Roll no.

79
M.A English Previous (Morning)
Prose (Assignment)

Development Of English Prose Through Ages.

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 ANGLO SAXON Period (450-1066)

☆ Socio-Political and Historical Background.

▪ The Anglo Saxon period in England starts from
450 A.D to the Norman Conquest in1066 A.D. The
period first used to be known as the Dark Ages
(mainly because written sources for the early years
of Saxon invasion are scarce), and latter as Early
Middle Ages, Early Mediaval Period, and Old
English Period.
▪ Celts were the original inhabitants of England. It
is believed that Celtic culture started to evolve as
early as 1200 BC. They spread through out western
Europe including Britain, Ireland, France, and
Spain via migration. In 55BC Romans arrived
England and England became the part of Roman
Empire. With varying waves of innovation,
invasion and other changes, Celts largely
disappeared from continental Europe.
▪ In 410 Roman turned back to their country and
then Anglo Saxon invade England in 450 A.D.
▪ People we call Anglo-Saxon are actually were the
migrants from Northern Germany and Southern
Scandinavia. Bede writes that they were from
some of the most powerful and warlike tribes in

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Germany and he names three of these tribes as
Angles, Saxons and Jutes.
▪ After Anglo Saxon invasion, various Anglo Saxon
groups settled in different areas of the country.
They formed several kingdoms, often changing,
and constantly at war with one another.
▪ By 650 AD there were seven separate kingdoms
included, Kent, Marcia, Northumbria, East Anglia,
Essex, Sussex, and Wessex, which, by 850 AD had
been consolidated into three large Anglo Saxon
kingdoms as Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex.
▪ Anglo Saxon society was cruel to enemies, had
tribal system living and were greedy to power,
most times they were in battle field with one
another, although they lived in unity, and were far
more wise having the first hand knowledge about
things. The early Anglo Saxon age is called Pre-
Christianty (450-597). In 597, Anglo Saxon
embraced with religion (Christianity).
☆ Literary characteristics.
▪ Old English Literature or Anglo-Saxon Literature
encompasses literature written in Old English
Anglo-Saxon England from 7th century to the
decades after the Norman Conquest of 1066.
▪ In Anglo Saxon's era, literature was written by
kings, chiefs, and chuch men, the people

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possessing high status in society allowed to write
not a common man.
▪ Most of their writings were historical and their
dialect was West Saxon. The writers were very
known as compared to Anglo Norman's writers
who remained unknown mostly.
▪ Their Prose work include legal writings, medical
tracts, grammer, geography, religious texts,
Biblical translations and translations from Latin
and other languages, paticularly notable is the
'Anglo Saxon Chronicle', a historical record begun
about the time of King Alfred's reign ( 871-889).
▪ Their poetry was originally an oral tradition but
the introduction of critianity in 597 A.D allowed
some written works to survive. The more
prominent characteristics of their poetry include
Heroic Actions and Code of Conduct, Cristian
ideals and various figures of speech to enhance
the diction. Mostly they used 'Alliterative verse'.
The two known poets from this period are
Caedmon and Cynewulf.
▪ Anglo Saxon Churchmen wrote in Latin. The
greatest of these was known as the Venerable
Bede, the author of History of English church and
people, rightly regarded as 'the father of English
history'.

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▪ Some of the most notable works of Anglo Saxon
are:
1. BEOWULF (an epic poem by anonymous),
2. ANGLO SAXON CHRONICLE (chronology of
early English history by King Alfred),
3. CAEDMON'S HYMN (compose in 7th century
and considered as the oldest surviving poem in
English according to Bede).
▪ Besides Old English literature, Anglo-Saxon
started a number of Anglo-Latin works.
☆ Prose.
▪ Anglo Saxon Prose dates from the latter part of
Anglo Saxon period. Until 9th century, literary
prose did not develop in England, yet it was being
written in the form of some laws and historical
records. Basically with Alfred The Great, Anglo
Saxon Prose marks the true beginning.
▪ Prose was written in Latin before Alfred's reign,
(reigned 871-89), king Alfred worked to give a new
life to English culture after the destructive Danish
invasion. He translated the most important Latin
texts and also encouraged writing in vernacular.
▪ Didactic ( having moral instructions), devotional
and informative prose was written, and the
ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE, probably begun in

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Alfred's time as a historical record, continued for
over three centuries.
▪ A great deal of Latin prose (and poetry) was
written during Anglo-Saxon period. Of historic as
well as literary interests, it provides a best record
of founding an early development of church in
England and reflects the introduction and early
influence of Latin-European culture there.
▪ Else than KING ALFRED, the other two prominent
prose writers of this age are, AELFRIC (abbot of
Eynsham) and his contemporary WULFSTON
( Archibishop of York). Their sermons ( written in
late 10th or 11th century), set a standard for
homiletics ( Instructional, moral preaching).
☆ Prose Writers and their works.
1. King Alfred: Known as the 'Father of English
Prose'. He became the king of Wessex in 871 A.D,
and "Anglo Saxon Chronicle" is his first orignal
work. He translated five great works:
▪ Gregory's 'PASTORAL CARE'. (A religious work
discusses the essentials of Christianity.)
▪ Bede's 'ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY OF
ENGLAND'. (About the religious development in
England.)
▪ Orosius's 'HISTORY OF THE WORLD'. (The study

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of the world from various aspects, his accounts of
geography, the language and Places of Germany
make the reading interesting.)
▪ Boethius's 'DE CONSOLATION PHILOSOPHIC'.
( A fine study of the sorrows and sufferings of
human title and the way of their consolation,
written in the form of dialogues between Boethius
and Philosophy. Here we find, Alfred's deep faith in
Christianity finding reflection in his translation.)
▪ St. Augustin's ' SOLILOQUIA'. (A highly
philosophic work. Its preface overflows with
emotions at the prospect of his departure from the
world. Here we recall all his work done as a writer
and educator.)
2. Alfric - Abbot of Eynsham.
▪ He was a scholar of the monastic school and
became the Abbot of Eynsham in 1005. He was a
religion server and his work is found original. His
notable works which basically gave him position of
a Prose writer are:
▪ QULLOQUIM. (It is meant for teaching Latin by
means of conversation.)
▪ CATHOLIC HUMILIES. (Sermons in vernacular.
The first two Series of these sermons are known
as 'Catholic humilies' and the third is known as
'Lives of Saints', Catholic Homilies'.

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3. WULFSTON.
▪ He was Archibishop of York from 1002 to 1003, a
chuchman whose work was religion serving. He
had witnessed the Danish invasion which perhaps
started the patriotic zeal in him. His other homilies
are aslo here but his fame mainly rests on a single
homily, 'SERWLUPAID- ANGELS'.

