Quantum Cryptography

Prof. Ram Meghe Institute of Technology &

Research, Badnera

SEMINAR REPORT

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

SESSION: 2022-23

Topic of Seminar : Quantum Cryptography

Guided by : Dr. A. S. Alvi
Submitted by : Ayush Sanjay Gaurkar
Roll No. : 21

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 Quantum Cryptography

Sem ina r Repo rt

On

Quantum Cryptography
Submitted by

Ayush Sanjay Gaurkar

Final Year B.E. (Information Technology)

Guided by

Dr. A. S. Alvi

Department of Information Technology,

Prof. Ram Meghe Institute of Technology & Research,

Badnera.

2022-2023

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 Quantum Cryptography

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar report entitled

Quantum Cryptography
is a bonafide work and it is submitted to the Sant Gadge Baba Amravati
University, Amravati

By

Mr. Ayush Gaurkar

Final Year B.E. (Information Technology)

in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

Bachelor of Engineering in Information Technology, during the academic
year 2022-2023

Under my guidance.

Dr. A. S. Alvi Prof. Dr. P. V. Ingole

Guide HOD
Information Technology Dept Information Technology Dept
PRMIT & R, Badnera. PRMIT & R, Badnera.

Department of Information Technology,

Prof. Ram Meghe Institute of Technology & Research, Badnera.
2022-2023

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 Quantum Cryptography

Acknowledgement

It is a matter of great pleasure by getting the opportunity of highlighting a fraction of

knowledge i.e., having acquired my technical education throughout this report. I would like to
express my deepest and sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. G. R. Bamnote, Principal of PRMIT&R,
Badnera for his tremendous support and guidance.

I would like to express wholeheartedly thankful to Prof. Dr. P. V. Ingole, Head of

Information Technology Department for his precious guidance and support. I would like to
express a deep sense of gratitude and wholeheartedly thankful to Dr. A. S. Alvi, under his
guidance this seminar had been carried out. It was his interest, encouraging passion and his full
co-operation that has made it possible to complete this seminar work.

Mr. Ayush Sanjay Gaurkar

IT Final year (B)

Roll no: 21

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 Quantum Cryptography

Abstract

Quantum cryptography is an effort to allow two users of a common communication

channel to create a body of shared and secret information. This information, which generally
takes the form of a random string of bits, can then be used as a conventional secret key for
secure communication. It is useful to assume that the communicating parties initially share a
small amount of secret information, which is used up and then renewed in the exchange
process, but even without this assumption exchanges are possible.

The advantage of quantum cryptography over traditional key exchange methods is that
the exchange of information can be shown to be secure in a very strong sense, without making
assumptions about the intractability of certain mathematical problems. Even when assuming
hypothetical eavesdroppers with unlimited computing power, the laws of physics guarantee
that the secret key exchange will be secure, given a few other assumptions. Cryptography is
the art of devising codes and ciphers, and cryptoanalysis is the art of breaking them. Cryptology
is the combination of the two. In the literature of cryptology, information to be encrypted is
known as plaintext, and the parameters of the encryption function that transforms are
collectively called a key.

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Table of Content

1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………….7
o Motivation
o Objective
2. LITERATURE SURVEY……………………………………….9
3. FUNDAMENTALS & IMPLEMENTATION………………….11
o Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
o Process of Quantum Coding
o Quantum Cryptography Model
o Quantum Key Distribution
o Quantum Entanglement
o Detecting Eavesdropping
4. BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS………………………………19
o Benefits of quantum cryptography
o Limitations of quantum cryptography
5. APPLICATIONS…………………………………………………20
6. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………...21
7. FUTURE SCOPE…………………………………………………22
8. REFERENCES……………………………………………………23

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Chapter 1

Introduction

Quantum cryptography is a method of encryption that uses the naturally occurring

properties of quantum mechanics to secure and transmit data in a way that cannot be hacked.

Cryptography is the process of encrypting and protecting data so that only the person
who has the right secret key can decrypt it. Quantum cryptography is different from traditional
cryptographic systems in that it relies on physics, rather than mathematics, as the key aspect of
its security model.

Quantum cryptography is a system that is completely secure against being

compromised without the knowledge of the message sender or the receiver. That is, it is
impossible to copy or view data encoded in a quantum state without alerting the sender or
receiver. Quantum cryptography should also remain safe against those using quantum
computing as well.

Quantum cryptography uses individual particles of light, or photons, to transmit data

over fibre optic wire. The photons represent binary bits. The security of the system relies on
quantum mechanics. These secure properties include the following:

 particles can exist in more than one place or state at a time;

 a quantum property cannot be observed without changing or disturbing it; and

 whole particles cannot be copied.

