History of the Helicopter from Concept to Modern Day

While Igor Sikorsky is undoubtedly the father of the modern helicopter. The history
of the helicopter is said by many to have started with an ingenious drawing by 15th
century painter and inventor, Leonardo da Vinci. Called the ornithopter flying
machine. Da Vinci’s 1488 design was never built, but it is said to have inspired
modern day helicopters, and there is a suggestion that it inspired Sikorsky.
Fascinated by the idea of man flying , the great Leonardo daVinci also-designed a
machine with a helical screw (as opposed to rotor blades), following the concept of
an ancient Chinese toy (a kind of bamboo-copter) that would fly as the spinning
rotor created lift. Later, several other inventors also created helicopter-like
toys, the most notable of which was Alphonse Pénaud’s 1870 coaxial rotor model
helicopter that was powered by simple rubber bands. It was one of these toys that
reputedly inspired the American Wright brothers, inventors of the world’s first
airplane that was heavier than air, just after the turn of the 20th century.
The name helicopter is said to have come from two Greek words, helix (meaning
spiral) and pteron (meaning wing), because the original idea was that the flying
machine would gain lift from spiral aerofoils – but it didn’t.

Helicopters That Preceded Sikorsky’s

Paul Cornu, A French engineer designed and built a helicopter and managed to get it
to lift off in 1907 – officially making it the world’s first piloted helicopter. It
featured two rotor blades that rotated in opposite directions so that the torque
would be canceled. Powered by a 24 horsepower engine, it had to be held in position
by men on the ground and wasn’t at all maneuverable, so all in all it wasn’t a
great success.

Another French engineer, Etienne Oehmichen designed a helicopter with vertically

mounted rotors that rotated in the opposite direction to large lifting rotors. He
also developed a tail rotor later. His first helicopter was in November 1922 with
Oehmichen No. 2 that made history because it was used successfully to transport a
person. In April the next year Oehmichen Flew 360 m and 525 m, a record, and in May
1924 flew a closed circuit helicopter about one kilometer in seven minutes, 40
seconds. The same year he flew one of his helicopters with two passengers.While
Oehmichen’s helicopter designs were reasonable successful,
the Focke-Wolf Fw 61 is commonly considered the world’s first really functional
helicopter. First flown in 1936, it was designed and developed by two Germans,
Henrich Focke and Gerd Achgelis, a pilot. The frame of the aircraft was based on
another that Focke had co-designed, the Focke-Wulf Fw 44, and it utilized licensed
rotor technology that relied on a radial engine to drive twin rotors. A major
breakthrough was the counter rotation of the rotors because this solved the puzzle
of torque reaction. It also featured a small horizontal-axes propeller that was
driven by the engine, to cool the engine when the helicopter hovered or flew at low
speed. A second prototype was built in 1937 and the resultant aircraft went a step
further by successfully executing an autorotation landing without the engine
switched on.

And then there was Igor Sikorsky;The Father of the Modern Helicopter
Russian-born Sikorsky did not invent the first helicopter as is clear from the
brief history above. He did though invent the first really successful helicopter
and this design has continued to be used to the present day.
A true aviation pioneer in terms not only of helicopters, but fixed-wing aircraft
as well, Sikorsky immigrated to the USA in 1919 and founded his own Sikorsky
Aircraft Corporation in 1923. Notably, he pioneered the rotor design that is used
in most of today’s helicopters, and he designed the world’s first helicopter that
went on to be mass-produced, the Sikorsky R-4.
Clearly a young protégé encouraged by both his parents, he was home schooled by his
mother who introduced him to the genius of Leonardo da Vinci, and his father who
encouraged his natural interest in the natural sciences. At the age of 12, Sikorsky
made his first model flying machine, a helicopter powered by rubber bands.
Sikorsky decided when he was about 17 that he wanted to study engineering, after
spending three years at the Imperial Russian Naval Academy. About two years later,
he learnt about the Wright brothers and other aeronautical pioneers, and backed
Znancially by his sister, went off to Paris to study aviation.
He began his helicopter design career in 1909 in Russia, but quickly realized that
various factors counted against him, not least of which was his lack of experience
and shortage of money. While he continued to design aircraft, and developed the
first ever four-engine bomber for use by the Russian in World War I, it wasn’t
until 1939 that he developed his first helicopter prototype. The first Flight in
September that year was a tethered flight , and it took another eight months to
achieve a “free Flight ”, during which he as able to Fly in every direction except
forwards. It took a few more years, until 1942, for Sikorsky to successfully design
the world’s very first production helicopter.

