REFRIGERATION

Refrigeration Fundamentals
 Refrigeration is the science of producing and maintaining
temperatures below that of the surrounding atmosphere.
 In simple, refrigeration means the cooling of or removal of
heat from a system by employing an equipment to maintain
the system at a low temperature known as refrigerating
system.
 The system whose temperature is kept at low temperature is
called refrigerated system.
 Refrigeration is generally produced in one of the following
ways:
 By melting of a solid
 By sublimation of a solid
 By evaporation of a liquid
 Need for refrigeration
1) Ice making
2) Transportation of foods above and below freezing
3) Industrial air-conditioning
4) Comfort air-conditioning
5) Chemical and related industries
6) Medical and surgical aids
7) Processing food products and beverages
8) Oil refining and synthetic rubber manufacturing
9) Manufacturing and treatment of metals
10) Freezing food products
11) Miscellaneous applications:
a) Extremely low temperatures
b) Plumbing
c) Building construction etc.
 Definitions
Refrigerating effect
 The rating of a refrigeration machine is obtained by
refrigerating effect or amount of heat extracted in a
given time from a body. The rating of a refrigeration
machine is given by a unit of refrigeration called
standard tonne of refrigeration.
 A standard tonne of refrigeration is defined as the
refrigeration effect produced by melting of 1 tonne of ice
from and at 0C in 24 hours. Since the latent heat of
fusion of ice is equal to 333.43kJ/kg, Then
 1TR = 1000 kg x 333.43 kJ/kg / (24h) x 60min/h)
= 231.5 kJ/min
In practical calculations 1 TR ⁓ 210 kJ/min = 3.5 kW
 Definitions contd…
COP
 The performance of a refrigeration system
is expressed by “Coefficient of
Performance”. It is defined as the ratio of
heat absorbed by the refrigerant while
passing through the evaporator to the work
input required to compress the refrigerant
in the compressor.
Refrigeration Effect
COP 
W ork Input
 Refrigerator vs Heat Pump

COP Refrigerator  QL
COP Heat Pump  QH
QH  QL QH  QL
 Elements of a refrigeration system

1. A low temperature thermal sink to which heat will

flow from the space to be cooled.
2. Means of extracting energy from the sink, raising
the temperature level of this energy and delivering
it to a heat receiver.
3. A receiver to which heat will be transferred from
the high temperature high-pressure refrigerant.
4. Means of reducing the pressure and temperature of
the refrigerant as it returns from the receiver to the
sink.
 Methods of refrigeration
1) Ice refrigeration
2) Air refrigeration system
3) Vapour compression refrigeration system
4) Vapour absorption refrigeration system
5) Special refrigeration systems
a) Adsorption refrigeration system
b) Cascade refrigeration system
c) Mixed refrigeration system
d) Vortex tube refrigeration system
e) Thermoelectric refrigeration system
f) Steam jet refrigeration system
Reverse Carnot cycle for refrigeration
 Reverse Carnot cycle for refrigeration
1) The air is expanded isentropically from points 1 to 2.
This causes the temperature to fall from T1 to T2.
2) The air is now expanded isothermally to point 3 at
temperature T2. During this process, heat is absorbed
from the cold body.
3) The air is now compressed isentropically to point 4
by the help of external power which causes the
temperature to rise to T1. During this process no heat
is absorbed or rejected by the air.
4) The air is now compressed isothermally from 4 to 1.
During this process, heat is rejected by the air to the
hot body.
 Reverse Carnot cycle for refrigeration
From T-s diagram,
Heat rejected to hot body = T1 s4  s1 
Heat absorbed from cold body = T2  s3  s2 
 T2  s4  s1 
 s  s and s2  s1 

 3 4
Work required per cycle  Heat rejected – Heat absorbed
 T1 s4  s1   T2  s4  s1 
 T1  T2  s4  s1 
 
COP =Refrigerating effect/Work required per cycle
𝑇2
= 𝑇2 (𝑠4 − 𝑠1 )/(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )(𝑠4 − 𝑠1 ) =
(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
Prob.1 (ON CARNOT REFRIGERATOR) A Carnot refrigerator operates in a
room in which the temperature is 25 C. The refrigerator consumes 500W of
power when operating and has a COP of 4.5. Determine (i) The rate of heat
removal from the refrigerated space (ii) The temperature of refrigerated space.
May’11 Ans: (i) 2250 kW (ii) 243.82 K ( --29.18 C)
Prob.2. (ON FUNDAMENTALS): An ice plant produces 10 x 103 kg of ice per day at 0C C using
water at a temperature of 23 0 C. Estimate the power required by the compressor motor if the
COP of the plant is 3.5 and the transmission efficiency is 85%. Specific heat of water is 4.187
kJ/kg K and enthalpy of fusion of ice is 334.5 kJ/kg Dec’06 NR Ans: 16.76 kW
 Air Refrigeration System