These properties make it impossible to measure the quantum state of any system without
disturbing that system.

Photons are used for quantum cryptography because they offer all the necessary
qualities needed: Their behaviour is well understood, and they are information carriers in
optical fibre cables. One of the best-known examples of quantum cryptography currently is
quantum key distribution (QKD), which provides a secure method for key exchange.

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1.1Motivation
Cryptographers make efforts to build more and more sophisticated means to obscure
the sensitive information which is to be transmitted. But the hackers, code breakers,
eavesdroppers work furiously to crack the systems. If either cryptographer achieve security or
the code breakers decipher the security the success will be temporary. This process of securing
the message using ciphering and breaking the system using deciphering is an endless process.
Once, this scenario is a chase in the race.

We are also faced with unprecedented challenges which the conventional cybersecurity tools
cannot help mitigate. However, in this context, the quantum cryptography techniques, or
more accurately, the quantum key distribution methods can prove to be beneficial.

1.2 Objective
1. In general, the goal of quantum cryptography is to perform tasks that are impossible
or intractable with conventional cryptography.
2. Quantum cryptography makes use of the subtle properties of quantum mechanics
such as the quantum no-cloning theorem and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Unlike conventional cryptography, whose security is often based on unproven
computational assumptions, quantum cryptography has an important advantage in that
its security is often based on the laws of physics.
3. Academic, technology, and public sector organizations worldwide have
accelerated efforts to discover, develop, and implement new quantum
cryptographic algorithms.
4. The objective is to create one or more algorithms that can be reliably resistant to
quantum computing. The task is technically difficult, but not impossible.

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Chapter 2

Literature Survey

Smart cards, PINs, password authentication, etc., use current cryptographic techniques
and they are performing well in keeping data secure. However, the overall security of an
encryption system relies in the ability to keep cipher keys secret, but a typical human behaviour
is to write down passwords either in their inbox of mobile phone or e-mail id, this behaviour
makes security very vulnerable to attack.

The concept of biometric-based keys seems to be one possible solution to this

insecurity[5]. Security must be the primary consideration from a mission-critical or safety-
related product’s conception, through design and development, production, deployment, and
the end of its lifecycle[7].

Embedded systems that are installed in devices forms an integral part of the
manufacturing, health, transportation, and finance sectors, as well as the military, without
having near-flawless strong cryptographic security built into them might also be vulnerable to
well organized crime, terrorists, Quantum Cryptography using Quantum Key Distribution and
its Applications N.Sasirekha, M.Hemalatha Quantum Cryptography using Quantum Key
Distribution and its Applications 290 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering &
Sciences Publication Pvt. Ltd. or enemy governments[3][7].

Data hiding methodologies aim is to solve modern network security, quality of services
control, and secure communications, is also a cost-effective alternative to other means of data
security, which does not require protocol modifications.

This technology is compatible with existing standards of multimedia compression and

communications[5]. Security is an important aspect of any network, but in particular to mobile
adhoc networks. The wireless networks are potential for hacking using mobile devices. There
is no clear line of defense for protecting the mobile networks.

The development of the Mobile Application Security System which uses a layered
security approach and strong cryptographic techniques is seen as a feasible and low-cost
solution to protect these application-based wireless networks[7]. Finally, a new concept in

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cryptographic security known as Quantum Encryption, which uses quantum fluctuations of

laser light at the physical layer introduced into existing networks. It enables ultra-secure
communications and near perfect security[8].

Quantum cryptography was first proposed by Stephen Weisner in his work "Conjugate
Coding" in the early 1970s. Conjugate coding is an extension of Random number generator[1].
In Sigact News, a proposal was published in the year 1983, and at that time two scientists
Bennet and Brassard, who were familiar with Weisner's ideas, were ready to publish their own
ideas.

In 1984, they produced the "BB84” which is the first quantum cryptography
protocol[7]. In 1991, the first experimental prototype based on this protocol was produced
which operated over a distance of 32 centimetres. During that period, the technology has been
refined and the distance may be increased to kilometres[3][6]. In June 2003, a team at the
University of Vienna transmitted entangled photons across the river Danube, through free
space. In April 2004, the first money transfer encrypted by quantum keys was experimented
between the two Austrian banks. These two buildings were 500 meters apart, and fibre optics
was fed through 1.5 kilometres of sewage system to link them together[5].

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Chapter 3

Fundamentals & Implementation

Quantum cryptography is based on the phenomenon of quantum physics which allows

secure data transmission between sender and receiver.

