NMAT

REVIEWER
for Biology

Brought to you by:

Alliance of Pre-Medical Societies

Prepared by:
The Academics and Medical Education Committee

Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards

APPSoc 2016 - 2017
Animal Physiology and Genetics

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY o nerve terminal or synaptic

bouton — end of the axon;
1. The Nervous System enlarged and flattened to
maximize neurotransmission to
1.1 Cells of the Nervous System the next neuron and ensure
proper release of
● Neurons — specialized cells capable neurotransmitters
of transmitting electrical impulses and o neurotransmitters —
translating those impulses to chemical chemicals that transmit
signals information between neurons
o cell body or soma — where the o synaptic cleft — a small space
nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, where the terminal portion of
and ribosomes are located the axon releases
o dendrites — appendages neurotransmitters
emanating from the soma; o synapse — nerve terminal +
receive incoming messages from synaptic cleft + postsynaptic
other cells membrane
o axon hillock — integrates ● Oligodendrocytes — produce
incoming signals from the cell myelin in the central nervous
body; plays an important role in system (CNS)
action potentials ● Schwann cells — produce myelin
o axon — long appendage that in the peripheral nervous system
terminates in close proximity to (PNS)
a target structure ● Glial cells or Neuroglia — play
o myelin — prevent signal loss or structural and supportive roles in
crossing of signals; increases the the nervous system
speed of conduction in the axon ● Astrocytes — nourish neurons and
o myelin sheath — maintains form the blood-brain barrier
the electrical signal within one ● Ependymal cells — line the
neuron ventricles of the brain and produce
o nodes of Ranvier — small cerebrospinal fluid
breaks in the myelin sheath; ● Microglia — phagocytic cells that
essential for rapid signal ingest and break down waste
conduction products and pathogens in the CN

1.2. Transmission of Neural Impulses

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● Action potentials — all-or-nothing ● Absolute refractory period — no
messages; relay electrical impulses amount of stimulation can cause
down the axon to the synaptic bouton another action potential to occur
o The threshold voltage (-55 ● Relative refractory period — the
to -40 mV) must be reached in cell requires a larger than normal
order to trigger an action stimulus to fire an action potential
potential
● Resting membrane potential
o Electrical potential difference 1.3. Organization of the Human
between the inside of the Nervous System
neuron and the extracellular
space ● Three types of Neurons in the
o -70 mV; inside of the neuron Nervous System
is negative relative to the o Motor (efferent) neurons
outside o Interneurons
o Neurons use the Na+/K+ o Sensory (afferent) neurons
ATPase to maintain the ● Central nervous system (CNS) —
negative internal environment brain and spinal cord
● Depolarization — caused by o White matter — myelinated
excitatory inputs; raising membrane axons; deeper in the brain
potential from its resting potential o Grey matter — unmyelinated
● Hyperpolarization — caused by cell bodies and dendrites;
inhibitory inputs; lowering the deeper in the spinal cord
membrane potential from its resting ● Peripheral nervous system
potential (PNS) — cranial and spinal nerves
● Summation — additive effect of o Somatic (voluntary)
multiple signals nervous system
o Temporal summation — o Autonomic (automatic)
multiple signals are integrated nervous system
during a relatively short period ▪ Parasympathetic
of time (read-and-digest)
o Spatial summation — the ▪ Sympathetic (fight-
additive effects are based on or-flight)
the number and location of the ● Reflex arc — use the ability of
incoming signals interneurons in the spinal cord to
● Refractory period — condition relay information to the source of a
when the axon is hyperpolarized stimulus while simultaneously
routing it to the brain