THE ANGLO NORMAN PERIOD (1066-1500)

Pre-Chaucerian (1066-1340)
☆ Socio- Political and Historical Background.
▪ From the northern coast of France directly across
from England is a district extending some seventy
five miles away from the Channel known as
Normandy. (Slideshare.net)
▪ In 1066 Edward the confessor died childlessly
and British again faced the choice of a successor.
Edward had divided England into several districts
and for each, appointed a powerful earl. The most

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powerful earl was Godwin (the earl of west Saxon
earldom), his son Herold became king after the
death of Edward. William the Conqueror, (the duke
of Normandy, France at that time and the second
cousin of king Edward) claimed the throne, and
later he attacked England. He defeated the Anglo-
Saxon King Herold in the battle of Hastings in
1066 and conquered England.
▪ Norman conquest brought enormous changes in
England, English literature and linguistics. The
Anglo Saxon authors were then as suddenly
displaced. Norman prelates (bishops or other high
ecclesiastical dignitary) were gradually introduced
into all important positions in the church. French
was used by upper class, was the language of
churches and monasteries while English used by
lower class.
☆ Literary characteristics.
▪ After Norman conquest, the literature read and
written was completely transformed as the
sentiments and tastes of Normans. Normans
imported scholars to revive knowledge and
chronicles to record memoriable events.
▪ With the invasion of French people over England
brought a great change in life, society, language,
and literature of England. They brought various

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poets, poetry styles, different language historians
and musicians with them. The period is also
marked by disappearance of Old English poetry.
▪ French influence was much more direct and
observable upon the vocabulary. Thousands of
French words were introduced into English. For
two hundred years after the Norman Conquest,
French remained the language of ordinary
intercourse among the upper classes in England.
▪ Most of the literature in Anglo-Norman age was
written anonymously because of the dominancy of
French language as the language of ruling class.
As people didn't show interest in reading common
men writings, the writers started their works
without showing their names to fetch people's
right consideration.
☆ Prose.
▪ The prose written in Anglo-Norman period was
not historical mostly except the religious prose. If
we compare the prose of Anglo Norman and Anglo
Saxon, then the facts are:
1. Prose in Anglo-Norman period was written by
common men while Anglo-Saxon prose was
written by kings, chiefs or church people.

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2. The Anglo-Norman prose was a little historical
and more religious while Anglo-Saxon prose was
historical mostly.
3. The writers in Anglo-Norman era are unknown
while Anglo-Saxon writers are known.
4. The dialect of Anglo Norman was EAST-MIDLAND
while Anglo Saxon used WEST-SAXON dialect.
5. The poetry of Anglo Norman was better because
Norman introduced different poetry styles as
Rhyme verse, or Lyric poetry while Anglo Saxon
had the 'Alliterative Verse' in all, and Anglo Saxon
prose was said to be more standardized because
of their West-Saxon dialect and number of verbs.
☆ Prose writers and their works.
1. 'Charles Limb's Essays' __Published under
the name of Elea as 'Essays by Elea'.
2. 'Katherine Group'__A book (anonymously
written in West- Saxon dialect) with religious
subject matter about three girls, Katherine,
Margaret, and Juliana, who talk about being Virgin,
its advantages and fruit after death.
3. 'Ancren Riwle/ Wisse' (Prick of conscience)__
Anonymously written Ancren Riwle means 'a guide
for anchoresses', written in East Middle English.
Like Katherine Group, this book is also about

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religion and female characters address to women
population who wanted to spend a saintly life.
4. 'History Of The Kings Of Britain' written by
Geoffery Of Monmouth'__ A historical book,
originally called 'De Gestis Britonum' (On the
deeds of Britain), a pseudohistorical account of
British history written around 1136.
5. 'Orm's Ormulum'__ A poetic prose, that didn't
exist in Anglo-Saxon period and even new in
Anglo-Norman's. It tells the explanation of Bible in
English language. Ormulum was the very first man
who wrote some sort of interpretation on Bible, yet
it was not a complete translation.
6. Richard Rolle__ English hermist, mystic, and
religious writer. He translated 'Bible'.

THE AGE OF CHAUCER (1340-1400)

☆ Socio- Political and Historical Background.
▪ The period between 1340 to 1400 is known as the
age of Chaucer. It is the first significant Literary

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Age in history of England and heralded a dawn of
learning. Chaucer's age is witnessed of many
social, political, and religious challenges.
1. The Religious Corruption, as church which
had previously been a citadel of moral authority,
social prestige, now suffered from corruption,
turpitude (moral downfall), and superstitions, so a
strong dislike was there for Papal or church.
2. The Hundred Years' War, a series of conflicts
(from 1337 to1453) between France and England
over the right to rule the kingdom of France. There
were strong nationalistic passions due to this war.
3. The Peasants Revolt or Walter Taylor
Rebellion, A rebellion broke away in Kent under
the leadership of Walter Taylor against the King
who was not ready to give concessions in taxes,
the landlords, Barons were corrupt and the due
right of farmers was denied to them.
4. The Black Death, a plague that swept away
more than one third of the entire population, which
effected various social dynamics like limiting
labours and employable bodies.
5. Besides, there was a movement for the religious
reformation, started by John Wycliff against
Catholic Church and its corruption called Lollard

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Movement. (a movement to decrease chuch's
dominancy, and common people could get some
rights). So the middle class also emerged as a
strong social stratum and church's control over
temporal affairs of common men was challenged
during this period.
▪ All of this represented a Transition because of
the steps: 1. From French towards English, 2.
From Feudal social setup towards a free society, 3.
Towards social and religious reformation, 4. From
mediavalism towards modernism. So the entire
age is also called the Age of Transition.
▪ To sum up, It was the period of great social and
intellectual movements as well as poverty, unrest,
and revolt. It had the plague called Black Death as
well as the growth of the scientific temper and
inquiry. It had great criticism on the church as well
as the celebrity of commoners. This age is often
regardeded as ' the Precursor to the Renaissance
Movement'.
☆ Literary Characteristics.
▪ The age saw the emergence of Standard English
Language. (It was the biggest development of the
age as English had previously been curbed by the
influence of French and Latin).

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▪ The East Midland dialect became the accepted
form of Standardized English. (The language of
capital city and universities, and masterpieces of
Chaucer.)
▪ French and Latin saw a waning influence on the
language of the day.
▪ There was a sharper spirit of criticism, and
renewed interest in common man's affairs.
▪ The Drama took the prominent stage and the
dominance of Historical Fables and Romance Of
Mediaval Age was eschewed for more humanistic
themes.
▪ There was a mild satirical work with irony and
humor, used as a technique for criticism.
▪ The real gift of this age was the Heroic Couplet
Chaucer introduced into English Verse, whose
example is the famous Canturbury Tales.
▪ The literature of this age reflects five famous
poets: Langland, Vycliff, Gower, Mendeville, and
Chaucer.
☆ Prose.
▪ The age of Chaucer begins the foundation of an
English Prose style.
▪ Prose writings were both Original and Individual.

