricts
the use of Propeller and Kaplan turbines to low heads. From the appended figure, it should be
realized, is no more than a useful general guide; in practice the incidence of cavitation
depends very much on details of the design.

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 Kaplan Turbine

Fig. Cavitation limits for reaction turbines

Cavitation is a phenomenon by no means confined to turbines. Wherever it exists it is an
additional factor to be considered if dynamic similarity is sought between one situation and
another. Similarity of cavitation requires the cavitation number to be the same at
corresponding points. Experiments suggest, however, that similarity of cavitation is difficult
to achieve.
Cavitation Number is given by
−
1
2
where,
p = pressure of a liquid at a particular point under consideration
pv = vapour pressure of the liquid at the temperature of that point
U = velocity of the liquid at that point
Draft Tube
In the Pelton turbine, all the available energy of water is converted by a nozzle to kinetic
energy at atmospheric pressure before the water jet comes in contact with the buckets of the
Pelton wheel. The wheel placed just above the tail race level. The water leaving a Pelton has
very little kinetic energy left in it unutilized and the exit velocity head loss typically ranges
between 1% to 4%. However in case of a reaction turbine the conversion of pressure head to
velocity head continues throughout the entire length of runner vane and water usually leaves
the runner with a good amount of kinetic energy remaining unutilized. For mixed flow
Francis runner this velocity head may range from 4% to 25%. For axial flow Propeller turbine
this velocity head may be as high as 20% of the net head or even more. To utilize this kinetic
energy at runner exit a divergent pressure conduit is fixed hermitically at runner outlet and
other end of this conduit being kept immersed in the tail race. This divergent conduit is called
draft tube. The draft tube is considered an integral part of a reaction turbine.
The important functions of a draft tube are:
i. It makes possible the installation of the reaction turbine at a suitable height above the
tail race level without any loss of net head across the turbine.
ii. By reducing the exit velocity head loss the efficiency of the turbine is increased.

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 Kaplan Turbine

iii. It prevents the splashing of water, coming out of the runner and guides the flow
smoothly to the tailrace.
Draft tube efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual gain of pressure head in the draft tube to
the theoretically possible gains of the pressure head i.e.
ℎ ℎ
=
ℎ ℎ
−
− ℎ
2
=
−
2
Different types of draft Tubes
a) Straight divergent Tube
b) Moody’s Spreading Tube
c) Simple Elbow Tube
d) Elbow tube with change in cross section

Straight Divergent Tube d

This type of draft tube employed for low specific speed vertical shaft Francis turbine. The
tube must discharge sufficiently low under tail water level. The maximum efficiency of this
type of draft tube can yield is 85%. This type of draft tube improves speed regulation on
falling load. The height of the tube normally taken as 2.5 to 3.0 times of the diameter.
Moody’s Spreading Tube or Hyrdacone

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 Kaplan Turbine

This type of draft tube has large exit area which helps to reduce the whirl action of discharge
water. The efficiency of such draft tube is 85%.
Simple Elbow Tube

In order to minimize the construction cost, the vertical height of the draft tube should be
minimum. Simple elbow type draft tube will serve such a purpose and its efficiency is about
60%. The height of this type of tube generally taken as 2-2.5 times of the inlet diameter.
Elbow tube with change in cross section

Sometimes, the transition from a circular section in the vertical portion to a rectangular
section in the horizontal part is incorporated in the design to have a higher efficiency of the
draft tube. The horizontal portion of the draft tube is generally inclined upwards to lead the
water gradually to the level of the tail race and to prevent entry of air from the exit end. This
type of draft tube is most common type used in practice. The height of this type of draft tube
generally taken as 2-2.5 times of the inlet diameter.