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 o Monosynaptic reflex arc — ▪ minimally polar and
sensory neuron fires directly can pass through the
onto the motor neuron plasma membrane
o Polysynaptic reflex arc — ▪ cannot dissolve in
sensory neuron may fire onto a the bloodstream and
motor neuron as well as must be carried by
interneurons that fire onto specific proteins
other motor neurons o Amino acid-derivative
Hormones
2. The Endocrine System ▪ modified amino
acids
2.1. Mechanisms of Hormone ▪ epinephrine,
Action norepinephrine,
triiodothyronine,
● Glands — responsible for and thyroxine
secreting hormones ● Classification of Hormones by
● Hormones — signaling Target Tissue
molecules that are secreted o Direct Hormones —
directly into the bloodstream to have major effects in non-
travel to a distant target tissue endocrine tissues
● Classification of Hormones by o Amino acid-derivative
Chemical Structure Hormones — have major
o Peptide Hormones effects in other endocrine
▪ made up of amino tissues
acids
▪ derived from larger 2.2. Endocrine Organs and
precursor proteins Hormones
▪ polar and cannot
pass through the ● Hypothalamus
plasma membrane o bridge between the nervous
▪ travel freely in the and endocrine systems
bloodstream and do o stimulates the anterior
not require a special pituitary gland through
carrier paracrine release of
o Steroid Hormones hormones into the
▪ derived from hypophyseal portal system
cholesterol o Gonadotropin-
releasing Hormone
(GnRH) — promotes
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 release of follicle- testosterone production in
stimulating hormone males
(FSH) and luteinizing o Adrenocorticotropic
hormone (LH) Hormone (ACTH) —
o Growth hormone- promotes synthesis and
releasing Hormone release of glucocorticoids
(GHRH) — promotes the from the adrenal cortex
release of growth hormone o Thyroid-stimulating
o Thyroid-releasing Hormone (TSH) —
Hormone (TRH) — promotes synthesis and
promotes the release of release of triidothyronine
thyroid-stimulating and thyroxine from the
hormone (TSH) thyroid
o Corticotropin-releasing o Prolactin — promotes
Factor (CRF) — milk production
promotes the release of o Endorphins — decrease
adrenocorticotropic perception of pain and can
hormone (ACTH) cause euphoria
o Prolactin-inhibiting o Growth Hormone (GH)
Hormone (PIF or — promotes growth of bone
dopamine) — inhibits the and muscle and shunts
release of prolactin glucose to these tissues;
o Antidiuretic Hormone raises blood glucose
and Oxytocin are concentrations
synthesized in the ● Posterior Pituitary Gland
hypothalamus o releases two hormones
● Anterior Pituitary Gland produced in the
o release hormones in hypothalamus
response to stimulation o Antidiuretic Hormone
from the hypothalamus (ADH) — vasopressin;
o Follicle-stimulating secreted in response to low
Hormone (FSH) — blood volume or increased
promotes the development blood osmolarity; increases
of ovarian follicles in reabsorption of water in
females and the collecting duct of the
spermatogenesis in males nephron
o Luteinizing Hormone o Oxytocin — secreted
(LH) — promotes during childbirth and
ovulation in females and promotes uterine
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 contractions; promotes concentration, reduce
milk ejection and may be protein synthesis, inhibit
involved in bonding the immune system, and
behavior participate in the stress
● Thyroid Gland response
o located at the base of the o Mineralocorticoids —
neck in front of the trachea aldosterone; promote
o produces three key sodium reabsorption in the
hormones that are required distal convoluted tubule
for proper neurological and and collecting duct;
physical development in increases potassium and
children hydrogen ion excretion;
o Triiodothyronine and regulated by renin-
Thyroxine — produced by angiotensin-aldosterone
follicular cells and contain system
iodine; increase basal o Cortical sex hormones
metabolic rate and alter the — include androgens and
utilization of glucose and estrogens
fatty acids ● Adrenal Medulla
o Calcitonin — produced by o derived from the nervous
parafollicular cells; system and secretes
decrease plasma calcium catecholamines into the
concentration bloodstream
● Parathyroid Gland o Catecholamines —
o release parathyroid include epinephrine and
hormone (PTH) norepinephrine; promote
o Parathyroid Hormone glycogenolysis, increase
— increases blood calcium heart rate, dilate the
concentration; activates bronchi, and alter blood
vitamin D; promotes flow
resorption of phosphate ● Endocrine Pancreas
from bone and reduces o produces hormones that
reabsorption of phosphate regulate glucose
● Adrenal Cortex homeostasis
o produces three classes of o Glucagon — produced by
steroid hormones α-cells; raises blood
o Glucocorticoids — glucose levels
cortisol and cortisone;
increase blood glucose
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 o Insulin — produced by β- response to stretching of
cells; lowers blood glucose the atria
levels o Thymosin — secreted by
o Somatostatin — the thymus; important for
produced by δ-cells; proper T-cell development
inhibits insulin and and differentiation
glucagon secretion
● Gonads 3. The Respiratory System
o produce hormones that are
involved in development 3.1. Anatomy and Mechanism of
and maintenance of the Breathing
reproductive systems and
secondary sex ● Nares > Nasal cavity and Pharynx
characteristics > Nasal hairs and Mucous
o Testosterone — secreted membranes > Larynx > Trachea >
by the testes Bronchi > Bronchioles > Alveoli
o Estrogen and ● Alveoli — small sacs that
Progesterone — secreted interface with the pulmonary
by the ovaries capillaries, allowing gases to
● Pineal Gland diffuse
o releases melatonin (helps ● Surfactant — reduces surface
regulate circadian tension at the liquid-gas interface,
rhythms) preventing collapse
● Other Organs ● Visceral pleura — lines
o Secretin, gastrin and adjacent to the lung itself
cholecystokinin — ● Parietal pleura — lines the
secreted by stomach and chest wall
intestine cells ● Intrapleural space — lies
o Erythropoietin — between these two layers and
secreted by the kidneys; contains a thin layer of fluid,
stimulates bone marrow to which lubricates the two pleural
produce erythrocytes in surfaces
response to low oxygen ● Diaphragm — thin skeletal
levels muscle that helps create the
o Atrial Natriuretic pressure differential required for
Peptide (ANP) — secreted breathing
by the atria of the heart; ● Inhalation
promotes excretion of salt o active process
and water in the kidneys in
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 o diaphragm and external o Vital capacity —
intercostal muscles expand difference between the
the thoracic cavity, minimum and maximum
increasing the volume of volume of air in the lungs
the intrapleural space o Tidal volume — volume
o pressure differential of air inhaled or exhaled in
ultimately expands the a normal breath
lungs, dropping their o Expiratory reserve
pressure and drawing in air volume — volume of
from the environment additional air that can be
(negative-pressure forcibly exhaled after a
breathing) normal exhalation
● Exhalation o Inspiratory reserve
o passive or active volume — volume of
o Passive exhalation — additional air that can be
relaxation of the muscles of forcibly inhaled after a
inspiration and elastic normal inhalation
recoil of the lungs allow the ● Ventilation center — collection
chest cavity to decrease in of neurons in the medulla
volume, reversing the oblongata that regulates
pressure differentials seen ventilation
in inhalation o Hypercapnia —
o Active exhalation — condition wherein there
internal intercostal are high concentrations of
muscles and abdominal carbon dioxide in the blood
muscles can be used to o Hypoxemia — condition
forcibly decrease the wherein there is low
volume of the thoracic oxygen concentration in
cavity, pushing out air the blood
● Spirometer — used to measure
lung capacities and volumes 3.2. Functions of the
o Total lung capacity — Respiratory System
maximum volume of air in
the lungs when one inhales ● Lungs — perform gas
completely exchange with the blood
o Residual volume — through simple diffusion
minimum volume of air in across concentration gradients
the lungs when one exhales
completely
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 ● Pulmonary arteries — carry o Semilunar Valves —
deoxygenated blood to the separate ventricles from
lungs the vasculature;
● Pulmonary veins — receive pulmonary (right),
oxygenated blood from the aortic (left)
lungs o Blood pathway: right
● The respiratory system is atrium > right ventricle >
involved in pH control pulmonary artery > lungs >
through the bicarbonate buffer pulmonary veins > left
system atrium > left ventricle >
o Decrease in blood pH aorta > arteries > arterioles
increases respiration > capillaries > venules >
rate veins > vena cava > right
o Increase in blood pH atrium
decreases respiration o Electrical conduction —
rate from sinoatrial (SA) node
to antrioventricular (AV)
4. The Cardiovascular System node
o Systole — refers to the
4.1. Anatomy of the period during ventricular
Cardiovascular System contraction when the AV
valves are closed
● Cardiovascular system consists of o Diastole — heart is
a muscular four-chambered heart, relaxed and the semilunar
blood vessels, and blood valves are closed
● Heart o Cardiac output —
o composed of cardiac product of heart rate and
muscle and supports two stroke volume
different circulations o Sympathetic nervous
(pulmonary and system — increases heart
systemic) rate and contractility
o each side of the heart o Parasympathetic
contains an atrium and a nervous system —
ventricle decreases heart rate
o Atrioventricular Valves ● Vasculature
— tricuspid (right), o consists of arteries, veins,
mitral (left); separates the and capillaries
atria from the ventricles o Arteries — thick, highly
muscular structures; allows
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 for recoil and helps to eosinophils, and