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▪ There were Experimental works like 'King Arthur'
by Thomas Mallory and the formation of Allegory
refined in this age.
▪ There was the return of 'Alliteration' which had
been previously replace with 'Rhymes' in Anglo-
Norman age or after French influence.
▪ Latin and French were losing grip as popular
prose mediums and growing desire for an English
Bible exercised as steady pressure in favor of
Standard English prose.
☆ Prose writers and their works.
1. Jeoffery Chaucer (1340- 1400): The author
and greatest English Poet of the Middle Ages,
called the Father Of English Literature and Father
Of English Poetry (as his personality was wholely
spreading over the world during his age). He was
the first to start writing HEROIC COUPLET and the
first writer who burried in Poets' Corner of
Westminister Abbey.
▪ He wrote three categories of Prose. 1. French, 2.
Italian, and 3. English, which we divide into two
categories, Original and Translated.
▪ 'Canturbury Tales'__ a POETIC PROSE written
as a Heroic Couplet. It is an immense work of 128
tales, covers the whole life of England through 32
characters. (A cycle of linked tales told by a group

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of pilgrims who meet in a London tavern before
their pilgrimage to the shrine of st. Thomas a
Becket in Canterbury).
▪ 'Boece'__ a translation of 'Consolation of
Boethius Philosophies' of BEDE, first translated
by King Alfred and later by Chaucer. (Its simple
Description is already mentioned above).
▪ 'Parson's Tale and The Tale of Melibe'__ a
tale into Canterbury Tales.
▪ 'Treatise On Astrolable'__ A scientific work, a
medieval instructional manual on Astrolable by
Jeoffery Chaucer. It is an original work by him,
stands out as a prose technical work from a writer
better known for poetry and describes both the
form and proper use of instrument and written in
English rather than the more typical Latin.
2. John Wycliff (1328- 1384) : A Prose writer,
English Scholastic, Philosopher, Theologian,
Priest, Reformer, and First Translator of English
Bible. He was the leader of LOLLARD MOVEMENT
of religious reformation and called the Morning
Star of reformation.
▪ His most prominent and notable work is his
translation that he translated directly from Vulgate

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into Middle English, a version of itis now known as
Wycliff's Bible.
3. John Mendeville (1300-1371): A prose writer
of Chaucer's age and a supposed author of 'THE
VOYAGE AND TRAVELS OF SIR JOHN
MENDEVILLE' generally known as 'The Travels
Of Sir John Mendeville'. (...). The work acquired
extraordinary popularity by the aid of translations
into many languages.
4. John Of Travisa (1342-1402): He wasn't an
Original writer but was a Diligent Translator of
Latin works into English. He also credited by
Caxton with a translation of the Bible.
▪ His notable work is the translation of 'Higgins
Polychronicon' (Later published in a revised form
by Caxton and some others).
His other works include: 'A Dialogue on
Tanslation Between a Lord and a Clerk'.
▪ A translation of Bartholomew de Glanville, 'De
Proprietatibus Rerum'.
▪ Translation of a sermon by Richard Fitz against
Mendicant Friars.

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 THE BARREN AGE (1400-1485)

☆ Socio- Political and Historical Background.

▪ Barren Age started after the death of Chaucer in
1400. The Fifteenth Century England was not the
Age Of Great Men because of the top unfavorable
conditions. Following were the chief causes of
Barren age to remain barren.
▪ War Of Roses, a thirty years' bloody struggle for
power between two royal classes, the Houses of
York (represented by white rose) and Lancaster
(red rose), both descended from Edward III. In this
war, many of the nobles were killed and the old
order of feudalism severely shaken at its fo....
Many poets and learned, wise people died. The
renaissance was flourished and left its effects on
all over Europe except England because of the
wars.
▪ The standard of education was very low. Schools
and colleges were not to come in existence
(because of being in process for the new), only the
primary school was established.
▪ The period was of vast political and religious
changes. The old political and social order was

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changing yielding place to the new. The PRINTING
PRESS was introduced by Caxton, colleges and
universities were coming to be established and
Greek ideals and culture found a rapid ground for
development.
☆ Literary Characteristics.
▪ In this age, there was no special improvement in
English Literature, so the age is called Barren.
▪ Because of vast tumoil of social, political
changes, there was a disruption to literary
development of this age, and if some literature was
written but it did not become very famous.
▪ Although some artificial poets were produced but
their works remained artificial and poor
immitations that could not effect the natural minds.
The followers of Chaucer could not carry the
traditions of their master with acute sences so
there was also a steep decline in real poetry.
☆ PROSE.
▪ The fifteenth century society was much
entangled into war and other activities. This was
the emergency period for literature, but exception
might be made of Prose which were only scattered.
▪ More good work was being done in Prose than in
Verse. Some of the prose works and writers are

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prominent of this age.
☆ Prose Writers And Their Works.
1. Regiland Peacock: He was an English Prelate,
Scholastic, Bishop of Chichester and a Writer. His
well known works include:
▪ 'Repressor Of Overmuch Blaming Of Clergy',
in the defence of church, written in 1449 as an
argument against Lollard Movement. (Peacock
recounts the attacks made by Lollard Reformers
and provides well composed answers to them).
▪ 'Boke Of Faith', (A fifteenth century theological
tractate, written in 1456).
2. Thomas Malory: An English writer, whose
actual identity remains uncertain but best known
as an Author of:
▪ Le Morte d'Arthur (Morted Arthur), published in
1485 by William Caxton. It is the classic English
language chronicle of the Arthurian Legend, (the
legendary of King Arthur, Guinevere, Lancelort,
Merlin, and The Knights Of The Round Table). The
actual title of this book was, 'The Whole Book Of
King Arthur And Of His Noble Knights Of The
Round Table', which later was changed by the
publisher.
3. Berner: Berner was a soldier statesman and a

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translator. Many of his works are famous but his
most famous work is
▪ 'Marcus Aurilius'. (A translation of 'meditations
by Marcus Aurilius', 1554).
4. William Caxton: An English merchant, diplomat
and writer, best known for the 'Caxton Printing
Press' (as it was the first English Printing Press,
he as a translator and a publisher exerted an
important influence on English Literature). His
notable works include following translations:
▪ 'The Recuyell Of The Historyes Of Troye'
(1464).
▪ 'Dictis And Sayenges Of The Phosophers'
5. John Fortescue: Chief Justice of King's bench
and a political prose writer. His significant works
include :
▪ 'De Laudibud Legum Angliae', (commendation
of the laws of England, first published in 1543).
▪ 'Difference Between Absolute And Limited
Monarchy', (Provides the first discussion of
political and conceptual underpinnings of the
common law, besides, commenting on England's
constutional framework).