Performance characteristics of Hydraulic Turbines

The turbines are normally designed for specific values of head, speed, discharge, power and
efficiency which are generally known as design conditions. But in many situations turbines
may be required to operate under conditions different from designed condition for which
these have been designed. Thus to know about the exact behaviour under varying conditions
it becomes necessary to conduct tests either on the actual turbines at the site or on their small
scale models in a research laboratory. The results so obtained are usually represented
graphically. The behaviour may be exhibited by the following curves:
i. Main or constant head characteristic curves
ii. Operating or constant speed characteristic curves
iii. Constant efficiency or iso-efficiency or Muschel curves

Main or Constant Head Characteristic Curve

Here the head and gate opening are kept constant but speed is varied by allowing a variable
quantity of water to flow through the inlet opening. The brake power is measure

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 Kaplan Turbine

mechanically by means of a dynamometer. The overall efficiency and unit quantities are then
calculated by using the basic data. The curves then plotted against unit speed as abscissa.

Main Characteristic curves of Pelton Turbine

Main Characteristic curve of Francis Turbine

Main Characteristic curve of Kaplan Turbine

The main characteristic curves yield the following information:
 The discharge Qu for Pelton turbine depends only upon the gate opening and is
independent on Nu.
 The Qu vs Nu curve of Francis turbine are falling curves which is mainly due to the
fact that a centrifugal head develops which acts outwards and opposes the external
head causing flow, eventually decreasing the discharge as speed increases.

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 Kaplan Turbine

 The Qu vs. Nu curves of Kaplan turbine are rising curve which depicts the discharge
increases with increase in speed.
 The curves Pu vs Nu and ηo vs. Nu indicate that at a particular speed the efficiency is
maximum.
The maximum efficiency for a Pelton turbine usually occurs at the same speed for all gate
openings, the speed usually corresponds to a speed ration of 0.45. However, the maximum
efficiency for reaction turbine usually occurs at different speeds for different gate openings.
Operating or Constant Speed Characteristic Curves
These curves are plotted percentage of full load versus overall efficiency and obtained as
follows:
 For each gate opening speed is kept constant. The constant speed is attained by
regulating the gate opening thereby varying the discharge flowing through the turbine
as the load varies; the head may or may not remain constant.
 The brake power is measured mechanically by means of a dynamometer.
 The overall efficiency is then calculated from the measured values of discharge, head
and power.
 Further knowing the total load capacity of the turbine the percentage of full load is
compared from measured power and plot of overall efficiency versus percentage of
full load is prepared.

Percentage of efficiency vs. percentage of full load curves for

hydraulic turbines at constant speed
The graph depicts that
 As the percentage full load increases overall efficiency also increases.
 At 100% load near about the maximum efficiency in all the cases.
 The Kaplan and Pelton turbines maintain a high efficiency over a longer range of part
load as compared with Francis and Propeller Turbines.
 The maximum efficiency of all the turbines is almost same and about 85%.

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 Kaplan Turbine

Efficiency and Power vs. Discharge Curve

The figure shows the overall efficiency and shaft power versus discharge curve. Qa is the
minimum discharge required to set the turbine runner into motion from the state of rest. The
curve yields the following information:
 Shaft power or output power is a straight line since power is directly proportional to
discharge if head is kept constant.
 Overall efficiency versus discharge graph is curvilinear and overall discharge increase
with discharge and remains nearly constant beyond a particular value of discharge.
Constant efficiency or iso-efficiency or Muchel Curve

Constant efficiency curves for turbines

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 Kaplan Turbine

In efficiency versus specific speed curve, is of parabolic in nature and there exits two speeds
for one value of efficiency except for maximum efficiency which occurs at one speed only.
Corresponding to these values of speeds there are also two values of discharge for each value
of efficiency. By adopting this procedure for different gate openings or heads we can get a
number of Q-N curves and we can plot on them efficiency points. The points denoting the
same efficiency can now be joined to get constant iso-efficiency curves. The curve for best
performance is obtained by joining the peak points of the various efficiency curves.
The constant efficiency curves are helpful for determining the zone of constant efficiency and
for predicting the performance of the turbine at various efficiency levels.