propel blood forward basophils; play a role in
within the system nonspecific immunity
o Capillaries — narrow- o Agranulocytes —
walled; sites of gas and lymphocytes and
solute exchange monocytes; play a role in
o Veins — inelastic, thin- immunity (lymphocytes -
walled structures; specific immunity)
transport blood to the ● Thrombocytes — platelets; cell
heart fragments from megakaryocytes;
● Portal System required for coagulation
o Blood passes through two
capillary beds in series 4.3. Physiology of the
o Hepatic Portal System Cardiovascular System
— from gut capillary beds
to liver capillary bed via ● Blood pressure — refers to the
hepatic portal vein force per unit area that is exerted
o Hypophyseal Portal on the walls of the blood vessels
System — from the by blood
hypothalamus to the o divided into systolic and
anterior pituitary diastolic components
o Renal Portal System — o measured with
from the glomerulus to the sphygmomanometer
vasa recta through an o maintained by
efferent arteriole baroreceptor and
chemoreceptor reflexes
4.2. Blood o low blood pressure —
promotes aldosterone and
● composed of cells and plasma vasopressin release
● Erythrocytes — red blood cells; o high blood pressure —
lack mitochondria, a nucleus, and promotes atrial natriuretic
organelles; contains peptide release
hemoglobin (protein that ● Starling forces — consist of
carries oxygen) hydrostatic pressure and osmotic
● Leukocytes — white blood cells; pressure
formed in the bone marrow; play o Hydrostatic pressure —
a role in the immune system pressure of the fluid within
o Granular leukocytes — the blood vessel
neutrophils,
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 o Osmotic pressure — ● Accessory glands of digestion
“sucking” pressure drawing — salivary glands, pancreas, liver,
water toward solutes and gallbladder
o Oncotic pressure — ● Enteric nervous system —
osmotic pressure due to located in the wall of the
proteins alimentary canal; controls
● Coagulation — results from an peristalsis
activation cascade
o Platelets bind to collagen 5.2. Ingestion and Digestion
and are stabilized by
fibrin, which is activated ● Vasopressin and aldosterone
by thrombin — promote thirst
o Plasmin — responsible for ● Glucagon and ghrelin —
the breakdown of clots promote hunger
● Leptin and cholecystokinin —
5. The Digestive System promote satiety
● Mastication — starts mechanical
5.1. Anatomy of the Digestive food digestion
System ● Salivary amylase and lipase —
start chemical food digestion
● Intracellular digestion — ● Food is formed into a bolus and
involves the oxidation of glucose swallowed
and fatty acids to make energy ● Pharynx — connects the mouth
● Extracellular digestion — and posterior nasal cavity to the
occurs in the lumen of the esophagus
alimentary canal ● Esophagus — propels food to
o Mechanical digestion — the stomach using peristalsis
physical breakdown of ● Lower esophageal (cardiac)
large food particles into sphincter — mediates the entry
smaller food particles of food in the stomach
o Chemical digestion — ● Stomach
enzymatic cleavage of o Four parts: fundus, body,
chemical bonds antrum, and pylorus
● Pathway of the digestive o has lesser and greater
tract: oral cavity > pharynx > curvature
esophagus > stomach > small o rugae – stomach folds
intestine > large intestine > o Mucous cells — produce
rectum bicarbonate-rich mucus to
protect the stomach
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 o Chief cells — secrete
pepsinogen (protease 5.3. Accessory Organs of
activated by the acidic Digestion
environment in the
stomach ● Acinar cells — produce
o Parietal cells — secrete pancreatic juices that contain
hydrochloric acid and bicarbonate, pancreatic amylase,
intrinsic factor (needed pancreatic peptidases, and
for vitamin B12 absorption) pancreatic lipase
o G cells — secrete gastrin ● Liver — synthesizes bile
(increase HCl secreted and o bile — emulsifies fats;
gastric motility) contain bile salts, pigments
● Chyme — term used to describe (e.g. bilirubin), and
food particles after mechanical cholesterol
and chemical digestion o The liver also processes
● Duodenum nutrients, produces urea,
o first part of the small detoxifies chemicals,
intestine; involved in activates or inactivates
chemical digestion medications, and
o disaccharidases — synthesizes albumin and
brush-border enxymes that clotting factors
breakdown maltose, ● Gallbladder — stores and
isomaltose, lactose, and concentrates biles
sucrose
o peptidases — include 5.4. Absorption and Defecation
aminopeptidase and
dipeptidases ● Jejunum and ileum — involved
o enteropeptidase — in absoprtion
activates trypsinogen and o Villi — line the small
procarboxypeptidases intestine; contain a
o secretin — stimulates the capillary bed and lacteal
release of pancreatic juices (vessel of the lymphatic
into the digestive tract; system)
slows motility o Capillary bed — where
o cholecystokinin — water-soluble compounds
stimulates bile release from enter
the gallbladder, release of o Lacteal — where fat-
pancreatic juices, and soluble compounds enter
satiety
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 o Large intestine — o Urethra — where urine is
absorbs water and salts, excreted
forming semisolid feces ● Portal System of the Kidney
o Cecum — outpocketing o Blood from the renal artery
that accepts fluid from the flows into the afferent
small intestine through the arterioles, which form
ileocecal valve; site of glomeruli in Bowman’s
attachment of the capsule
appendix o Blood then flows through
o Colon — divided into the efferent arteriole to
ascending, transverse, the vasa recta before
descending, and sigmoid leaving the kidney through
portions the renal vein
o Rectum — stores feces, ● Bladder
which are secreted through o Detrusor muscle —
the anus muscular lining of the
o Gut bacteria — produce bladder
vitamin K and biotin o Internal urethral
sphincter — consists of
6. Homeostasis smooth muscle; under
parasympathetic control
6.1. The Excretory System o External urethral
sphincter — consists of
● regulates blood pressure, blood skeletal muscle; under
osmolarity, acid-base balance, voluntary control
and removal of nitrogenous ● Filtration — movement of
wastes solutes from blood to filtrate at
● Kidney Bowman’s capsule
o produces urine, which ● Secretion — movement of
dumps into the ureter at solutes from blood to filtrate
the renal pelvis anywhere other than the
o contains a cortex and a Bowman’s capsule
medulla ● Reabsorption — movement of
o Hilum — contains a renal solutes from filtrate to blood
artery, renal vein, and ● Nephron
ureter o Proximal convoluted
o Bladder — where urine is tubule (PCT) — site of
collected bulk reabsorption of
glucose, amino acids,
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 soluble vitamins, salt, and stratum lucidum, and stratum
water; site of secretion for corneum
hydrogen ions, potassium ● Melanocytes — produce
ions, ammonia, and urea melanin (protects skin from
o Descending limb of the DNA damage caused by UV
loop of Henle — radiation)
permeable to water but not ● Langerhans cells — special
salt macrophages that serve as
o Ascending limb of the antigen-presenting cells in the
loop of Henle — skin
permeable to salt but not ● Dermis — composed of two layers:
water papillary layer and the
o Distal convoluted reticular layer
tubule (DCT) — ● Sensory cells in the Dermis
responsive to aldosterone; o Merkel cells — for deep
site of salt reabsorption pressure and texture
and waste product o Free nerve endings —
excretion for pain
o Collecting duct — o Meissner’s corpuscles
responsive to both — for light touch
aldosterone and o Ruffini endings — for
antidiuretic hormone; stretch
allows reabsorption of the o Pacinian corpuscles —
right amount of water for deep pressure and
depending on the body’s vibration
needs ● Hypodermis — contains fat and
connective tissue and connects
6.2. Skin the skin to the rest of the body
● The skin is important for
● acts as a barrier for protection thermoregulation. It also
against elements and invasion by prevents dehydration and salt loss
pathogens from the body.
● composed of the hypodermis,
dermis, and epidermis 7. The Musculoskeletal System
● Epidermis — composed of five
layers: stratum basale (contains 7.1. The Muscular System
stem cells that proliferate to form
keratinocytes), stratum ● Skeletal Muscle
spinosum, stratum granulosum,
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 o involved in support and o made of myosin (thick)
movement, propulsion of and actin (thin) filaments
blood in the venous o Troponin and
system, and tropomyosin — found on
thermoregulation the thin filament and
o appears striated regulate actin-myosin
o under voluntary control interactions
o polynucleated o Z-lines — define the
● Red (slow-twitch) fibers — boundaries of each
carry out oxidative sarcomere
phosphorylation o M-line — located in the
o White (fast-twitch) middle of the sarcomere
fibers — rely on anaerobic o I-band — contains only
metabolism thin filaments
● Smooth Muscle o H-zone — consists of only
o found in the respiratory, thick filaments
reproductive, o A-band — contains thick
cardiovascular, and filaments in their entirety;
digestive systems maintains constant during
o nonstriated contraction
o under involuntary control o attach end-to-end to
o uninucleated become myofibrils
o can display myogenic o Sacroplasmic
activity, or contraction reticulum — a calcium-
without neural input containing modified
● Cardiac Muscle endoplasmic reticulum
o comprises the contractile o Sarcolemma — cell
tissue of the heart membrane of a myocyte
o striated (muscle cell or muscle
o under involuntary control fiber)
o uninucleated o T-tubules — allow
o can display myogenic incoming signal to reach all
activity parts of the muscle
o cells are connected with o Neuromuscular
intercalated discs that junction — where muscle
contain gap junctions contraction begins
● Sarcomere — basic contractile ● Simple twitch — all-or-nothing
unit of striated muscle response in muscle cells