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 THE TUDOR'S AGE. (1485-1603)
☆ Socio-Political and Historical Background.
▪ The War Of Roses ended in 1485 and Henry VII
(Henry Tudor) won the Battle of Bosworth and
gained the throne of England.
▪ The Tudor Period occured between 1485 and
1603, (starts From the reign of Henry VII, the first
Tudor monarch until the death of Elizabeth I, the
daughter of Henry VIII). The age is known by
sevaral names as Golden Age, Elizabethan Age,
Shakespeare's Age, Reformation, and
Renaissance. According to historians, the Great
Theme of Tudor History was the Reformation, the
transformation of England from Catholism to
Protestantism.
▪ England was a Catholic nation until Henry VII's
reign. After Henry VIII came to the throne, he (in
1532) wanted a second marriage. When It was
annuled by Catherine of Aragon (the first wife of
Henry VIII) and then the Pope refused to consent to
the annulment, Henry VIII decided to separate the
entire country from Roman Catholic Church, he
broke up with Papacy and Catholism and
converted England to Protestantism. Then married
Anne Bolyen and got two kids, whom we call
Edward VI and Elizabeth I. After Henry VIII, his son

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Edward VI and then elder daughter (daughter of
Catherine) Queen Mary I ruled for a short reign,
(Edward soon died and Queen Mary owned
catholism, she burned 300 protestants under the
label of Bloody Mary) then the crown shifted to
Queen Elizabeth I, the last daughter of Henry VIII
who ruled until 1603.
▪ Spanish Armanda: An enormous 130 ship naval
fleet dispatched by Habsburg Spain in 1588 as part
of a planned invasion of England. (As for many, it
was the execution of Mary I after she married
Phillip of Spain, that caused the Armanda to be
launched as some form of revenge against
England and Elizabeth, the simple aim was to
replace Elizabeth and restore Catholism back in
England under a new Catholic monarch).
▪ Elizabethan period was the time of great
experimentations and discoveries. In 1492 America
discovered, and in 1498, sea route to India was
discovered by Vasco De Gamma.
▪ After reformation, church was made separated
from the state and people were free from any
interfarence into their social or religion affairs.
▪ After reformation there was renewed spirit into
the nation, there was a rise of education, rate of
literacy increased, people came to know other

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things else than religion, their mind changed from
religious to earthly spirits. They learned to do
things, they started visiting and writing to those
stories.
▪ Church was remained no more powerful.
☆ Literary Characteristics.
▪ The main characteristics of Elizabethan literature
or Renaissance are Humanism, Reformation, New
Discoveries, Printing and Education, Nationalism,
Material advancement, Secularism, and Revival of
interest in Greek and Latin Literature.
▪ This was the period of great literary creativity and
prolific writing. The work included a variety of
prose and verse. The platonic idealism and
romance was dominated all types of literature
including drama and plays that were of great
importance that time.
▪ The great experimentations and discoveries
became the topics of prose and dramas. Science,
theology and Geography were the topics of poetry
and general literature.
▪ Literature in Elizabethan age was heavily
influenced by that of Italy and to some extent, of
Spain and France.
▪ Authors in this era came from all the classes.

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Some of the most famous and profilic writers
ofthis period include Sir Phillip Sydney, Admund
Spenser, Roger Ascham, Richard Hooker,
Christopher Marlowe, and William Sakespeare.
▪ The Movement of Humanism and the
development of Poetry is a strong characteristic of
this age.
☆ PROSE.
▪ The prose of Elizabethan age was of two types.
1. Fictional Prose (include romances, short stories
or novels).
2. Non- Fictional Prose (include translations of
Bible, travel, historical and religeous writings,
essays and literary criticm as written by Richard
Hooker and Bacon.
▪The religious prose was very short, original
religious prose work was not being written yet
Translations survived dominantly.
▪ The prose on Humanism was very rich in the age.
There was secular liberal and historical prose, and
descriptive, narrative style of prose. The Poetic-
Prose was also famous in the age.
▪ There was Literary Criticism and Essays which
introduced for the very first time in Elizabethan
Age.

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☆ Prose Writers And Their Works.
1. Thomas More (1476-1536): An imaginary
fictional writer, wrote the most famous prose work,
▪ "UTOPIA" Originally written in Latin in 1516,
later translated in English by Ralph Robinson in
1551. (Thomas was first to write UTOPIA, a word
used to describe a perfect World Of Imagination. It
imagines a complex, self contained, community
set on an island in which people share a common
culture and way of life. It is the concept of
communism and Plato's thought based with a
theme of ideal Equality in men and is against of
inheritation, feudalism, land ownership and
elements which cause inequality in a state).
2. Stephen Glosson: A prose writer of
Elizabethan age, who wrote
▪ "School For Abuse" in 1579. (a prose work
against poetry. Stephen in his work applies the
same charges against the poetry which previously
were applied by Plato).
3. Philip Sydney: He is a Soldier, poet, critic,
prose writer and diplomat, a most prominent figure
of the Elizabethan age. His Signifiacant work
include,
▪ "Apology For Poetry": an answer to Stephen

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Glosson for his SCHOOL FOR ABUSE, ( The very
first work of Literary Criticism in English, written in
the defence of Poetry and first published in 1595
after his death).
▪ "Arcadia": a heroic prose romance.
4. John Lyly: He was one of the UNIVERSITY
WITS, and an English writer, poet, dramatist and
coutier. He wrote the best known prose works:
▪ "Euphues: The Anatomy Of Wit" (1571).
▪ "Euphues And Hid England" (1581).
(both the book are same, dialogues based without
any action, in form of a type of discussion between
characters during travel about different things. The
books are based on very intelligent work, ful of
philosophy, wisdom, figures of speech and tough
vocabulary).
5. Roger Ascham (1515- 1568): An English
scholar and didactic writer, famous for his prose
style. His notable prose works are:
▪ "School Master": Presents an effective method
of teaching Latin Prose composition but its largers
concerns are with psychology of learning, the
education of whole person, and the ideal, moral,
and intellectual personality that the education
should mold.

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▪ "Toxophilus": a book about longbow archery,
first published in 1545, dedicated to king Henry
VIII. It is the first book on archery in English.
6. Robert Burton: An English scholar at Oxford
University and best known for the Classic
▪ "Anatomy Of Melancholy": Published in 1621,
originally regarded as a medical textbook on the
subject of Melancholia (Clinical Depression).
7. Thomas Nash: He was a Playright, Poet,
Satirist, prose writer, and a significant
Pumpheteer, also one of the University wits. His
best known works are:
▪ "Unfortunate Traveller".
▪ "Adventures Of Jack Witson".
8. Walter Releigh: a writer, poet, soldier,
politicuan, cortier, spy and explorer, considered in
both Elizabethan and Jacobean age. His famous
work is:
▪ "History Of The World" published in 1614.
8. "FRANCIS BACON'S "Essays" (1597)
9. RICHARD HOOKER'S "Ecclesiastical Politie"
(1594-97)
10. WILLIAM TYNDALE'S New English Testament

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"English Bible Of Miles Coverdale" (1539).
11. FOXE' "Acts And Monuments" or "Book Of
Martyrs" (1563)
12. WILLIAM WEBBE'S "Discourse Of English
Poetrie" (1586)
13. GEORGE PUTTENHAM'S "Art Of English
Poesie" (1589).