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 Numerical Examples of Hydraulic Turbines

Numerical Problems on Pelton Turbine

Problem 1
The blades of a single jet Pelton wheel runs a its optimum speed 0.46 times the jet speed with an
overall efficiency of 85%. Show that the dimensionless specific speed is 0.1922 d/D rev., where ‘d’
represents the jet diameter and ‘D’ the wheel diameter. For nozzle Cv = 0.97.
Solution
Here peripheral velocity = u = 0.46 2 and u = πDN
where H = available head and N = rotational speed
0.46 2
Then N = u/πD =

Again discharge = Q = A.V = = 2

⁄
Again power developed = P = = 2 = √2( )

So,
0.46 2 ⁄
⁄
√ 4 √2( )
= ⁄
= ⁄
( ) ( )
Putting Cv = 0.97, η = 0.85 and on simplification it can be obtained as
kT = 0.1922 d/D.
Problem 2
The following data relate to a Pelton wheel:
Head = 72 m; Speed of the wheel = 240 rpm, Shaft power of the wheel = 115kW, Speed ratio = 0.45,
Coefficient of velocity = 0.98, Overall efficiency = 85%. Design the Pelton Wheel.
Solution
Here wheel velocity = = 2 = 0.45 0.98 √2 9.81 72 = 16.575 /

Again = or, 16.575 =

.
Thus wheel diameter = D = = 1.32
.

Velocity of jet = = 2 = 0.98 √2 9.81 72 = 38.833 /

Again overall efficiency is given as
115 1000
= =
1000 9.81 72

Thus discharge = Q = = = 0.1916

. . .

Again = 0.1916 = 38.833 ∴ = 0.0814 = 81.4

So jet ratio = m = D/d = 1.32/0.0814 = 16.2
So number of buckets = n = D/2d + 15 = 16.2/2 +15 = 23.108 ≈ 24 nos.

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 Numerical Examples of Hydraulic Turbines

Problem 3
A Pelton wheel is receiving water from a penstock with a gross head of 510 m. One third of the gross
head is lost in friction in the penstock. The rate of flow through the nozzle fitted at the end of the
penstock is 2.2 m3/s. The angle of defection is 165°. Determine
a) The power given by the water to the runner
b) Hydraulic efficiency of the Pelton wheel
Assume speed ratio = 0.45 and coefficient of velocity = 1.0
Solution
Here the gross head = Hgross = 510 m
And loss of head due to friction = hf = 1/3 x 510 = 170 m
So, the net head = H = Hgross – hf = 510 – 170 = 340 m
Absolute velocity of the water jet at the inlet of the turbine = = 2 =
10 √2 9.81 340 = 81.675 /
Again speed ratio is give as
0.45 = u/c1 or, u = 0.45 x c1 = 0.45 x 81.675 = 36.619 m/s.
So, power developed by the turbine
Pout = ρQu(c1 – u)(1 – kCosθ) = 1000x2.2x36.619(81.675 – 36.619)(1-Cos165°) [Assuming k = 1]
= 7.136 MW
Power supplied to the turbine = Pin = γQH = 1000x9.81x2.2x340 = 7.338 MW
Therefore hydraulic efficiency of the turbine is given as
7.136
= = 97.3%
7.338

Numerical Problems on Francis Turbine

Problem

At what angles the wicket gates of a Francis turbine is set to extract 8000 kW of power from a flow of
30 m3/s, and running at a speed of 200 rpm? The diameter of the runner at inlet is 3.0 m and the
breadth of openings at inlet is 0.9 m. The flow can be assumed to leave the runner radially.
Solution
.
Peripheral velocity at the inlet = = = = 31.40 /
Discharge is given by
=
Thus,
30
= = 3.539 /
3.14 3 0.9
Again power developed = 8000 kW = 8000 x 1000 W and this is equal to −
But for radial discharge turbine = 0, so
8000 x 1000 = 1000 x 30 x 31.40 x

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 Numerical Examples of Hydraulic Turbines

8000
= = 8.493 /
30 31.40
.
Thus inlet guide vane angle = α = = = 22.6°
.