The Birth of Metal Rotor Blades and Bubble Canopies

There are at least two more inventors that definitely deserve a mention in the
history of the helicopter, Stanley Hiller, Jnr and Arthur Young.
Hiller‘s claim to fame is that he made the first helicopter that had 100 percent
metal rotor blades that enabled pilots to My the craft at much faster speeds. He
was also the pilot of the first helicopter to be successfully flown across the USA
in 1949 – the Hiller 360.
Young, who worked for the Bell Aircraft Company designed a helicopter that was the
first to have a full bubble canopy – the Bell Model 47.
The modern day rotary-wing aircraft is a far-cry from Da Vinci’s first design, with
more capabilities than ever thought possible by these historic innovators!

Helicopter structures
The structures of the helicopter are designed to give the helicopter its unique
flight characteristics. A simplified explanation of how a helicopter flies is that
the rotors are rotating airfoils/ aerofoil that provide lift similar to the way
wings provide lift on a fixed-wing aircraft. Air flows faster over the curved upper
surface of the rotors, causing a negative pressure and thus, lifting the aircraft.
Changing the angle of attack of the rotating blades increases or decreases lift,
respectively raising or lowering the helicopter. Tilting the rotor plane of
rotation causes the aircraft to move horizontally.

Types of Rotor Systems

Fully Articulated Rotor

A fully articulated rotor is found on aircraft with more than two blades and allows
movement of each individual blade in three directions. In this design, each blade
can rotate about the pitch axis to change lift; each blade can move back and forth
in plane, lead and lag; and flap up and down through a hinge independent of the
other blades.

Semirigid Rotor
The semirigid rotor design is found on aircraft with two rotor blades. The blades
are connected in a manner such that as one blade flaps up, the opposite blade flaps
down.

Rigid Rotor
The rigid rotor system is a rare design but potentially offers the best properties
of both the fully articulated and semirigid rotors. In this design, the blade roots
are rigidly attached to the rotor hub. The blades do not have hinges to allow lead-
lag or flapping. Instead, the blades accommodate these motions by using elastomeric
bearings. Elastomeric bearings are molded, rubber-like materials that are bonded to
the appropriate parts. Instead of rotating like conventional bearings, they twist
and flex to allow proper movement of the blades.

Control systems
The controls of a helicopter differ slightly from those found in an aircraft. The
collective, operated by the pilot with the left hand, is pulled up or pushed down
to increase or decrease the angle of attack on all of the rotor blades
simultaneously. This increases or decreases lift and moves the aircraft up or down.
The engine throttle control is located on the hand grip at the end of the
collective. The cyclic is the control “stick” located between the pilot’s legs. It
can be moved in any direction to tilt the plane of rotation of the rotor blades.
This causes the helicopter to move in the direction that the cyclic is moved. As
stated, the foot pedals control the pitch of the tail rotor blades thereby
balancing main rotor torque.

The flight control units located in the flight deck of all helicopters are very
nearly the same. All helicopters have either one or two of each of the following:
*collective pitch control
*throttle grip
*cyclic pitch control
*directional control pedals
Basically, these units do the same things, regardless of the type of helicopter on
which they are installed; however, the operation of the control system varies
greatly by helicopter model.

Anti-torque System
Ordinarily, helicopters have between two and seven main rotor blades. These rotors
are usually made of a composite structure. The large rotating mass of the main
rotor blades of a helicopter produce torque. This torque increases with engine
power and tries to spin the fuselage in the opposite direction. The tail boom and
tail rotor, or antitorque rotor, counteract this torque effect. [Figure 1-100]
Controlled with foot pedals, the countertorque of the tail rotor must be modulated
as engine power levels are changed. This is done by changing the pitch of the tail
rotor blades. This, in turn, changes the amount of countertorque, and the aircraft
can be rotated about its vertical axis, allowing the pilot to control the direction
the helicopter is facing. Similar to a vertical stabilizer on the empennage of an
airplane, a fin or pylon is also a common feature on rotorcraft. Normally, it
supports the tail rotor assembly, although some tail rotors are mounted on the tail
cone of the boom. Additionally, a horizontal member called a stabilizer is often
constructed at the tail cone or on the pylon.


Helicopter reciprocating engine

The two most common types of engine used in helicopters are the reciprocating
engine and the turbine engine. Reciprocating engines, also called piston engines,
are generally used in smaller helicopters. Most training helicopters use
reciprocating engines because they are relatively simple and inexpensive to
operate.

