Analog Electronic

Circuit II
Lecture by:
NURULBARIAH BINTI IDRIS
Emel :
[email protected]
Office: S4,Stair 70 Level 1
 ACTIVE FILTER
I N T R O D U C T I O N
 BASIC FILTERS
 ACTIVE VS PASSIVE FILTERS
F I L T E R S R E S P O N S E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S
 ACTIVE LOW-PASS FILTERS
A C T I V E H I G H - P A S S F I L T E R S
A C T I V E B A N D - P A S S F I L T E R S
A C T I V E B A N D - S T O P F I L T E R S
F I L T E R R E S P O N S E M E A S U R E M E N T S
 Introduction

 FUNCTIONS:
- passing signals within a band
- “frequency selectivity” : rejecting or blocking signals of
frequencies outside the band.
 GENERAL TYPES:
- Passive filters: The circuits built using RC, RL, or RLC
circuits.
- Active filters : employ one or more op-amps in addition
to resistors and capacitors.
Advantages of Active Filters over
Passive Filters

Active filters can be designed to provide

required gain  no attenuation.

No loading problem, because of high input resistance

and low output resistance of op-amp.

Cost effective solution as a wide

variety of economical op-amps
 Applications

 Active filters are mainly used in communication

and signal processing circuits.
 They are also employed in a wide range of
applications such as entertainment, medical
electronics, etc.
 Active Filters

 There are 4 basic categories of active filters:

1. Low-pass filters
2. High-pass filters
3. Band-pass filters
4. Band-reject filters

 Each of these filters can be built by using op-amp as the

active element combined with RC, RL or RLC circuit as
the passive elements.
 Active Filters

BASIC FILTER RESPONSES

 Low-Pass Filter Response

 A low-pass filter is a filter that passes frequencies from 0Hz to critical

frequency, fc and significantly attenuates all other frequencies.

roll-off rate
Vo

Actual response Ideal response

 Ideally, the response drops abruptly at the critical frequency, fc

Passband of a filter is the
range of frequencies that are
allowed to pass through the
filter with minimum
roll-off rate
attenuation (usually defined
as less than -3 dB of
attenuation).

Transition region shows the

area where the fall-off occurs.

Stopband is the range of frequencies that have the most

attenuation.
Critical frequency, fc, (also called the cutoff frequency) defines
the end of the passband and normally specified at the point where
the response drops – 3 dB (70.7%) from the passband response.
 Gain (normalized to 1)

–3 dB 0 dB Actual response of a
single-pole RC filter
Passband
–20 dB
Transition R
region Vout

–40 dB
–2
0d
BW B/ Vs
de C
Stopband ca
region de
–60 dB f
0.01 fc 0.1 fc fc 10 fc 100 fc 1000 fc

 At low frequencies, XC is very high and the capacitor circuit can be

considered as open circuit. Under this condition, Vo = Vin or AV = 1
(unity).
 At very high frequencies, XC is very low and the Vo is small as compared
with Vin. Hence the gain falls and drops off gradually as the frequency is
increased.
 The bandwidth of an ideal low-pass filter is equal to fc:
BW  f c

 The critical frequency of a low-pass RC filter occurs when

XC = R and can be calculated using the formula below:

1
fc 
2 RC
 High-Pass Filter Response

 A high-pass filter is a filter that significantly attenuates or rejects all

frequencies below fc and passes all frequencies above fc.
 The passband of a high-pass filter is all frequencies above the critical
frequency.

Vo

Actual response Ideal response

 Ideally, the response rises abruptly at the critical frequency, fL
 Critical Frequency

 The critical frequency of a high-pass RC filter occurs when

XC = R and can be calculated using the formula below:

1
fc 
2 RC
 Low-Pass Filters

 Basic Low-Pass filter circuit:

At fc, Resistance = reactance ;

R  Xc

1
R
c C
1
R
2f cC
So, critical frequency ; 1
fc 
2RC
 High-Pass Filters

 Basic High-Pass filter circuit :

At fc, Resistance = reactance ;

R  Xc

1
R
c C
1
R
2f cC
So, critical frequency ; 1
fc 
2RC
 Band-Pass Filter Response

 A band-pass filter passes all signals lying within a band between a

lower-frequency limit and upper-frequency limit and essentially
rejects all other frequencies that are outside this specified band.