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 THE JACOBEAN ERA (1603-1625) and THE
AGE OF MILTON (1625-1660) Comprising
Caroline Era (1625-1649) and Common Wealth
(1649-1660).

☆ The Jacobean Era (1603-1625):

▪ Jacobean era refers to a period in English and
Scottish history that coincides with the reign of
King James IV of scotland inherited the crown of
England in 1603 as James I, after the death of
Queen Elizabeth I in 1603. The period specifically
denotes the style of Architecture, Visual Arts,
Decorative Arts, and Literature that is
predominantin that period.
☆ Caroline Era (1625-1649):
▪ The caroline era of English literature coincides
with the reign of Charles I. (Reigned 1625-1649).
The age CAROLINE was named after Charles I,
Caroline is an adjective of Carolus, the Latin word
for Charles. The Age of Caroline is an Age Of
Poetry of three kinds of schools : Mataphysical,
Cavalier, and Puritan School of Poetry.
☆ Common Wealth (Puritan's rule as a
Republic,1649-1660):

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▪ The common wealth of England was the
Republican Government which first ruled England
and then Ireland and Scotland after the execution
of Charles I in 1649 until the restoration of Charle II
in 1660. The country was governed by the
parliament under the direction of Puritan General
Oliver Cromwell. This period is also called 'The
Puritan Interregnum'.
☆ The Age Of Milton (1625-1660):
▪ The age of Milton starts from the accession of
Charles I to the throne in 1625. The reign of
Charles I (1625-1649) is politically called Caroline
Era.The
Era. principal feature of Milton's age is the
growth of Puritanism as a moral and social force.
The descendants of Wycliff and Lollards
advocated very strict views concerning life and
conduct and were called PURITANS.
☆ Socio-Political and Historical Background.
▪ Gunpowder Plot (1605): The most noteworthy
event of James's reign is GUN POWDER PLOT
occured on November 5, 1605. (A group of English
Catholics attempted to blow up the king and the
parliament in the palace of Westminister. It had
proved a failed attempt. The GUNPOWDER Plot
was one of the series of unsuccessful
assassination attempts against James I. Many

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believe the Gunpowder plot to have been part of
the Counter Reformation.
▪ Rise Of Puritanism: A religious reformation
movement that began in England during Caroline
Era or Milton's age. The rise of Puritanism under
Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell, got a great
significance who became a political as well as
social force.
▪ English Civil War (1642-1659): A series of Civil
Wars and political machinations between
Parliamentarians (Roundheads) and Royalists
(Cavaliers) principally over the manner of England
Governance, stemmed from the conflict between
Charles I and the parliament. The second phase
ended with Charles' defeat at the battle of Preston
and his subsequent execution in 1649. (where the
Puritan Government started as a republican
government until 1660).
☆ Literary Characteristics.
▪ The Jacobean Age English Literature became
sophisticated, sombre and concious of social
abuse and rivalry. The jacobean age produced rich
prose and drama. The notable writers of this age
are Shakespeare, Johnson, John Donne, Francis
Bacon, and Thomas Middleton.

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▪ The writers of Caroline age wrote with refinement
and elegance. This era produced a circle of poets
known as "Cavalier Poets".
▪ The Commonwealth period English Literature
produced the political writings of John Milton,
Thomas Hobbes and the prose of Andrew Marwell.
☆ Prose, Writers And Their Works.
▪ In Caroline prose writers' style, the characteristic
tone and manner of our modern prose is found.
The prominent writings of Jacobean and Milton's
age are:
▪ RICHARD HOOKER: "An authorized Version Of
English Bible" or "King James' Bible".
▪ FRANCIS BACON "Essays" (continued from
elizabethan age with more quantity of essays in
other editions).
▪ FRANCIS' "History Of The Reign Of Henry VII"
(charts the reign of first Tudor monarch Henry VII,
published in 1622).
▪ JERMEY TAYLOR (1613-1667): "Holy Living
and the Holy Dying ".
▪ RICHARD BAXTER (1615-1691): "The Saints'
Everlasting Rest".

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▪ THOMAS FULLER (1608-1661): "Worthies Of
England". (A delightful miscellaneous).
▪ SIR THOMAS BROWNE: "Religio Medici" (The
religion of a doctor) published 1642.
▪IZAAK WALTON (1593-1683): "Compleat
Angler" or "Contemplative Man's Recreation"
(Designed for the instruction of fishermen in a
ghossipy style). He also wrote some biographies.
▪ EDWARD HYDE (1609-1674): "History Of The
Great Rebellion".
▪ THOMAS HOBBES (1588-1679): "The
Leviathan". (Leviathan or The Matter, Forme, and
Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiastical and
Civil).

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 THE AGE OF RESTORATION (1660-1700)
"The Dryden's Age".

☆ Socio-Political and Historical Background.

▪The age of Dryden begins with the resoration of
Charles II in 1660 until the death of the poet in
1700. The age of Dryden was deeply influenced by
three historical events.
1.Restoration of Charles II in 1660: With The
restoration of Charles II, the age saw an increased
corruption and violent reaction agaist Puritan
restraints. (Puritan's values of society were
violated. The king was very odd, irresponsible and
unpatriotic who always stood against his
promises. Court was dishonorable and parliament
was dishonest, even he judiciary was not safe.
2. Religious, Political Controversies: There
were two central political parties, Whigs and
Tories. Whigs were in the favour of limiting royal
powers in the interest of Parliament, while Tories
supported the Divine Right Theory of the king. The
nation was dominanly protestant and Catholics
worked under a number of disabilities, they had to
pay higher taxes and weren't permitted to hold any
office under the crown.