Problem
A reaction turbine works at 450 rpm under a head of 115 m. The diameter of the inlet is 1.2 m and the
flow area is 0.4 m2. At the inlet the absolute and relative velocities make angles of 20° and 60°
respectively with the tangential velocity. Assume the velocity of whirl at the outlet is zero. Determine
a) The power developed
b) Hydraulic efficiency
Solution
At inlet
3.14 1.2 450
= = = 28.26 /
60 60
From the velocity triangle

=
40 120
28.26
∴ = 120 = 0.866 = 38.06 /
40 0.643
Thus the whirl velocity at inlet is given by
= 20° = 38.06 x 0.939 = 35.76 m/s
And radial velocity is given as
= 20° = 38.06 0.342 = 13.02 /
Thus discharge Q = π x D1 x b x = 0.4 13.02 = 5.208 /
Therefore the power developed = P = ρQ = 1000 5.208 28.26 35.76 = 5263.09
Problem
An inward flow reaction turbine has an inlet guide vane angle of 30° and edges of the runner blades
are at 120° to the direction of whirl. The breadth of the runner at inlet is a quarter of the diameter at
inlet and there is no velocity of whirl at outlet. The overall head is 15 m and the speed 16.67 rev/s.
The hydraulic and overall efficiencies may be assumed to be 88% and 85% respectively. Calculate the
runner diameter at inlet and power developed. (Thickness of the blades may be neglected).
Solution
Let the diameter of the runner at inlet = D1
So,

= = 16.67 = 52.370
60
From the inlet velocity triangle

30° = = 30°

Again,

= ∴ = 60°
90° 60°

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 Numerical Examples of Hydraulic Turbines

So,
= 60° 30° = 52.370 sin 60° 30° = 39.2775
Again hydraulic efficiency for radially discharge reaction turbine is
39.2775 52.370
= . . 0.88 =
9.81 15
, = 0.06295 So D1 = 0.2509 m or 250.9 mm
Again,
= 30 = 60 30 = 52.370 60 30 = 22.677
Thus discharge is given as
3.14
= = 22.677 = 22.677 = 22.677 (0.2509)
4 4 4 4
3
= 0.2813 m /s
Power developed = P = = 9.81 1000 0.2813 15 0.85 = 35.185

Numerical Problems on Kaplan Turbine

Problem
A Kaplan turbine working under a head of 20 m develops 11.772 MW shaft power. The outer
diameter of the runner is 3.5 m and hub diameter 1.75m. The guide blade angle at the extreme edge of
the runner is 35°. The hydraulic and overall efficiencies of the turbine are 88% and 84% respectively.
If the velocity of the whirl is zero at outlet, determine
a) The runner vane angle at inlet and outlet at the extreme edge of the runner.
b) Speed of the turbine.
Solution
.
Here discharge = Q = = = 71.429 /
. .
.
Again Q = ( − ) ∴ = ( )
= ( . )
= 9.904 /
. .

From the given conditions α1 = 35° , thus from inlet velocity triangle
9.904
tan = , = = = 14.144 /
35° 0.700
Again for reaction turbine of radial discharge
14.144
= = = 12.207 /
9.81 20
. .
So, = = 12.207 /
.

Since u1 < , the inlet vane angle will be greater than 90°
Now the vane angle at the extreme edge of the runner is given as
9.904
= = = 78.93°
− 14.144 − 12.207
Thus vane angle at inlet = β1 = 180° - 78.93° = 101.07°
Again at the outlet

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 Numerical Examples of Hydraulic Turbines

9.904
= = = = ∴ = 39.05°
12.207
.
Thus speed = N = = = 66.64
. .

Problem
An axial flow hydraulic turbine has a net head of 23 m across it, when running at a speed of 150 rpm
develops 23 MW. The blade tip and hub diameters are 475 m and 2.0 m respectively. If the hydraulic
and overall efficiencies are 93% and 85% respectively, calculate the input and output blade angles at
the mean radius assuming axial flow at outlet.
Solution
Mean diameter of the blade = dm = (D+d)/2 = (4.75+2)/2 = 3.375 m
Again overall efficiency is given as
23 10
= ℎ = = ≅ 27
0.85
, 27 10 = 1000 9.81 23 ∴ = 119.7 /
. .
Thus rotor speed at mean diameter = = = = 26.5 /
Again hydraulic efficiency is given as
26.5 1000 119.7
= , 0.93 =
27 10
∴ = 7.9 /
4 4 119.7
= = = 8.21 /
( − ) 3.14(4.75 − 2 )
.
So, = (180° − )= = ∴ = 156.2°
. .