HelicopterTurbine Engines
Turbine engines are more powerful and are used in a wide variety of helicopters.
They produce a tremendous amount of power for their size but are generally more
expensive to operate. The turbine engine used in helicopters operates differently
than those used in airplane applications. In most applications, the exhaust outlets
simply release expended gases and do not contribute to the forward motion of the
helicopter. Because the airflow is not a straight line pass through as in jet
engines and is not used for propulsion, the cooling effect of the air is limited.
Approximately 75 percent of the incoming airflow is used to cool the engine.
The gas turbine engine mounted on most helicopters is made up of a compressor,
combustion chamber, turbine, and accessory gearbox assembly. The compressor draws
filtered air into the plenum chamber and compresses it. Common type filters are
centrifugal swirl tubes where debris is ejected outward and blown overboard prior
to entering the compressor, or engine barrier filters (EBF), similar to the K&N
filter element used in automotive applications. This design significantly reduces
the ingestion of foreign object debris (FOD). The compressed air is directed to the
combustion section through discharge tubes where atomized fuel is injected into it.
The fuel/air mixture is ignited and allowed to expand. This combustion gas is then
forced through a series of turbine wheels causing them to turn. These turbine
wheels provide power to both the engine compressor and the accessory gearbox.
Depending on model and manufacturer, the rpm range can vary from a range low of
20,000 to a range high of 51,600.
Power is provided to the main rotor and tail rotor systems through the freewheeling
unit which is attached to the accessory gearbox power output gear shaft. The
combustion gas is finally expelled through an exhaust outlet. The temperature of
gas is measured at different locations and is referenced differently by each
manufacturer. Some common terms are: inter-turbine temperature (ITT), exhaust gas
temperature (EGT), or turbine outlet temperature (TOT). TOT is used throughout this
discussion for simplicity.

Helicopter Transmission ( GEAR BOX)

The transmission system transfers power from the engine to the main rotor, tail
rotor, and other accessories during normal flight conditions. The main components
of the transmission system are the main rotor transmission, tail rotor drive
system, clutch, and freewheeling unit. The freewheeling unit, or autorotative
clutch, allows the main rotor transmission to drive the tail rotor drive shaft
during autorotation. Helicopter transmissions are normally lubricated and cooled
with their own oil supply. A sight gauge is provided to check the oil level. Some
transmissions have chip detectors located in the sump. These detectors are wired to
warning lights located on the pilot’s instrument panel that illuminate in the event
of an internal problem. Some chip detectors on modern helicopters have a “burn off”
capability and attempt to correct the situation without pilot action. If the
problem cannot be corrected on its own, the pilot must refer to the emergency
procedures for that particular helicopter.
Some terms with helicopters
MGB- Main gear box
CMGB- Combine main gearbox
IGB- Intermediate gearbox
TGB- Tail gearbox
TRDS- Tail rotor drive shaft
MRH- Main rotor hub ( main rotor head)
MRB-Main rotor blade

9.7.2 NOTAR Method of Yaw Control

The helicopter systems described so far have been controlled in yaw by means of
conventional use of the tail rotor. Boeing (formerly the McDonnell Douglas
Helicopter Company) of Mesa, Arizona, introduced on some of their smaller
helicopters an alternative method of yaw control called NOTAR (short for NO TAil
Rotor). This method replaces the variable pitch tail rotor and the rotating drive
shaft which has to pass the length of the tail boom to drive the tail rotor
gearbox.
The NOTAR principle uses blown air to counteract the main rotor torque effect and
it does this by employing two different means. Instead of a conven- tional tail
boom structure the NOTAR tail comprises a hollow tube down which air is blown by a
variable 13 blade 22 inch diameter fan. At the end of the boom, air is vented
through direct jets which counteract the rotor torque. In addition downwash from
the rotor passes externally over the boom causing a sideways anti-torque force very
similar to the way in which an aircraft wing works. The airflow down the right hand
side of the boom is encouraged to adhere to the boom by means of air bled out of
thin longitudinal slots in the boom. The resulting forces induce a counter torque
moment due to the Coanda effect. Measurements have indicated that approximately
two-thirds of the counter torque force of the NOTAR concept is produced by the
Coanda effect; the remaining third is generated by the low pressure air exhausting
from the rear of the boom.

The advantage of NOTAR is that it is relatively simple compared to the conventional

tail rotor. The only moving parts are the fan and significant weight savings are
achieved. The NOTAR concept has demonstrated up to 40 knots sideways motion using
this principle and it is claimed that turns are much easier to coordinate,
particularly in gusty conditions. Another advantage is that the concept is largely
self-correcting with increases in power; as power is increased so does the rotor
torque effect; however, so too does the rotor downwash and the Coanda effect and
the counteracting force. A further benefit is the absence of rotating parts at the
end of the tail boom which reduces the hazard to personnel on the ground and to the
aircraft while manoeuvring close to trees in a combat situation.
McDonnell Douglas and their Superteam partner Bell included the NOTAR design in
their submission for the US Army light helicopter (LH) proposal. This is the next
generation of lightweight helicopters for the US Army. The contract award was,
however, given to a Boeing/Sikorsky grouping. The US Army has reportedly modified
36 H-6-530 helicopters (US Army version of the MD530) to the NOTAR configuration.
The modification is said to save 20 per cent of the airframe weight and it is
expected that handling will be improved, noise reduced and power savings made.