Actual response Ideal response

 Bandwidth

 The bandwidth (BW) is defined as the difference between the

upper critical frequency (fc2) and the lower critical frequency
(fc1).

BW  f c 2  f c1
R Vout

Vs C L
 Center Frequency

 The frequency about which the pass band is centered is called

the center frequency, fo and defined as the geometric mean
of the critical frequencies.

f o  f c1 f c 2
 Quality Factor

 The quality factor (Q) of a band-pass filter is the ratio of

the center frequency to the bandwidth.

fo
Q
BW

 The higher value of Q, the narrower

the bandwidth and the better the
selectivity for a given value of fo.

• (Q>10) as a narrow-band
• (Q<10) as a wide-band
 Band-Stop Filter Response

 Band-stop filter is a filter which its operation is opposite to that of the

band-pass filter because the frequencies within the bandwidth are
rejected, and the frequencies above fc1 and fc2 are passed.

Actual response Ideal response

 For the band-stop filter, the bandwidth is a band of frequencies

between the 3 dB points, just as in the case of the band-pass filter
response.
 Animation

A "Group" of waves passing through a Typical Band-Pass Filter

 Active Filters

FILTER RESPONSE
CHARACTERISTICS
 Filter Response Characteristics

There are 3 characteristics of

filter response :
 Bessel characteristic.
 Butterworth characteristic
 Chebyshev characteristic

 Each of the characteristics is

identified by the shape of
the response curve
Comparative plots of three types of
filter response characteristics.
 Bessel Characteristics

 Filter response is characterized Av

by a linear characteristic,
meaning that the phase shift
increases linearly with
frequency.
 Filters with the Bessel response
are used for filtering pulse
waveforms without distorting f
the shape of waveform.
 Butterworth Characteristics

 Filter response is characterized

by flat amplitude response in Av
the passband.
 Provides a roll-off rate of -20
dB/decade/pole.
 Filters with the Butterworth
response are normally used
when all frequencies in the f
passband must have the same
gain.
 Chebyshev Characteristics

 Filter response is characterized

by overshoot or ripples in the Av
passband.
 Provides a roll-off rate greater
than -20 dB/decade/pole.
 Filters with the Chebyshev
response can be implemented
with fewer poles and less f
complex circuitry for a given
roll-off rate
 Frequency Scaling Factor

# The frequency scaling factor (FSF) is used to scale the cutoff

frequency of the filter for Bessel and Chebyshev.

# FSF for Butterworth is ONE(1).

f c (bessel/ chebyshev)  FSF  f c

Table 1: Butterworth

# Reference: Texas Instrument App. Notes

 Relation between Q and DF

 The damping factor (DF) of an active filter determines which

response characteristic the filter exhibits.

 The quality factor (Q) can also be expressed in general terms of

the filter damping factor (DF) as :

1
Q
DF
# Applied to all types of filter design
 Critical Frequency and Roll-off Rate

 The critical frequency, fc is

determined by the values of
R and C in the frequency-
selective RC circuit.
 Each RC set of filter
components represents a
pole.
 Greater roll-off rates can be
achieved with more poles.
 Each pole represents a One-pole (first-order) low-pass
-20dB/decade increase in roll- filter.
off.
 The number of poles determines the roll-off rate of the
filter. For example, a Butterworth response produces -
20dB/decade/pole.

This means that:

 One-pole (first-order) filter has
a roll-off of -20 dB/decade
 Two-pole (second-order) filter
has a roll-off of -40 dB/decade
 Three-pole (third-order) filter
has a roll-off of -60 dB/decade
 The number of filter poles can be increased by cascading. To
obtain a filter with three poles, cascade three (3) one-pole
filters.

Three-pole (third-order) low-pass filter.

 Active Filters

ACTIVE FILTER DESIGN

 Active Filter Design

 Active filter consists of an amplifier, a negative feedback circuit

and RC circuit.

General diagram of active filter

 Single-Pole LP Filter

Single-pole active low-pass filter and response curve.

 This filter provides a roll-off rate of -20 dB/decade above

the critical frequency.
 Single-Pole HP Filters

 In high-pass filters, the roles of the capacitor and resistor are

reversed in the RC circuits as shown from Figure (a). The
negative feedback circuit is the same as for the low-pass filters.
 Figure (b) shows a high-pass active filter with a -20dB/decade
roll-off

Single-pole active high-pass filter and response curve.