• In air refrigeration system, air is used as the refrigerant to

remove the heat from a refrigerated place and discharge the
same to the atmosphere.
• Air refrigeration is one of the earliest methods of
refrigeration and was obsolete for several years because of
its low COP and high operating costs.
• However it has been applied to aircraft refrigeration system,
where with low equipment weight, it can utilize a portion of
the cabin according to the supercharger capacity.
• The main characteristic feature of air refrigeration system is
that throughout the cycle the refrigerant remains in gaseous
state.
 Air Refrigeration System
Principle of operation:
• In air refrigeration system, the compressor draws air from
the cold chamber, compresses it and then delivers it to the
air cooler.
• The high pressure and high temperature air rejects heat to
atmosphere in the air cooler at constant pressure.
• The high pressure cooled air is then expanded in the
expansion cylinder (air motor) to low(atmospheric)
pressure..
• The low temp. & pressure air leaving the expansion
cylinder then enters the cold chamber and abstracts heat
from the refrigerated place at constant pressure.
• The air coming out from the cold chamber again enters into
the compressor and the cycle is repeated.
 Air Refrigeration System
(Bell-Coleman cycle/Rev. Brayton(Joule) cycle)
 Bell-Coleman cycle

 Process 1 - 2 represents isentropic compression of air by

the compressor
 Process 2 – 3 constant pressure heat rejection in the air
cooler. Due to the cooling of air in the air cooler, there is
reduction in volume from 2 to 3 as represented by the
process 2 - 3
 Process 3 - 4 represents the isentropic expansion of air in
the expansion cylinder. The air enters the cold chamber at
condition 4
 Process 4 - 1 represents the absorption of heat at constant
pressure from the cold (refrigerated) chamber.
P-V & T –S DIAGRAMS OF IDEAL BELL COLEMAN CYCLE
 Derivation of COP for Bell Coleman cycle refrigerator

Heat absorbed or abstracted from cold chamber per kg of air is equal to N1  C p T  T 
 1 4

Heat rejected in the air cooler per kg of air is equal to N2  C p T2  T3 

 

Net Work required per cycle = Hat rejected – heat absorbed

Win  C p T2  T3   C p T1  T4 
   

COP 
N1

C p T1  T4

 T1  T4   

Win C p T2  T3  C p T1  T4  
T2  T3  T1  T4     
Applying isentropic law for the processes 1-2 and 3-4, COP becomes,
T4 𝑇4 = Temperature of air after
𝑇2 𝑇3
COP  expansion cylinder = = 𝑟𝑝 (𝛾−1)/𝛾
T3  T4 𝑇3 = Temperature of air before
expansion cylinder
𝑇1 𝑇4
 Compression and Expansion both Polytropic processes
IMPORTANT NOTE: Ideally it was assumed that both
compression and expansion follows isentropic
processes during which no heat transfer occurs in
either direction from/to the system.
Hence 𝑾𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 = 𝑸𝒄𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒄𝒆 = 𝑸𝟏 − 𝑸𝟐 .
But in actual cycles the compression and expansion
may not be isentropic , they may follow both
polytropic or compression isentropic and expansion
polytropic etc., In such cases 𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 ≠ 𝑄𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑐𝑒
Because heat transfer also takes place in polytropic
processes in either direction.
So work transfers have to be evaluated
separately in compression and expansion processes
by using steady flow process work transfer
equation.
𝒏 𝒏
𝑾𝒄 =( 𝒏−𝟏 ) 𝒎𝒂 𝑹𝒂 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ); 𝑾𝒆 =( 𝒏−𝟏 ) 𝒎𝒂 𝑹𝒂 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟒 ) both compression and
expansion both polytropic
𝜸 𝒏
𝑾𝒄 =( 𝜸−𝟏 ) 𝒎𝒂 𝑹𝒂 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ); 𝑾𝒆 =( 𝒏−𝟏 ) 𝒎𝒂 𝑹𝒂 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟒 ); if compression is isentropic
and expansion is polytropic
Prob. 1.(ON BELL COLEMAN CYCLE): In a refrigerator working on Bell
Coleman cycle that air enters compressor at 1 bar and 10 C and get compressed
isentropically up to 5.5 bar. Compressed air is cooled to 27 C at same pressure
before being sent to expander for isentropic expansion up to 1 bar and then
passes through refrigerated space. Determine refrigeration capacity, HP
required to run compressor and COP of the system if air flow rate is 0.8 kg/s
Nov’12 RR, Aug’19 R12 Ans: 22.67 TR, 191.30 HP, 1.59
Prob.2. A Bell Coleman refrigerator operates between pressure limits of
1 bar and 8 bar. Air is drawn from cold chamber at 9 C, compressed
and then it is cooled to 29 C, before entering into the expansion
cylinder. Expansion and compression follow the law PV1.35 = C.
Calculate the theoretical COP of the system. Nov’ 04 Ans: 1.27
Prob.3: In a refrigerator working on Bell Coleman cycle, the air drawn into a
compressor from the cold chamber at a pressure of 1 bar and 12 0C. After
isentropic compression to 4.5 bar the air is cooled at constant pressure to a
temperature of 200C. The polytropic expansion index is 1.25. The air is then
expanded to 1 bar and passed to the cold chamber. Determine (i) Net work done
per kg of air flow (ii) refrigerating effect per kg of air flow and (iii) Theoretical COP
May’09 RR Ans: (i) 44.46 kJ/kg (ii) 68.46 kJ/kg (iii) 1.54
 Advantages & Disadvantages of A-R System
Advantages :
1) The refrigerant used air is non-poisonous, cheap and easily available
2) There is no danger of any kind of air leakage
3) The system is highly reliable
4) The system is highly useful for aircraft refrigeration system due to its
light weight and less space requirements in comparison to other
systems
Disadvantages :
1) Very low COP in comparison to other systems
2) Running cost is very high compared to other refrigeration systems
3) Large volume of air is required to be handled per ton of refrigeration as
compared to other systems results in larger size of compressor and
expander.
4) There is a danger of frosting at the expansion valve as air may contain
some water vapour in the case of open air system. This problem can be
partly reduced by passing air through silica gel that can highly absorb
water vapour.
 Types of Air Refrigeration Systems