.
Again = = = ∴ = 17.2°
.

Problem
A Kaplan turbine develops 1471 kW under a head of 6 m. The turbine is set 2.5 meters above the tail
race level. A vacuum gauge inserted at the turbine outlet records a suction head of 3.1 m. If the
turbine efficiency is 85%, what would be the efficiency of the draft tube having inlet diameter of 3
m.? Find the reading of suction gauge if power developed is reduced to 735.5 kW, the head and speed
remaining constant.
Solution
Overall efficiency is given as
1471 1000
= = ∴ = 29.402 /
1000 9.81 6
Now velocity of water at the inlet of draft tube
4 4 29.402
= = = 4.162 /
3.14 3
The gain in pressure head in the draft tube = 3.1 – 2.5 = 0.6 m
So the draft tube efficiency is give as

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 Numerical Examples of Hydraulic Turbines

ℎ 0.6 0.6
= = = 68%
ℎ ℎ 4.162
2 2 9.81

Assuming constant efficiency for reduced output i.e. 735.5 kW is 50% of the rated output. The
corresponding discharge is Q1 = 29.402/2 = 14.701 m3/s
.
And corresponding velocity of water at the inlet of the draft tube = ( ) % = = 2.081 /
.

Thus head gain in the draft tube

( ) % 2.081
= = 0.68 = 0.15
2 2 9.81
So reading in suction gauge = 0.15 + 2.5 = 2.65 m (suction)

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 Pelton Turbine

Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic turbines may be classified in one of the two general categories:

a) Impulse Turbine
b) Reaction turbine

Impulse Turbine: In impulse turbine fluid passes through a runner having buckets. The
momentum of the fluid in the tangential direction is changed and so a tangential force on the
runner is produced. The runner therefore rotates and performs useful work, while the fluid
leaves to the atmosphere with reduced energy. The important feature of the impulse machine
is that there is no change in static pressure across the runner. In these machines, the energy
transfer in the rotor takes place only by the change in dynamic head of the fluid. Here the
total potential energy is converted in to kinetic energy. The only hydraulic turbine of the
impulse type in common use is known as Pelton Wheel after the name of American Engineer
Laster A. Pelton who developed this turbine in 1880. This is an efficient turbines suited
particularly for high heads. A parameter is known as ‘Degree of reaction’ which is given as
the ratio of energy transfer by the change in static head to total energy transfer to the rotor.
Since in impulse turbine change is static pressure is zero thus the degree of reaction for
impulse turbine is R = 0.
Reaction Turbine: In reaction turbine fluid also passes through a runner having a series of
vanes. The angular momentum of the fluid produces the torque to rotate the runner. Here a
part of the total energy converted in to kinetic energy. The pressure or static head of the fluid
changes gradually as it passes through the runner. Reaction turbine is well suited for low
heads and high discharge. The reaction turbines are Francis Turbine, Kaplan Turbine,
Propeller Turbine, etc. In case of reaction turbine the degree of reaction not equal to zero and
it varies between 0.3 – 0.75 depending upon the type of turbines.

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 1

 Pelton Turbine

Hydro-electric Power Plant

Fig. 1 Layout of a hydro-electric Power Plant

For a turbine in a hydro-electric scheme, water comes from a high level reservoir generally
known as dam or head race in a mountainous region several hundred meters may thus be
available, although hydraulic turbines are in operation in other situations where the available
head may be less, especially in case of reaction turbines and mini and micro hydro-electric
power plants. The water is fed to the turbine through a tunnel, known as penstock and strikes
on the buckets with the help of a nozzle to convert the potential energy into kinetic energy.
Pelton turbine has one or more fixed nozzles. The jets of fluid impinge on the moving
buckets of the runner where fluid lose all its kinetic energy and ideally the velocity of the
fluid at discharge is just sufficient to enable it to move clear of the runner.