 The op-amp in single-pole filter is connected as a non-inverting
amplifier with the closed-loop voltage gain in the passband is set by
the values of R1 and R2 :

R1
Acl ( NI )  1
R2

 The critical frequency of the single-pole filter is :

1
fc 
2RC
 Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter

 Sallen-Key is one of the most common configurations for a

second order (two-pole) filter.

 There are two set of RCs

that provide a roll-off of
-40 dB/decade above fc
(assuming a Butterworth
characteristics).
 One RC circuit consists of
RA and CA, and the second
circuit consists of RB and
CB.
Basic Sallen-Key low-pass filter.
 Sallen-Key High-Pass Filters

 Components RA, CA, RB, and CB form the second order (two-pole)
frequency-selective circuit.

 The position of the resistors and capacitors in the frequency-selective

circuit are opposite in low pass configuration.

 Two set of RCs provide a

roll-off of -40 dB/decade
above fc

Basic Sallen-Key high-pass filter.

 Critical Frequency

 The critical frequency for the Sallen-Key LP and HP filter is :

1
fc 
2 RA RBC ACB
 Quality factor

 Quality factor :
1. Low-pass filters

RA RB C ACB
QLP 
RACB  RBCB  RAC A (1  Acl ( NI ) )

2. High-pass filters

RA RB C ACB
QHP 
RACB  RAC A  RB CB (1  Acl ( NI ) )
 Sallen-Key Design Simplification

Method 1: Assume equal value for filter component, R and C

 For RA = RB = R and CA = CB = C, the critical frequency :

1
fc 
2RC

 Q is now determined by the gain of the circuit:

1 # Drawback???
Q - Design gain is limited by
3  Acl ( NI ) selected Q value.
# Independent Q and fc.
 Example

Design a Butterworth Sallen-Key Low Pass Filter with the critical

frequency, fc = 7.23 kHz. For design simplification, assume equal value
for RC components. Use the quality factor, Q value from Table 1. Given
the equal capacitor value = 22nF and R2 = 1k Ω.
 Solution

1) RC circuit,
Assume RA = RB = R and CA = CB = C for an equal value components
(Method 1),

Thus,

1
i) fc   7.23kHz
2RC

ii) Given C = 22 nF

Thus, calculate R,
1
R  1.0k
2Cf c

# RA = RB = 1.0 kΩ
2) Negative feedback circuit,
From Table 1, Q for Butterworth response 2nd order is 0.7071.
1
i) Q
3  Acl ( NI )

1
Acl ( NI )  3   1.586
Q

R1
Acl ( NI )  1  1.586
R2

ii) non-inverting feedback resistor ratio. iii) Given R2 = 1 kΩ

R1 R1  0.586R2
 0.586
R2
R1  586
 Table 1

2 Set of RC = 2nd order

# Reference: Texas Instrument App. Notes

 Sallen-Key Design Simplification

Method 2: For Gain = 1 (voltage follower), assume ratio

value for filter component, R and C.

CA

RA RB
Vin +
Vout
CB 
 Sallen-Key Design Simplification

Method 2: For Gain = 1 (voltage follower), assume ratio

value for filter component, R and C.
 For RA = R, RB = mR, CA = nC, CB = C, the critical frequency :

1
fc 
2RC mn

 Q is now determined by filter component ratio:

# Drawback???
mn mn
QLP  QHP  - Design gain is unity.
1 m 1 n - Non-independent design.
 Example

Find RC components for a Butterworth Sallen-Key Low Pass Filter with

cutoff frequency, fc = 7.23 kHz when CA = nC and CB = C = 22nF. Use
the quality factor, Q value from Table 1 and assume the resistor ratio,
m = 5.
 Solution

1) RC circuit,
Assume RA = R, RB = mR, CA = nC, CB = C (Method 2),

i)
mn
QLP   0.7071
1 m
ii) Given m = 5,
thus n = 3.6

iii) Given C = 22 nF

1
fc   7.23kHz
2RC mn
1
R  235.84
2Cf c mn
Real value of RC circuit,

i) RA = R = 235.84 Ω
ii) RB = mR = 1.18 kΩ
iii) CA = nC = 79.2 nF
iv) CB = C = 22 nF
 Sallen-Key Design Simplification

Method 3: Assume equal value for filter component, C

and ratio value for filter component, R. (or
vice versa)
 Sallen-Key Design Simplification

Method 3: Assume equal value for filter component, C

and ratio value for filter component, R. (or
vice versa)
 For CA = CB = C, and RA = R, RB = mR, the critical frequency :

1 # Drawback???
fc  - Non-independent design.
2RC m #However, have control on Gain.
#Better component selection.