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● Tetanus — prolonged and flare to form metaphyses
stronger contraction and that terminate in
● Creatine phosphate — can epiphyses (contains an
transfer a phosphate group to epiphyseal plate that
ADP, forming ATP causes linear growth of the
● Myoglobin — a heme-containing bone)
protein that is a muscular oxygen o Periosteum — connective
reserve tissue surrounding the
bone
7.2. The Skeletal System o Bones are attached to
muscles by tendons and
● Endoskeletons — internal to each other by
skeletons ligaments
● Exoskeletons — external ● Bone matrix
skeletons o organic components —
● Human skeletal system can be collagen, glycoproteins,
divided into: and other peptides
o Axial skeleton — o inorganic components —
structures in the midline hydroxyapatite
(e.g. skull, vertebral o Lamellae — concentric
column, ribcage, and hyoid rings of the bone
bone) o Harversian or
o Appendicular skeleton Volkmann’s canal —
— consists of bones of the center structure of an
limbs, pectoral girdle, and osteon
the pelvis o Osteon — structural unit
● Bone — derived from o Lacunae — in between
embryonic mesoderm and lamellar rings; where
includes: osteocytes reside
o Compact bone — o Canaliculi — connected
provides strength and is with osteocytes to allow for
dense nutrient and waste transfer
o Spongy or cancellous o Osteoblasts — build bone
bone — has a lattice-like o Osteoclasts — resorb
structure consisting of bone
bony spicules known as o Parathyroid hormone
trabeculae — increases bone
o Long bones — contain resorption
shafts (diaphyses) that
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 o Vitamin D — also ● Chromosomes — contain genes in
increases resorption of a linear sequence
bone ● Alleles — alternative forms of a gene
o Calcitonin — increases o Dominant allele — requires
bone formation only one copy to be expressed
● Chondrocytes — secrete o Recessive allele — requires
cartilage two copies to be expressed
● Chondrin — matrix of cartilage ● Genotype — combination of alleles
● Cartilage is avascular and not one has at a given genetic locus
innervated o Homozygous — having two
● Endochondral ossification — of the same allele
way through which bone forms o Heterozygous — having two
from cartilage in fetal life different alleles
● Intramembranous o Hemizygous — having only
ossification — process by which one allele
bones form directly from ● Phenotype — observable
undifferentiated tissue manifestation of a genotype
(mesenchyme) ● Patterns of Dominance
● Joints o Complete dominance —
o Immovable joints — has one dominant allele and
fused together to form one recessive allele
sutures or similar fibrous o Codominance — has more
joints than one dominant allele
o Movable joints — usually o Incomplete dominance —
strengthened by ligaments has no dominant alleles;
and contain a synovial heterozygotes have
capsule intermediate phenotypes
o Synovial fluid — secreted ● Penetrance — proportion of a
by the synovium; aids in population with a given genotype
motion by lubricating the who express the phenotype
joint ● Expressivity — refers to the varying
phenotypic manifestations of a given
GENETICS genotype
● Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
o Mendel’s First Law (of
1. Fundamental Concepts of
segregation) — an organism
Genetics
has two alleles for each gene,
which segregate during
meiosis, resulting in gametes
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 carrying only one allele for a o Point mutations —
trait substituting of one nucleotide
o Mendel’s Second Law (of for another
independent assortment) o Frameshift mutations —
— inheritance of one allele moving the three-letter
does not influence the transcriptional reading frame
probability of inheriting a o Silent mutation — no effect
given allele for a different trait on the protein
o Missense mutation —
results in the substitution of
● DNA as the Genetic Material one amino acid for another
o Griffith experiment — o Nonsense mutation —
demonstrated the results in the substitution of a
transforming principle, stop codon for an amino acid
converting non-virulent o Insertions and deletions —
bacteria into virulent bacteria result in a shift in the reading
by exposure to heat-killed frame, leading to changes for
virulent bacteria all downstream amino acids
o Avery-MacLeod-McCarty ● Chromosomal mutations
experiment — demonstrated o Deletion mutations — a
that DNA is the genetic large segment of DNA is lost
material because degradation o Duplication mutations — a
of DNA led to a cessation of segment of DNA is copied
bacterial transformation multiple times
o Hershey-Chase o Inversion mutations — a
experiment — confirmed segment of DNA is reversed
that DNA is the genetic o Insertion mutations — a
material because only segment of DNA is moved
radiolabeled DNA could be from one chromosome to
found in bacteriophage- another
infected bacteria o Translocation mutations
— a segment of DNA is
2. Changes in the Gene Pool swapped with a segment of
DNA from another
● Mutations — changes in DNA chromosome
sequence ● Genetic leakage — flow of genes
● Nucleotide mutations between species through hybrid
offspring