Fig. 2 Single jet Pelton Wheel

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 2

 Pelton Turbine

The runner of a Pelton wheel consists of a circular disc with a number of spoon-shaped
‘buckets’ evenly spaced round its periphery as shown in Fig. 2. One or more nozzles are
mounted so that each directs a jet along a tangent to the circle through the centre of the
buckets. Down the centre of each bucket is a ‘splitter’ ridge which divides the oncoming jet
into two equal portions and after flowing round the smooth inner surface of the bucket, the
fluid leaves out with a relative velocity almost opposite in direction to the original jet.

Fig. 3 Pelton wheel bucket

The notch in the outer rim of each bucket prevents the jet to the preceding bucket being
intercepted; it also avoids the deflection of the fluid towards the centre of the wheel as the
bucket first meets the jet.
It should be noted that the flow only partly fills the buckets, and the fluid remains in contact
with the atmosphere. Thus, once the jet has been produced by the nozzle, the static pressure
of the fluid is atmospheric throughout the machine.
The transfer of work from the fluid to the buckets takes place according to the linear
momentum principle.

Fig. 4 Section of a bucket

Fig. 4 shows a section through a bucket which is being acted on by a jet. The plane of section
is parallel to the axis of the wheel and contains the axis of the jet. The absolute velocity of the
jet is determined by the head available at the nozzle that is difference of gross head and head
loss due to friction in the pipeline. See Fig 1. Let us consider
c1 = absolute velocity of the jet before striking the bucket
c2 = absolute velocity of the fluid leaving the bucket
U = peripheral velocity
w1 = velocity of the oncoming jet relative to bucket
w2 = velocity of the fluid leaving the bucket relative to bucket
θ = angle through which fluid is deflected by the bucket
ω = angular velocity
r = radius from the axis of wheel to the axis of the jet striking the bucket
Cv = coefficient of velocity for the nozzle

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 3

 Pelton Turbine

Q = volume rate of flow from nozzle

ρ = density of fluid
So the peripheral velocity = u = ωr
And jet velocity c1 is given by = 2 , where H represents net head, Hgr – hf.
In case of Pelton turbine, irrespective of the orientation of the runner shaft, the inlet and
outlet fluid located at the same radius of the runner. So, peripheral velocity at the inlet is
same as that of the outlet i.e. U1 = U2 = U
The velocity vector at the inlet is given as

Fig. 5 Inlet velocity triangle

At inlet c1 = U + w1 or, w1 = c1 – U
In general w2 < w1, which is mainly due to the friction at the bucket surface and air
resistance. Thus it may be assumed w2 = kw1, where k is a fraction and close to 1.0.
The outlet velocity diagram may be of three different types, namely,
a) Slow runner
b) Medium speed runner
c) Fast runner
In case of slow runner the peripheral velocity is reduced by an amount equivalent to the
magnitude of swirl velocity which acts in opposite direction.
In case of medium speed runner the water comes out in radial direction, so in this case the
swirl velocity is zero.
Similarly in case of fast runner the swirl velocity is added with peripheral velocity as because
both peripheral and swirl velocity vectors are collinear and in same direction. So in this case
the velocity along the peripheral direction is the resultant of swirl and peripheral velocities
i.e.
− > 90°
= 0 and = 0 for medium speed runner
+ < 90° for fast runner
Assuming fast runner and direction of U as positive
From the inlet velocity triangle, whirl velocity at inlet =
And whirl velocity at the outlet = − ( − )
Thus change in whirl velocity = ∆ = − = −[ − ( − )]
= − + ( − )= + ( − )
∴ ∆ = [1 − ]
Thus force exerted by the fluid jet in the direction of U is the change in momentum in whirl
direction, i.e.
= ∆ = [1 − ]

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 4

 Pelton Turbine

Thus torque on the wheel = = = [1 − ]

So, output power = = [1 − ] = (1 − )
Again kinetic energy supplied by the fluid =
Thus the wheel efficiency given as
(1 − ) 2 (1 − )
= = =
1
2
or,
2( − )(1 − )
=