 Q is now determined by filter component ratio:

m m
QLP  QHP 
2  m  Acl ( NI ) 2  m(1  Acl ( NI ) )
 Example

Design a Butterworth Sallen-Key Low Pass Filter with the critical

frequency, fc = 7.23 kHz. For design simplification in RC network, assume
equal value for capacitor, C = 22nF while R has a ratio, m = 2. Use the
quality factor, Q value from Table 1. Given R2 = 1k Ω.
 Solution

1) RC circuit,
Assume CA = CB = C and RA = R, RB = mR (Method 3),

i) For a ratio R, m = 2,

ii) 1
fc   7.23kHz
2RC m
1
R  707.53
2Cf c m
Real value of RC circuit,

i) RA = R = 707.53 Ω
ii) RB = mR = 1.42 kΩ
iii) CB = C = 22 nF
 Table 1

2 Set of RC = 2nd order

# Reference: Texas Instrument App. Notes

2) Negative feedback circuit,
From Table 1, Q for Butterworth response 2nd order is 0.7071.

i) For a ratio R, m = 2,
m
QLP   0.7071
2  m  Acl ( NI )

R1
Acl ( NI )  2  1 
R2

ii) non-inverting feedback resistor ratio. iii) Given R2 = 1 kΩ

R1 R1  R2
1
R2
R1  1k
 Cascading Filter

 A three-pole filter is done by cascading a two-pole filter with single

pole filter or cascading 3 single pole filter.
 Roll-off rate ???  -60 dB/decade.

Cascaded low-pass filter: third-order configuration.

#Two-pole Sallen-Key low-pass filter and a single-pole low-pass filter.
 Same case with the low-pass filter, first-order and second-order
high-pass filters can be cascaded to provide three or more
poles  faster roll-off rates.
 Roll-off rate for the following filter??  -120 dB/decade.

Sixth-order high-pass filter

#A six-pole high-pass filter: three Sallen-Key two-pole stages
 Roll-off rate for the following filter??  -80 dB/decade.

Cascaded low-pass filter: fourth-order configuration.

#A cascaded 2 two-pole Sallen-Key low-pass filter

 Example

1) Determine all the required values to produce a Butterworth

response with a critical frequency, fc of 2680 Hz if all resistors in RC
low pass circuit is 1.8k. Assume equal-value of capacitor and both
stages must have the same fc .
Table 1

# Reference: Texas Instrument App. Notes

 Solution

1) Find C value,
Assume CA1 = CB1 = CA2 = CB2 = C
and RA1 = RB1 = RA2 = RB2 = R = 1.8 kΩ

i) For an equal RC,

1
fc 
2RC

1
C  0.033F
2f c R

Thus,

CA1=CB1=CA2=CB2=0.033µf
2) Find negative feedback circuit value, R1, R2, R3 and R4
i) Stage 1
From Table 1, Q for Butterworth response 4th order is 0.5412.

1
Q
3  Acl ( NI )

1
Acl ( NI )  3   1.1523
Q

R1
Acl ( NI )  1  1.1523
R2

iii) Assume R2 = 10 kΩ
ii) non-inverting feedback resistor ratio.
R1  0.1523R2
R1
 0.1523
R2 R1 1523 ≈ 1.5k
2) Find negative feedback circuit value, R1, R2, R3 and R4

i) Stage 2
From Table 1, Q for Butterworth response 4th order is 1.3065.