1) Closed air refrigeration system

2) Open air refrigeration system

 Closed Air Refrigeration System

In this system (or dense air system), the air refrigerant is

contained within the piping or component parts of the
system at all times and refrigerator with usually pressures
above atmospheric pressure.
 Open Air Refrigeration System

In the open system, the refrigerator is replaced by the actual

space to be cooled with the air expanded to atmospheric
pressure, circulated through the cold room and then compressed
to the cooler pressure. The pressure of operation in this system is
inherently limited to operation at atmospheric pressure in the
refrigerator.
 Advantages of Closed A-R System
1) The suction to compressor may be at high pressure
and hence the sizes of expander and compressor can
be kept within reasonable limits by using dense air.
2) In open air system, the air picks up moisture from the
products kept in the refrigerated chamber; the
moisture may freeze during expansion and is likely to
choke the valves whereas it does not happen in
closed system.
3) In open air system, the expansion of the refrigerant
can be carried only up to atmospheric pressure
prevailing in the cold chamber but for a closed
system there is no such restriction.
 Vapour Compression Refrigeration(VCR )System

1) It is the most practical form of refrigeration in which the

working fluid used as refrigerant in the vapour form
alternately undergoes a change of phase from vapour to
liquid and liquid to vapour during the working in the cycle.
2) In evaporating, it absorbs heat from the cold body which is
used as source of latent heat and gets converted from liquid
into vapour.
3) While condensing, it rejects its latent heat to the circulating
water of the cooler thereby converting again vapor to
liquid.
4) The refrigerants generally used in this system are
ammonia, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide.
Ordinary Household Refrigerator
VCR System
VCR System
WET & DRY COMPRESSIONS
 Different components of VCR System
1) Compressor: The compressor used in VCR system may be either reciprocating
type, centrifugal type or rotary type. The function of compressor is to draw the
vapour through the suction valve from the evaporator at low pressure and low
temperature at point 1. The vapour is compressed isentropically to point 2. During
compression, the pressure and temperature increases and the vapour is discharged
through the delivery valve and enters the condenser at point 2.
2) Condenser: In the condenser, heat is transferred to the cooling fluid which is
generally water or air. The compressed vapour is cooled and condenses at
saturation temperature which corresponds to the pressure in the condenser. The
high pressure saturated liquid leaves the condenser and enters the throttle valve at
point 3.
3) Expansion valve (or) Throttle valve: The function of the throttle valve is to allow
the liquid refrigerant under high pressure to pass at a controlled rate into the low
pressure part of the system known as evaporator. The expansion in the throttle
valve takes place from point 3 to 4.
4) Evaporator: An evaporator consists of pipes in which the liquid evaporates at the
lower temperature and takes up heat from cold brine which produces the
refrigerating effect. The liquid (vapour) will thus leave the brine tank (evaporator)
as a fairly dry vapour and enters the compressor at point 1 thus completing the
cycle.
 Effect of various parameters on VCR System
1) Effect of decreasing suction pressure: When the suction pressure is decreased,
the refrigerating effect is decreased and the work required is increased. The net
effect is to reduce the refrigeration capacity of the system with the same amount
of refrigerant flow and the COP.
2) Effect of increasing delivery pressure: The effect of increasing the delivery /