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● Genetic drift — occurs when the ● Hardy-Weinberg principle —
composition of the gene pool changes states that if a population meets
as a result of chance certain criteria, then the allele
● Founder effect — results from frequencies will remain constant
bottlenecks that suddenly isolate a (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium)
small population, leading to
inbreeding and increased 4. Evolution
prevalence of certain homozygous
genotypes ● Natural selection — chance
variations exist between individuals,
3. Analytical Approaches in and that advantageous variations
Genetics (increase an individual’s fitness for
the environment) afford the most
● Punnett squares — visually opportunity for reproductive success
represent the crossing of gametes ● Modern synthesis model (neo-
from parents to show relative Darwinism) — accounts for
genotypic and phenotypic mutation and recombination as
frequencies mechanisms of variation and
o Parent generation — considers differential
represented by P reproduction to be the mechanism
o Filial (offspring) of reproductive stress
generations — represented ● Inclusive fitness — considers an
by F1, F2, etc. organism’s success to be based on the
o Monohybrid cross — number of offspring, success in
accounts for one gene supporting offspring, and the ability
o Dihybrid cross — accounts of the offspring to then support
for two genes others
o Sex-linked cross — sex ● Punctuated equilibrium —
chromosomes are usually used considers evolution to be a very slow
to indicate sex as well as process with intermittent rapid
genotype bursts of evolutionary activity
● Recombination frequency — ● Different types of selection that
likelihood of two alleles being lead to changes in phenotypes:
separated during crossing over in o Stabilizing selection —
meiosis keeps phenotypes in a narrow
● Genetic maps — can be made using range, excluding extremes
recombination frequency as the o Directional selection —
sacle, in centimorgans moves the average phenotype
toward one extreme
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 o Disruptive selection — ancestor evolve in similar
moves toward two different ways due to analogous
phenotypes at the extremes selection pressures
and can lead to speciation o Convergent evolution —
o Adaptive radiation — rapid when two species not sharing
emergence of multiple species a recent ancestor evolve to
from a common ancestor, become more similar due to
each of which occupies its own analogous selection pressures
ecological niche
o Species — largest group of
organisms capable of breeding
to form fertile offspring;
reproductively isolated
from each other by pre- or
postzygotic mechanisms
● Two species can evolve with
different relationship patterns:
o Divergent evolution —
when two species sharing a
common ancestor become
more different
o Parallel evolution — when
two species sharing a common