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3. Popish Plot And The Glorious revolution of
1688: Popish plot was a plan made for excluding
James II (brother of Charles II), and create an
atmosphere to sit for the Duke of Monmouth, (an
illegitimate son of Charles II). But king supported
his brother and the way was clear for James II.
Later with his accession, James II hiddenly started
trying to make Catholicism established. This soon
made the nation stood against him. In 1688 James
II dethroned without any other controversies. This
event is called Golden or Glorious Revolution
that the throne shifted without any bloodfall which
restored the country after a huge sufferings.
▪ After James exiled, the protestant William and
Mary sat on the throne.
☆ Literary Characteristics.
▪ In literature, this age is called Neoclassical,
Pseudo classical or Augustan age. Neo classical
because, as literature is concerned, the restoration
marked a complete break with the past. The pre-
restoration literature was Elizabethan Romanticism
where this peiod's literature stood totally against
of it.
▪ With the restoration of Charles II, the language
atmosphere was changed, the french influence
overspreaded the Italian influence which was

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dominant in Elizabethan era.
▪ French influence showed itself in English
literature until next century. This influence was
also the cause of Opera in restoration age.
☆ Prose.
▪ The prose of the period was modern, advanced,
and prosaic unlike the shakespeare's age which
was poetic-prose.
▪ According to Methew Arnold, Restoration era
gave actual birth to modern prose (probably
through Dryden and his contemporaries).
▪ Prose before restoration was ful of Complexity,
involvedness, diffusion, and prolixity while modern
prose of restoration was simple concised and free
of any unnecessary ornamentation.
▪ The previous prose was ful of Latin words and
phrases, parenthesis, Latin idioms even they used
Italics which made the writings very tough like
Burton's and Browne's. Modern prose discouraged
this complexity of Diction and style and went
through De-Latinization.
▪ Simply the restoration literature went through the
Transition, from exageration to simplicity, and
from antiquity of language to modern and
standerized English.

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☆ Prose Writers and their works.
1. John Dryden: He was a Critic, Satirist,
Dramatist, Prose writer, Playwrite and a Poet, was
a dominant figure of the age who nicely
represented his period. He is called the Father of
Literary Criticism. His best known Prose works
are:
▪ Essay On Dramatic Poesy: A Materpiece,
drama in blank verse, in Poetic-Prose, about four
characterswho talk about different literary ideas.
Dryden, being a critic, talks in defence of English
writings in the book.
His other famous Prose works are:
▪ The Aeneid: a best produced translation of
Virgil's book.
▪ 'The Fables': Translation, Story in Verse Form.
2. John Banyan: He was a parliamentarian and a
Prose writer held a religious personality. He wrote
Alligory in Prose for the first time in English
literature. His most famous works are:
▪ Pilgrim's Progress. (Kind of like Milton's
Paradise Lost, hold up the subject of leading men
into God's ways).
▪ Grace Abounding. (Banyan's Puritan
spritualautobiography).

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▪ The Life And Death Of Mr. Badman. (Designed
as a companion to the Pilgrim's Progress).
▪ The Holy War. (A novel in Allegoric form, about
the story of a town 'Mansoul').
3. Other Prose writers of the Restoration age
include: John Evelyn, Samuel Butler, John
Locke, and Thomas Hobbes.

18th CENTURY.

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 "The Age Of The POPE (1688-1745) and The
Age Of JOHNSON (1745-1798)".

▪ Following the Restoration period of 1660-1700,

18th century is counted as a remarkable period in
English history . The first half of the period is
called The Age Of Pope (1688-1745) and the
second half is called The Age Of Johnson (1745-
1798), for their most significant role in history of
English literature. Besides, 18th century is
specifically famous as the Age Of Enlightenment
and Age Of Reason or Senses.
Senses It is also called
Neo-Classical, Pseudo-Classical or Augustan Age.
▪ The early 18th century, Britain was ruled by last
Stuart monarch Queen Anne (succeeding William
II), then, by the Act Of Settlement in 1701, three
kings JEORGE I, JEORGE II AND JEORGE III of the
German House Of Hanover respectively assumed
the English Throne.
▪ 18th century marks many significant events in
the history of England.
¤ In 1704, the Battle of Blenheim (a combined
Dutch and English army defeated France and
Bavaria) held.

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¤ In 1707, The Act Of Union was passed. Scotland
was united with England and Wales. England
became the part of Great Britain, as the Kingdom
Of Great Britain.
¤ By 1714 George I succeded Queen Anne after her
death and in 1727, George I died shifting throne to
George II.
¤ James Bradely the astronomer first calculated
the speed of light In 1728, later in 1746 the 'Battle
of Cullodin' was fought and In 1756, France and
British Seven years war began.
¤ The British Museum found in 1759.
¤ George III succeeded his father George II by
1760.
¤ In 1778 world's first Iron Bridge was built, the
Planet Uranus first discovered by William Herschel
in 1781 and first called George's Star.
¤ In 1788 the first edition of TIMES published and
In 1793 Britain went on war to France.
▪ Besides, this period saw the great Movement of
'Reason and Logic', and 'Realism' remained the
main feature of the age.
▪ Other main events include, the American
Revolution (1765-1783) and the first Industrial
Revolution started from 1760.

Page 42 of 60
☆ Literary Characteristics.
▪ In literature the rational linking promoted Satire,
Argument, Intellectual, Simple Prose, Novel and
the Poetry.
▪ It was the time of evolution of Novel. Novel was
established as a major art form in English
literature, partly by the Rational Realism and partly
by Psychological Probing of novel.
▪ In France the major characteristic of the period
lies in the Philosophical and political writings of
enlightment which had a dark influence throughout
the rest Europe and foreshadowed the French
Revolution. (Slideshare.net)
▪ Another main feature of the age is Realism.
Writer went through high rational writings
alongwith the political and religious Controversies.
The age was called Neo-Classical or The Age of
Reason because of Rational thoughts and
thinkings of people intensely focused on Reasons
and Logics.
▪ It was the great age for English Prose. The Prose
of the age is richer, surplus and interesting than
the Verse.
▪ Also there was flawed imitation of classical
masters by some writers, this was also the reason
if the period called Augustan age, the name came

Page 43 of 60
from the self concious imitation of original
Augustan Writers like Virgil and Horace.
☆ Prose.
The 18th century was a great period for English
Prose. Methew Arnold called it "The age of Prose
and Reason".
▪ It was simple and modern, and totally changed
from the writings of Milton and Thomas Browne.
Practicality and Reason ruled supreme in prose
and determined its style.
▪ In the 18th century literature history, we come
across for the first time, a really huge mass of
Pamphlets, Journals, Booklets and Magazines. The
whole activity of life of the 18th century is
embodied in the works of literary critics,
Economists, Letter-Writers,
Letter-Writers Essayists,
Philosophers, historians, scientists, biographers,
politicians, and divines.
▪ A thing of particular importance in this century is
the introduction of two New Prose Genres in
English literature, 'The Novel' and 'The Periodical
Paper', some of the best prose of the age is found
in its novels and periodical Essays.
☆ Prose Writers And Their Works.