For maximum value of wheel efficiency = 0 i.e. c1 = 2U or U = 0.5c1 and the

Maximum wheel efficiency is given as
1
= (1 − )
2
When θ = 180°; ηmax = 1 which is practically impossible.
Generally the value of θ is kept in between 160° to 170°. So the maximum efficiency occurs
when the peripheral velocity of the wheel is 0.5 times the absolute velocity of the oncoming
liquid impinging on the bucket.
But due to the frictional losses in the bearing and windage losses of the runner the overall
efficiency is less than the wheel efficiency. In practice the speed ratio i.e. U/c1 is generally
taken at 0.46 instead of 0.5.
Thus the curve efficiency vs. Peripheral speed is given as

Fig. 6 Efficiency vs. Blade speed of Pelton wheel

When U = c1, the efficiency is zero i.e. η = 0. This speed is known as runaway speed i.e. the
speed at no load condition.
The wheel efficiency expression indicates that the graph of efficiency against bucket velocity
is parabolic in form.
Control of Pelton Wheel on Load Changes
A Pelton wheel is almost invariably used to drive an electrical generator mounted on the
same shaft. It is designed to operate at the conditions of maximum efficiency and the

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 5

 Pelton Turbine

governing of the machine must be such as to allow the efficiency to be maintained even when
the power demand at the shaft varies. In order to maintain the frequency of the generated
power constant there should not be any variation of the angular velocity of the Pelton wheel
and hence the variation of bucket velocity is permitted only. The control must therefore be in
the volume rate of flow Q and yet there must be no change in jet velocity because that would
alter the speed ratio from its optimum value of about 0.46. Since Q = Ac1, it follows that
the control must be effected by a variation of the cross sectional area A of the jet. This is
usually achieved by a spear valve in the nozzle. Movement of the spear along the axis of the
nozzle increases or decreases the annular area between the spear and the housing. The spear
is so shaped, however that the fluid coalesces into a circular jet and the effect of the spear
movement is to vary the diameter of the jet.
Again sudden reduction of the rate of flow could result in serious water hammer problems in
the water flow passage and so deflectors are often used in association with the spear valve.
The deflector temporarily deflects the jet so that not all the fluid reaches the buckets, the
spear may then be moved slowly to its new position and the rate of flow in the pipe line
reduced gradually. The figure of spear valve and deflector are shown the following figures.

Fig. 7 Spear Valve and Jet Deflector

The position of the spear is controlled by a servo-mechanism that senses the load change. For
a sudden loss of load the deflector rises to remove the jet totally from the buckets and to
allow the time for the spear to move slowly to its new load position. These prevents excessive
over speeding.
Definition of Heads and Efficiency
A. Gross Head:
The gross or total head is the difference between the free surface water level at the head race
and the centre line of the nozzle. It is denoted by Hgross.

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 6

 Pelton Turbine

B. Net Head:
The head available at the inlet of the turbine is known as net or effective head. It is denoted
by H.
= − ℎ
Where hf = head loss due to friction at the flow passage and losses in the nozzle.
C. Efficiencies:
i) Hydraulic efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of power developed by the runner to the
power supplied by the jet at entrance to the turbine. It is denoted by ηh. So,
ℎ
=
ℎ ℎ
(1 − ) 2 ( − )(1 − )
= =
1
2
It can also be expressed as
1
− −
= =

ii) Mechanical Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the power obtained from the shaft
of the turbine to the power developed by the runner. These two powers differ by the
amount of mechanical losses. It is denoted by ηm. Thus
ℎ ℎ
= =
ℎ 1
−

iii) Volumetric Efficiency: The volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the volume of water
actually striking the bucket to the volume of water supplied by the jet to the turbine. It
is denoted by ηv. Thus,
ℎ
= =
ℎ ℎ
iv) Overall Efficiency: The overall efficiency is the ratio of the power available at the
turbine shaft to power supplied to the inlet of the turbine. It is denoted by ηo. So,
ℎ ℎ
= =
ℎ ℎ
Therefore,
=
. . = ℎ

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 7

 Pelton Turbine

Design Aspects of Pelton Wheel

A. Turbine Power
Power available from water
=
Where, γ = specific weight of water in N/m3
Q = Rate of flow in m3/s
H = Net available head in m
Here H = Hgross – hf
Where Hgross = Gross head in m
And hf = head loss due to friction in the flow passage.