BOTANY ● Nucleus
- contains the genetic code
Plant Cell (DNA)
● Cell wall - has nuclear membrane that is
- sturdy because of the not smooth because it has
cellulose, pectin nuclear pores (for
● Plasma Membrane transporting)
- composed of the - has nucleolus where
phospholipid bilayer chromosomes are found and
(regulates transport) DNA as well
● Cytoplasm ● Endoplasmic Reticulum
- full of organelles - attached to the nucleus/
- external to the nuclear membrane
endomembrane system - an extension of the nucleus
- cytosol (solution where all the - mode of transport from the
organelles are suspended in) nucleus and to the nucleus
then unloaded to the other
parts of the cell
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APPSoc 2016 - 2017
 Rough: has ribosomes ● Cytoskeleton
attached - microfilament and
● Golgi Apparatus microtubules
- packaging center of the cell
- derived from the endoplasmic Cell Types
reticulum 1. Parenchyma – thin walled with
- processing center of the cell intercellular spaces; functional
● Mitochondria 2. Collenchyma – cell wall is not
- “powerhouse”; where ATP is that thick; flexible support
generated 3. Schelerenchyma – very thick
- has two membranes: inner wall; almost covering the whole
has folding called cristae with cell; rigid support; dead cells
an inner part called matrix
where cellular respiration Photosynthesis
takes place ● Light energy is converted to
● Chloroplasts chemical energy
- double membrane; inner ● Production of glucose/
membrane has extensions carbohydrates
that are piles of foldings ● Wavelengths are absorbs
*Thyakoid – where
chlorophyll is attached Light reaction & Calvin Cycle
*Granum – pile of thylakoids
● Central Vacuole
- occupies the entire size of the
cell
- storage of nutrient reserves
and waste materials
- contains water, salts, crystals,
starch, protein bodies, source:https://www.researchgate.net/figure/264047223_fig
ganules 1_Figure-1-Photosynthesis-is-an-energy-conversion-
process-which-occurs-in-plants-and
- digestive organelle ● Crassulacean Acid Metabolism –
● Ribosomes during night
- protein synthesis
- string of RNA Two major parts of a plant:
● Microbodies Shoot: above the ground
➢ Perixosomes: breakdown Root: below the ground
fatty acid, amino acid, and *vegetative: root, stem, leaves
alcohol; membrane bound *reproductive: stamen, pistil
contains enzymes such as
catalase, D-amino acid
oxidase Shoot Morphology
➢ Glyxysomes: convert fats to Node - point of attachment of the leaves
sugar only when there are no *axillary buds: anything that grows
more sugar above
*stipule: anything that grows below
Internode – spaces between nodes
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(closer to the ground = longer Common Root Tissues
internode) 1. epidermis
Terminal Bud – shoot tip - outer covering, no cuticle, thin
layer
ANATOMY 2. Cortex
Heartwood - storage of starch and other
- composed of the pith, primary organic molecules
xylem, secondary xylem 3. Vascular Tissue
- hard, no water, not functional - for water and food conduction
Sapwood
- functional, transports water Structure Unique to Roots
Root Cap
Trichomes: hairs of plants (for - protects the apical meristem as
defense), can be used for identification the root tip pushes through the
of plants abrasive soil
- composed of thimble –shaped
The Root System mass of parenchymal cells
Radicle: embryonic root; first to grow - secrets lubricating
Type of Root Systems polysaccharides to reduce friction
1. Tap Root - can be renewed when cut off
- common in dicots - may be involved in the growth of
- thick and tampered from which the roots following gravity
smaller branch roots arise Regions of the Roots
- originates from embryonic roots 1. Region of Cell Division
2. Fibrous Root - cells actively divide
- common in monocots - composed of the apical meristem
- originates from stem tissue - produced the root cap
- larger number of fine roots with - active cell division takes behind
similar diameter the actual base of the meristem
3. Adventitious Root
- roots that do not develop another *apical meristem subdivides
root into three meristematic areas:
- develops from a stem or leaf 1. Protoderm – epidermis
- found in both monocots and 2. Ground Meristerm – cortex and
dicots pith
3. Procambium – primary xylem and
Functions of the Root phloem
● anchors the plant into the
ground 2. Region of Elongation
● absorbs water and nutrients - cells do not undergo cell division
● stores nutrients - cell size are several times their
● conducts water and minerals original length and a bit wider
● associate with soil microbes to - tiny vacuoles merge to form one
form symbiotic relationships or two large molecules
- no further increase in cell size
occurs above the region
3. Region of Maturation
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APPSoc 2016 - 2017
 - developed tissues 2. Water storage roots
- where cells differentiate into - store large amount of water;
distinctive cell types common in arid areas
- where root hairs originate 3. Propagative roots
- also known as the root hair zone - produce new individual plants
- greatly increase the total 4. Pneumatophores
absorptive surface of roots by - roots present in some plants that
establishing an intimate contact grow in swamps and other wet
with soil particles places which is spongy in nature
● casparian strips - facilitating the oxygen supply to
➢ forces water and dissolved the roots beneath
nutrients pass through the 5. Aerial roots
plasma membrane of the - epiphytic roots that grow in the
endodermal cells branches of trees like orchids
➢ found in the innermost - roots extend out in the air
part of the cortex 6. Contractile roots
➢ bond like region which - roots from the bulbs of lilies and
contain suberin, a fatty of several other plants such as
material dandelions
➢ aid in water retention - contract by spiraling to pull the
plant a little deeper into the soil
Pathways for the movement of each year until they reach an area
water towards the inner root of relatively stable temperature
7. Buttress roots
1. Symplast - common among huge tropical
- a continuum of living cytoplasm rain forest trees and produce at
connected to one another by the base of the trunk to provide
cytoplasmic connections called considerable stability
plasmodesmata; mostly for the - for shallow rooted large trees
dissolved ions 8. Parasitic roots
2. Apoplast - the stems of certain plants lack
- consist of interconnected porous chlorophyll produce peglike roots
cell walls of a plant, along which that penetrate the host plant
water and inorganic ions pass around which they are twined
*vascular cylinder
- conducts water and food Symbiotic Relationships
* pericycle 1. Mycorrhizae
- outermost layer of the stele that - mutually beneficial relationship
gives rise to lateral roots and part between some specieis of tropical
of the vascular cambium in dicots rain trees and fungi
- gives rise to lateral meristem in - the roots provide carbohydrates
woody dicots to the fungi
- fungi extends the ability of the
Modified Roots root system to reach further areas
1. Food storage roots for more water and nutrient
- store excess carbohydrates absorption
produces during photosynthesis 2. Rhizobia
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APPSoc 2016 - 2017
 - symbiotic relationship between *Dendrology – science and study
roots of leguminous plants and of wooded plants and their
nitrogen-fixing bacteria taxonomic classifications
- roots produce swelling (nodules)
that houses millions of bacteria Transpiration
- bacteria: receives the products of - refers to the loss of water vapor
photosynthesis from the internal leaf atmosphere
- plants: receive sufficient supply - more than 90% of water entering
of nitrogen a plant passes through and
evaporates to the outside
Leaves atmosphere through the stomata
Main Functions:
● photosynthetic organs of a Cell Division
plant ● Interphase
● source of all food on the - gathering of materials for
planet distribution during mitosis
● contain the world’s most - DNA is duplicated, and in the
abundant enzyme (Rubisco) form of chromatin
● adapted in several ways to - Almost everything is doubles
help them perform their ➢ G1
function - period before DNA synthesis
- metabolic activity is very high
Basic Structure of Leaves - build up cytosol, ribosome, ER
● lamina – flattened blade which is etc.
joined to the node of a stem by a - cell increase in size
petiole - making nucleotide
● vascular bundle – located in the ➢ S phase
blade in the form of veins - DNA synthesis phase
(includes the midrib) - One all of the organelles have
● stipule – located at the base of been replicated
the petiole - The goal of replication is to
accurately copy the genetic
Adaptive Features information in the nucleus
● large surface area – to absorb ➢ G2
more light - still same number of
● thin – short distance for carbon chromosomes but has 2 sister
dioxide to diffuse into the lead chromatids
cells ● M phase
● chlorophyll - absorbs sunlight to - separates the duplicated sister
transfer energy into chemicals chromatids of the parent cell into
● network of veins – to support the 2 nuclei
leaves and transport water and - mitosis refers specifically to the
carbohydrates division of the nucleus of the cell
● stomata – allow carbon dioxide to - divided equally but the number of
diffuse into the leaf chromosomes is retained
➢ Metaphase