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1. Danial Defoe: He was the English journalist,
pamphleteer, spy, a trader and the most copious
writer of 18th century. His Non-fiction prose
consists a large number of Pamphlets and a
wonderful bulk of miscellaneous writings. The best
known among his prose is:
▪ 'Robinsin Crusoe'.
▪ 'Moll Flanders' and 'ROXANA'. (Fiction works).
▪ 'The Review'. (A tri-weekly periodical, he started
in 1704 and continued upto 1713).
2. John Arbuthnot: He was a physician and a
close associate of Swift and Pope. He wrote the
most famous political satires England had
produced.
▪'History Of John Bull' (1712).
▪'A Short History Of English Literature'. (an
allegorical satire in the words of Lagouis).
3. Jonathan Swift: He was a Poet, Essayist,
Political Pampheteer and a great Prose Satirist of
England, dominated the first half of the 18th
century as Dr. Johnson did the second. He wrote
many things and contributed in The Tatler, The
Examminer, The Spectator and The intelligencer
(The famous periodicals). Besides he wrote a large

Page 45 of 60
number of satires, of which the most important
are:
▪ 'The Battle Of The Books'.
▪ 'The Tale Of The Tub'(1704).
▪ 'Gulliver's Travels' (1726).
His other famous prose include:
▪ 'An Argument Against Abolishing Cristianity'
(1712).
▪ 'A Modest Proposal' (1729).
4. Addison and Steele: Addison perfected
Periodical Journal which was INVENTED by Steele
with The Tatler in 1709. Addison and Steele
collaborated with each other in The Spectator
launched in 1713 after 'The Tatler' had been wound
up. The periodical paper was extremely suited to
the temper and conditions of 18th century. They
also popularized Phylosophy. Addison with his
Paper on "Paradise Lost" and "The old ballad of
Chevy Chase did a single service to literary
Criticism.
5. Dr. Samuel Johnson: As a Prose writer, he is
best known for his Dictionary (first English
Dictionary) and Periodical Papers. Also he is best
known for:

Page 46 of 60
▪ 'Rassalas, Prince of Abyssinia'. (A
philosophical Tale).
▪ ' Lives Of Poets'. (A critical work on poets and
their works).
6. Adam Smith: He was called the Father Of
Political Economy. His long fame works is:
▪ 'Wealth Of Nations' (1776).
7. James Bowel: Wrote the biography of his idol
Dr. Johnson, which caused a great fame to him.
▪ 'The Life Of Johnson'.
8. Edward Gibbon: He wrote the monumental,
one of the best Histographies of the age.
▪ 'The Rise And Fall Of The Roman Empire.'
9. George Berkeley and David Hume were the
great Philosophers of 18th century.
10. Edmund Burke: He was the greatest Orator
of the age. His works concerning the Indian and
American affairs and the French Revolution are
couched in brilliant and rhetorical prose.
11. Oliver Goldsmith: He was an Irish novelist
playwrite and poet, the most famous literary figure
of 18th century. He made surplus contributions in
poerty, plays and prose including contribution in

Page 47 of 60
different journals and best known for his two prose
works:
▪ 'The Citizen Of The World' or 'Letters From A
Chinese Philosopher' (1762).
▪ 'The Vicar Of A Wakefield' (A Tale, 1776).
12. Richardson's novels "Pamela" and
'Clarrissa Halowe' (Masterpiece).
13. Henry Fielding's "Joseph Andrew" ( a kind
of sattire on Pamela), "Tom Jones" (comic and an
amoral novel about a boy Tom), and "The History
Of Jonathan Wild, The Great" (deals with the life
of real notorious criminal).
14. Laurence Sterner's famous novel "Tritsram
Shandy".
15. Horace Walpole's Gothic novel or the Novel
of Terror "The Castle Of Otranto" 1764 (a novel
about mediaval age).
16. Mrs Ann Redcliff's (she was most popular
novelist of the novels of terror in that age. Her
great novels include
"The Mysteries Of Adolpho" (1794), "Romance
Of The Forest And The Italian", "A Sicilian
Romance" (1790), and "An Italian
Romance"(1791).

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 19th Century.
THE AGE OF WORDSWORTH (1798-1832)
"THE ROMANTIC AGE"

☆ Socio-Plitical and Historical Background.

▪ It was the time when Jeorge III was king of
England. The age begins with the publications of
Wordsworth and Samuel Coleridge's Lyrical Ballad
in 1798 and it ends with the accesion of queen
Victoria in 1837.
▪ Romantic Movement: an artistic, literary and
intellectual movement partly a reaction to the
industrial revolution. (Slideshare.net)
▪ Industrial revolution: The age saw the great
Industrial Revolution. The first phase of this was
about 1750 to 1850. Coal and steam engines were
driving force. Major changes were being done in
agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation,
and technology. England emerged as the most
industrialized nation which led the social unrest
among the working class.
▪ French Revolution, (began in 1789, a battle to
achieve equality and remove all types of
operations) sowed seeds of revolutionary zeal and
enthusiasm in England.

Page 49 of 60
▪ It was the age of Romaniticism, emobied strongly
in visual arts, music, and literature and was
associated with liberalism and radicalism.
Romaticism coincided with the revolution in
France and America hence is also known the age
of Revolution.
☆ Literary Characteristics.
▪ The main literary feature of the period is
Romanticism. German poet Fedrick Schegel used
the term ROMANTIC for the first time, he defined it
as 'Literature Depicting Emotional Matter In An
Imaginative Form'.
▪ The romantic period came after the Age Of
Enlightment which really had a focus on logic,
reason and science, and the Romantic Period is
completely against of it, as in its literature we see
an emphasis on Emotions, Imagination and
intuitions- Humanity that is beyond any reasoning.
▪ So it is a shift from the structured, rational,
reasoned approach NEO-CLASSICAL age to the
imagination, freedom of thought, and an
idealization of nature based ROMANTIC age.
▪ Hence the common literary features of this age
are that of Romanticism, as idealistic imagination,
personal freedom, supernatural elements, interest
in past, primitive and mediaval (as roman greek

Page 50 of 60
elements), celebration of simple life, love if nature,
love of countryside life and interest in folk
traditions and usage of common language and
melancholia.
☆ Prose.
▪ The Romantic period also gifted a few good
prose writers although there is no comparision of
Poetry of the age with that of the prose, the poetry
is far more richer in the age as compared to the
1700s neo classical's.
▪ As with the coming of Wordsworth we see the
revival of Romanticism, the age prose also contain
all the elements of romanticism regarding
revolutionary ideas, humanitarianism, and
transcendentalism. ItI is also the age of Poetic
Prose.
☆ Prose Writers And Their Works.
1.Charles Lambs: The English Essay was given
same kind of turn by him as Wordsworth gave to
English Poetry, though he concentrated on
emotions unlike the essayists of neo classical age.
His important essays are:
▪ 'Crist's Hospital Five-And-Thirty Years Ago'.
(Lamb's Essay, explores childhood, an account of
his school life.)