1
Q
3  Acl ( NI )

1
Acl ( NI )  3   2.2346
Q

R3
Acl ( NI )  1  2.2346
R4

iii) Assume R4 = 10 kΩ
ii) non-inverting feedback resistor ratio.
R3  1.2346R4
R3
 1.2346
R4 R3  12346 ≈ 12k
 Active Band-Pass Filters

Cascaded Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters

R A1 C A2
C A1
R A2 R B2
V in C B1
R B1 V out
R1 C B2
R3
R2
Two-pole high-pass Two-pole low-pass R4

 Band-pass filter is formed by cascading a two-pole high-pass and two

pole low-pass filter.
 A v (dB)
Low-pass response High-pass response
0

3

f c1 fo f c2 f

 The lower frequency fc1 of the passband is the critical frequency

of the high-pass filter.
 The upper frequency fc2 of the passband is the critical
frequency of the low-pass filter.
 The following formulas express the three frequencies of the
band-pass filter.
1 1
f c1 
2 RA1RB1C A1CB1
fc2 
2 RA2 RB 2C A2CB 2
f0  f c1 f c 2

 If equal-value components are used in each filter,

1
f0 
2RC
 Example

R A1 C A2
C A1
R A2 R B2
V in C B1
R B1 V out
R1 C B2
R3
R2
R4

1) Determine the quality factor, Q value for a four-pole

bandpass filter. Assume RA1 = RB1 = 33 kΩ, RA2 = RB2 = 10 kΩ
and CA1 = CB1 = CA2 = CB2 = C = 100 pF.
 Solution

1) Find Q value for Bandpass Filter (overall quality factor)

fo
Q
BW

i) For an equal RC, fo  f c1 f c 2

1
fo 
2C RS1 RS 2

f o  87.61kHz
 Solution

1 1
f c1    48.23kHz
2RS1C 2 33k 100 p 

1 1
fc2    159.15kHz
2RS 2C 2 10k 100 p 

BW  110.93kHz

Thus,
fo
Q  0.79
BW
 EXERCISE

2) Based from previous example, find negative feedback circuit

value, R1, R2, R3 and R4 ?????
#Hint: use the relation of Q value/stage with Gain, A.
 Multiple-Feedback Band-Pass Filters

 The low-pass circuit consists

of R1 and C1.
C1
 The high-pass circuit consists
R2
of R2 and C2.
R1 C2
 The feedback paths are
V in through C1 and R2.
V out
R3  Center frequency;
1
f0 
2 R1 // R3 R2C1C2
 1 R1  R3
 By making C1 = C2 =C, yields; f 0 
2C R1 R2 R3
 The resistor values can be found by using following formula

Q Q Q
R1  R2  R3 
2f oCAo f oC 2f oC (2Q 2  Ao )

 The maximum gain, Ao occurs at the center frequency.

R2
Ao 
2R1
 Example

1) Design a multiple-feedback band-pass active

filter using parameters value as following. For
design simplification, assume equal value
capacitors are 0.01 µF. Illustrate the circuit
designed and label all the circuit components.

fo = 25 kHz, BW = 500, Ao = 3.98

 Solution
i) Find Q value, C1
C1  C2  C  0.01F R2
fo 25k
Q   50 R1 C2
BW 500
V in
ii) Find R1, R2 and R3 V out
R3
Q
R1   8k
2f oCAo
Thus,
Q i ) R1  8k iv )C1  0.01F
R2   63.66k
f oC ii ) R2  63.66k v)C2  0.01F
Q iii ) R3  6.37
R3   6.37

2f oC 2Q  Ao
2

 Active Band-Stop Filters

Multiple-Feedback Band-Stop Filter

C1
R2
R1 C2
V in
R3
V out
R4

 The configuration is similar to the band-pass version BUT R3 has

been moved and R4 has been added.
 The BSF is opposite of BPF in that it blocks a specific band of
frequencies
 State-Variable Filter

 State-Variable BPF is widely used for band-pass applications.

 It consists of a summing
amplifier and two integrators.
 It has outputs for low-pass,
high-pass, and band-pass.
 The center frequency is set by
the integrator RC circuits.
 The critical frequency of the
integrators usually made
equal
 R5 and R6 set the Q
(bandwidth).

 The band-pass output peaks sharply the center frequency giving it a

high Q.
 The Q is set by the feedback resistors R5 and R6 according to
the following equations :

1  R5 
Q  1  
3  R6 
 Filter Response Measurement

 Measuring frequency response can be performed with

typical bench-type equipment.
 It is a process of setting and measuring frequencies both
outside and inside the known cutoff points in
predetermined steps.
 Use the output measurements to plot a graph.
 More accurate measurements can be performed with
sweep generators along with an oscilloscope, a spectrum
analyzer, or a scalar analyzer.