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 - kinetochore attach chromosomes Symmetry
to the mitotic spindle and align 1. Actinomorphic – radial symmetry
them along metaphase plate or 2. Zygomorphic – bilateral symmetry
equator
➢ Anaphase Ovary
- chromosome splits to 2 sister 1. Hypogynous (above)
chromatids 2. Perigynous (middle)
- daughter cells are produced 3. Epigynous (below)
- each has a complete and identical
set of chromosomes Complete: calyx + corolla
- microtubules shorten, separating +androecium + gynoecium
chromosomes to opposite poles Incomplete: 1 or more whorls are
➢ Telophase absent
- vesicles merge to form a cell plate Perfect: has both androecium and
and extend to meet the cell wall gynoecium
- nuclear membrane reappears Imperfect: missing either androecium or
gynoecium
Flowers
- reproductive part of a plant Placentation – way by which the
ovules are attached to the placenta
Petals
1. Gamopetalous – tips may be Fruits
separated, but bottom are together - typically formed from ovary wall
2. Polypetalous – not together (pericarp); divided into: exocarp,
3. Apetalous – no petals - marsocarp, endocarp
- types based on origin: simple,
aggregate, multiple

ZOOLOGY
➢ Evidence of Evolution
UNIFYING THEMES OF BIOLOGY 1. Fossil Records
➢ Evolution – the progressive 2. Anatomy – homologous
change of organisms as they structure
descend from their ancestral 3. Biochemistry
species ➢ Mechanism of Evolution
➢ Darwin’s Five Major Theories 1. Natural Selection
1. Perpetual Change 2. Genetic Drift
2. Common Descent – common 3. Mutation
ancestor
3. Multiplication of Species – THE CHROMOSAL THEORY OF
through reproduction INHERITANCE
4. Gradualism – gradual change ● The principle of heredity was first
through time, changes in the formulated by Gregor Johan
DNA Mendel
5. Natural Selection –
adaptation