discharge pressure is just similar to the effect of decreasing the suction pressure.
The only difference is that the effect of decreasing the suction pressure is more
predominant than the effect of increasing delivery / discharge pressure.
3) Effect of sub-cooling of liquid: Sub-cooling is the process of cooling the liquid
refrigerant below the condenser temperature for a given pressure. The effect of
sub-cooling is to increase the refrigerating effect results in increase of COP
provided that no further energy has to be spent to obtain the extra cold coolant
required.
4) Effect of increasing vaporizing temperature and decreasing condenser
temperature: The capacity and performance of the refrigerating system improve
as the vaporizing temperature increases and condensing temperature decreases.
Thus the refrigerating system should always be designed to operate at the
highest vaporizing temperature and lowest condensing temperature keeping in
view of the requirements of the application.
Analysis of VCR System
 Advantages of VCR System
1) The COP is better because the cycle using a vapour as refrigerant
absorbs and rejects heat at constant temperature like the
reversed Carnot cycle.
2) The temperature of refrigerant in the evaporator can be
controlled by regulating the expansion valve.
3) The pressure to which the refrigerant is to be compressed is
determined by the cooling water temperature and not by the
level of refrigeration as in the case of air refrigeration system.
4) The same refrigerant can be used over and over again.
5) It has less running cost.
6) The expander is eliminated.
7) The size of refrigeration system per tonne of refrigeration is
smaller
 Disadvantages of VCR system
1. It has high initial cost
2. The leakage of refrigerant may cause harmful
effects
3. The production of some refrigerants may be
hazardous to the environment.
4. Charging of the refrigerant also should be done
very carefully.
5. Most of the refrigerants when rejected to
atmosphere giving severe environmental
problems like Global warming , acid rains etc.,
Prob.1. (ON VCR SYSTEM-WET COMPRESSION) A vapour compression
refrigerator works between pressure limits of 60 bar and 25 bar. The working
fluid is just dry at the end of compression and there is no under cooling of
liquid before expansion valve. Determine COP of the cycle and capacity of the
refrigerator if the fluid flow is at the rate of 5 kg/min. Use the following table of
properties of the refrigerant. Aug’17 R12, May 15 R12, Aug’18 R16.
Ans: 4.31, 2.73 TR

Pressure (bar) Sat. temp (K) Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy ( kJ/kgK)

hf hg sf sg
60 295 151.96 293.29 0.554 1.0332
25 261 56.32 322.58 0.226 1.2464
Prob.2.(PROB ON VCR -DRY COMPRESSION) A vapour compression refrigeration
system uses R-12 and operates between temperature limits of -200C and 400C. If the
flow rate of refrigerant is 0.05 kg/s, determine the COP of the refrigerator and the
power required to run the refrigerator. Assume saturated cycle and 𝐶𝑝𝑣 = 0.759
kJ/kg K The properties of R-12 are given as in the table
Dec’09 RR Ans: 4.14, 1.26 kW

Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy(kJ/kgK)

Temp ( 0 C) Pressure (bar)
hf hg sf sg
-20 0C 1.5093 181.764 342.682 0.93110 1.5672
400 C 9.6065 238.535 367.146 1.12984 1.54051
Prob.3: Calculate the COP of simple saturated vapour compression
refrigeration system using F-12 for the following data. Evaporator
temperature =-15 0C Condenser temperature=300C. Also calculate the
mass flow rate of refrigerant per second and power input per ton of
refrigeration. Take at -150C P1=1.82482 bar v1=0.91 m3/kg,
h1=345.927 kJ/’kg , s1=1.56323 kJ/kgK ; at 300 C P2=7.44572 bar,
v2=0.235 m3/kg; h2’=363.575 kJ/kg, s2’=1.54340 kJ/kg , hf3=228.538
kJ/kg Cp=0.628 kJ/kgK May’07 OR Ans: (i) 4.94, (ii) 0.0298 kg/s
(iii) 0.7078 kW