B. Velocity of Water Jet

The velocity of jet at inlet is given by
= 2
Where, Cv = coefficient of velocity (varies between 0.98 to 0.99)
G = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
H = net available head in m
C. Velocity of Wheel
Theoretically for maximum efficiency U = 0.5c1
Replacing the value of c1
= 0.5 2
But practically the peripheral velocity is given as
= 0.46 2 = 2
Where Ku is known as Speed Ratio and it varies between 0.45 to 0.46.
D. Angle of Deflection of the Jet
The angle of deflection of the jet through the bucket is taken as 165°, if no angle of deflection
is given.
E. Mean Diameter of the Wheel
The mean diameter or pitch diameter of the Pelton Wheel is given by
60
=
Where, U = peripheral velocity in m/s
N = rotation speed in rpm
F. Jet Ratio
It is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter of the Pelton Wheel to the diameter of jet. Thus
the Jet Ratio is given as
=
Where D = diameter of Wheel
d = diameter of the jet
Generally the jet ratio is taken in between 14 to 16 in practice for maximum hydraulic
efficiency.

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 8

 Pelton Turbine

G. Number of Jet
In general a Pelton Wheel has one nozzle or one jet. However more number of jets may be
employed when more power is to be produced with same wheel. Theoretically six numbers of
jets can be used on Pelton Wheel with vertical shaft. However for practical consideration
limit the use of not more than two jets per runner for horizontal shaft runner and not more
than four jets per runner if it is of vertical shaft runner.
Number of jets is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow through the turbine by the rate of
flow of water through single jet. So the number of jet is given as
=
Where, Q = total rate of flow through the turbine
q = rate of flow through a single jet.
In the design of a Pelton Wheel two parameters are very important
i) The ratio of bucket width to jet diameter
ii) The ratio of the wheel diameter to jet diameter
If the width of the bucket is too small compared to the jet diameter the fluid is not smoothly
deflected by the bucket and thus much energy is dissipated in turbulence and efficiency drops
considerably. On the other hand, if the bucket is too large then the frictional losses will be too
high. The optimum value of the ratio of the bucket width to the jet diameter has generally
taken as 4 to 5.

From the figure it is evident that the B/d ratio should lies in between 4 to 5.
H. Number of Bucket
The number of buckets for a Pelton Wheel should be such that the jet is always completely
intercepted by the buckets. It is given by the empirical relation
= + 15 = 0.5 + 15
2
Where D = diameter of the wheel
d = diameter of jet
m = jet ratio.
Performance Characteristics of Pelton Wheel
The characteristics of an impulse turbine are shown in Fig. 8, 9 and 10. These curves are
drawn for a constant head and it is seen that peak power and efficiency occur at about the
same speed ratio for any gate opening and that peak values of efficiency do not vary much.
This is due to the nozzle velocity remaining constant in magnitude, giving an optimum value
of U/c1 at fixed speed. Windage, mechanical losses and variation in loss coefficients cause
the small variations. In practice it is always preferred in fixed speed condition since the
generator run at constant speed to maintain a constant frequency.

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 9

 Pelton Turbine

Fig. 8 Efficiency versus speed at various nozzle settings

Fig. 9 Power output versus speed at various nozzle setting

Fig 10 shows that the variation of efficiency with load is slight, except at low loads where the
decrease in efficiency is due to change in nozzle efficiency and at high loads where the
increased jet diameter gives rise to higher bucket losses. At low load less than 35% the
efficiency is low but at higher loads the efficiency is almost constant around 90%

Fig. 10 Variation of efficiency with load

Hydraulic Machine [MEE 724] Notes prepared by ANM Page 10