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 ● Mendel conducted experiments
and examined many plants in DISCOVERY OF THE CELL
small monastery garden ● Robert Hooke
● He published his discoveries in - Observed silver of cork
1866, coming just after Darwin’s - saw rows of empty boxes; coined
publication of the “Origin of the term cell
Species” ● Theodor Swann and Matthias
● Cytologist and geneticist began to Schleiden
see parallelism between the
behavior of chromosomes and the
behavior of Mendel’s factors Introduction to Invertebrate
● Walter Sutton and Theodor Zoology
Boveri hypothesized that
chromosomes were the physical Three Domains of Life
bearer of genetic material, and ➢ Bacteria – prokaryotes
eventually the “Theory of ➢ Archaea – prokaryotes (they live
Chromosomal Inheritance” began in extreme environment)
to take form ➢ Eukarya – eukayrotes
● Principles: Segregation and ➢
Independent assortment Classification is continually changing
(discoveries)
HOMEOSTASIS Consists of several kingdoms
● Homeonin – similar; tasis – state ➢ Protista – single celled
● Capability of organisms to ➢ Fungi – multi-cellular
balance/ regulate chemical ➢ Plantae – multi-cellular
composition and body ➢ Animalia – multi-cellular
temperature (osmosis)
Invertebrates
THE CELL ➢ 99% of all animal specieies
● basic unit of life ➢ Over 1,000,000 species
● building block of our body ➢ Estimate 10-30 million species
● smallest living unit capable of have yet to be described
performing life functions

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APPSoc 2016 - 2017
Transcending Expectations, Redefining Standards
APPSoc 2016 - 2017