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▪ 'The Two Races Of Man': About borrowers and
lenders, lamb warns against lending books in it.
▪ 'New Year's Eve': Essay in which Lamb
reflected upon man's mortality.
▪ 'MyRelations': Contains Lamb's recollection of
some of his relations.
2. William Hazlitt: He was both Essayist and Critic
and his Prose writings were more famous than his
Essays. His best known work is:
▪ 'The Spirit Of The Age' or 'Contemporary
Portraits'. (About contemporary literary and
political figures).
3.Thomas De Quincey:
English Essayist, translated German ideas for his
age. He is best known for:
▪ 'Confessions Of An Opium Eater': An
autobiographical account of his about his
laudanum addiction and its effects on his life.
▪ 'The English Mail-Couch': (Essay, three part
masterpiece).
4. Jane Austin: She was a great novelist of the
age. Her major works are:
▪ 'Sence Of Sensibility'.

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▪ 'Pride And Prejudice': A romantic novel of
manners, follow the character development of
Elizabeth bennet, the dynamic protagonist of the
book.
▪ 'Emma': Follows the antics of a young woman
Emma Woodhouse.
▪ 'Persuasion': Story about Anne Elliot, a 27 years
woman whose family is moving to lower their
expenses and get put of debt, published in 1817.

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 THE VICTORIAN ERA. (1837-1901)
▪ Victorian era corresponds the reign of Queen
Victoria from1837 to 1901 and this is the second
longest era of English monarch. Queen Victoria
ascended the throne at the age of 18, following the
death of her uncle William IV.
▪ Her rule saw the country serving as the world's
biggest empire with one-fourth of the global
population owning allegiance to the Queen.
(History.com)
▪ Hence briefly describing the chief characteristics
of Victorian era, it was the time of:
¤ World's first industrial revolution.
¤ Dominancy of British manufacturing, progress in
trade and financial sector and enormous growth of
Population.
¤ The new education, educational opportunities for
women.
¤ Political reform, and Social change,
¤ CHARLES DICKENS and CHARLES DARWIN.
¤ Manufacturing of a railway boom (a rail network
begun in 1830's, was largely completed by 1870's).
¤ The first telephone and telegraph.

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¤ Demise of rural life (people significantly shifted
from countyside to the towns and so cities rapidly
grew and expanded)
¤ Long and regimented factory hours.
¤ The start of Crimean War, and Jack The
Ripper.
▪ The period is also called 'The Age Of
Compromise'.
▪ According to William J. Long, it was 'The modern
period of Progress and Unrest'.
☆ Literary Characteristics.
▪ After the revival of Romanticism, the literature of
victorian era entered a new period. As it preceded
by romanticism and followed by modernism or
realism, so it is better to be called 'a fusion of
romantic and realist style of writing'.
▪ The age was a blessing for both Prose and Poetry
as it produced great poets and excellent prose.
The discoveries of science also effected upon the
literature of the age.
▪ Literature of the age seems closer to daily life
and reflects practical problems and interests.
Various reform movements of the time like child
labor, women's rights, education, evolution also
blended the literature.

Page 55 of 60
▪ The Victorian literature seems to 'deny' the "Arts
for art's sake" as it does asserts 'Moral Purpose'
which is against of this famous slogan.
▪ Idealism: It is often considered as an age of
doubt and pessimism. The influence of science is
felt here. The whole age seems to be caught in 'the
conception of man in relation to the universe with
the idea of evolution'. (Acadmia.edu)
▪ On one hand the age is characterized as
materialistic and practical yet on other hand it also
seems idealistic, for the great ideals (as love,
beauty, goodness, justice, morality) are truely
emphasized by the writers of the age.
☆ Prose.
▪ The Prose of early Victorian era seems coming
from imaginations of romantic age towards the
intellectual and realism. And there seems in the
writings a shift from 'malencholia (solitude) to
society', 'nature to industry', 'concepts to issues'
and 'lyricism to criticism'.
▪ If we glance on some important writers of the age
as Thomas Carlyle, we see the thunder of
Conflicting ideas, Crusade attacks and counter
attacks as the early Victorian writers were against
the industrial forces, and political democracy.

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 Although the later Victorian prose writers was
concious of the 'art' of Prose writing, They reacted
against Prose Of Purpose (moral or political
philosophical teaching) and followed the slogan
'arts for arts sake'.
☆ Prose Writers And Their works.
1.Thomas Carlyle: He worked as a Teacher And a
Prophet, was a most dominant figure of the
Victorian age and called The sage of Chelsa. He is
famous for:
▪ Hero And Hero Worship: (collection of six
lectures about prominent historical figures, it lays
out Carlyle's belief in the importance of heroic
leadership).
▪ Oliver Cromwell's Letters and speeches.
▪ Past And Present. (British historical academic
journal, a provoke to british nation in their worst
time to stand up for their rights).
▪ Life of Fedrick: (memoir and treatise on
abolition written by famous orator fedrick
Douglass).
2. John Ruskin: He is known for his short works
like:
▪ Seven Lamps Of Architecture.

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▪ The stones Of Vanice: ( a three volume treatise
on Venetian art and architecture).
▪ Unto the last: (An essay and book on economy).
3. Lord B. Macaulay: his famous works for which
he is mainly known are:
▪ History Of England.
▪ Essays On Milton.
4. Walter Peter: most significant prose writer of
later Victorian era. His important works include
▪ Renaissance.
▪ Imaginary Portraits.
5. R. L. Stevenson:
▪ Essays Of Stevenson.
● From the novelists of the age the bestknown are:
1. Charles Dickens: His three novels are best
known.
▪ a Christmas Carol.
▪ Great expectations.
▪ Oliver twist.
2. William Makepeace Thackeray.
▪ Vanity Fair and The luck of Barry Lyndon.

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6. Thomas Hardy. Greatest poet and novelist of
the age. His major fiction consist of the tragic
novels of rural life.
▪ The mayor of casterbridge (1886).
▪ Tess of the D'Ubervilles (1891).
▪ Jude the obscure (1895).

The start of 20th CENTURY

A brief summary.
▪ At the end of Victorian Era (beginning of 20th
century ) in 1901, Britain was unimaginable. It was
far more established and powerful. The 20th
century saw two world wars which caused
enormous social changes across the country and
it went through the great enhancement in Health
and education, and wonderful progress in
technology.
From 1901 the reign of Edward VII started which is
witnessed Sinking of the great Titanic, and the
First World War in 1914 in which more than 1
billion Britons and Allies died.

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▪ In 1921 Woman suffrage held where women got
rights to vote. (The women at 21 and above were
made allowed to vote by then).
▪ In 1939 disastrous world war II came on existence
where many civilians die in heavy bombimg.
▪ Besides these two historical wars, there were
cold and colonel wars too during the century.
▪ There are many more important events happened
in 20th century of modernism. Watching the British
timeline, the other major events of 20th century
include 1946's National Health Service
establishment by the Labour government, 1953's
corronation of Queen Elizabeth II, 1966's England
hosting of world cup Football (won), 1973's
Britain's joining of the European community,
1979's coming of Margaret Thatcher as the first
Prime minister of Britain and 1994's first train
running through the channel tunnel. (Ref: from
British Timeline).

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