Quantum cryptography is a latest and advanced branch of cryptography its basis lays in
the two beliefs of quantum technicalities: Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and principle of
photon polarization.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and Principle of Photon

Polarization

The foundation of quantum cryptography lies in the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle,

which states that certain pairs of physical properties are related in such a way that measuring
one property prevents the observer from simultaneously knowing the value of the other, and the
principle of photon polarization which tells that an eavesdropper cannot copy unknown qubits
(quantum bits).
In particular, when measuring the polarization of a photon, the choice of what direction to
measure affects all subsequent measurements.

For in- stance, if one measures the polarization of a photon by noting that it passes through
a vertically oriented filter, the photon emerges as vertically polarized regardless of its initial
direction of polarization. If one places a second filter oriented at some angle q to the vertical,
there is a certain probability that the photon will pass through the second filter as well, and this
probability depends on the angle q. As q increases, the probability of the photon passing through
the second filter decreases until it reaches 0 at q = 90 deg (i.e., the second filter is horizontal).
When q = 45 deg, the chance of the photon passing through the second filter is precisely 1/2. This
is the same result as a stream of randomly polarized photons impinging on the second filter, so the
first filter is said to randomize the measurements of the second.
The principle of photon polarization states that, an eavesdropper cannot copy unknown qubits,
due to no-cloning theorem.

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Polarization by a filter

Unpolarized light enters a vertically aligned filter, which absorbs some of the light and
polarizes the remainder in the vertical direction. A second filter tilted at some angle q absorbs
some of the polarized light and transmits the rest, giving it a new polarization. A pair of
orthogonal (perpendicular) polarization states used to describe the polarization of photons, such
as horizontal/vertical, is referred to as a basis. A pair of bases are said to be conjugate bases if the
measurement of the polarization in the first basis completely randomizes the measurement in the
second basis, as in the above example with q = 45 deg. It is a fundamental consequence of the
Heisenberg Uncertainty principle that such conjugate pairs of states must exist for a quantum
system.

Rectilinear and Diagonal bases

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Quantum mechanics says there is no possible measurement that will distinguish between
the 4 different polarization states, as they are not all orthogonal. The only measurement possible
is between any two orthogonal states (a basis), so for example measuring in the rectilinear basis
will give a result of horizontal or vertical. If the photon was created as horizontal or vertical
then this will measure the correct state, but if it was created as 45 or 135 then the rectilinear
measurement will instead return either horizontal or vertical at random. Furthermore, after this
measurement the photon will be polarized in the state it was measured in (horizontal or vertical),
with all information about its initial polarization lost.

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle says that some pairs of physical properties are
related in a way that while measuring one property may prevent the person from knowing the
other simultaneously. In particular, the selection of what direction to measure affects all
successive measurements. When an unpolarized light enters a vertically aligned filter, it
absorbs some of the light and polarizes the rest in the vertical direction. A subsequent filter
tilted at some angle q absorbs some of the polarized light and transmits the rest, giving it a new
polarization. A pair of orthogonal polarization states used to express the polarization of
photons, such as horizontal/vertical, is referred to as a basis.

Quantum cryptography[9][10] solves the problems of secret-key cryptography by

providing a way for two users who are in different locations to securely establish a secret key
and to detect if eavesdropping has occurred[8]. Quantum cryptography does not depend on
difficult mathematical problems for its security. Quantum cryptography accomplishes these
remarkable feats by exploiting the properties of microscopic objects such as photons. The
photons have three chosen bases of polarization and the probable results of a measurement
according to the bases are:
 Rectilinear (horizontal or vertical)
 Circular (left-circular or right-circular)
 Diagonal (45° or 135°).
Although there are three bases, only two bases are used in any given protocol for quantum
cryptography. Photons can be measured to determine their orientation relative to one of these
bases of polarization at a time. Classically, one would expect the photon to have a certain
polarization, which can be measured but which is not changed by the measurement. Photons,
however, are quantum objects, which are considered to have a property only after it is

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measured. The type of measurement impacts the property of the object. This implies that a
photon can only be considered to have a particular polarization after it is measure, and that the
basis chosen for the measurement will have an impact on the polarization.

A. Process of Quantum Coding

Many algorithms of encoding and decoding information using a given key have been
created already, many years before quantum cryptography came into existence. Quantum
cryptography is not replacing traditional cryptography but it allows for a more secure
transfer of the keys used in encoding and decoding. The maximum speed, scale and
security of the transfer is achieved by sending the secret key using quantum coding, but
encoding and sending the data itself using traditional methods and algorithms.

Quantum Information Processing and Quantum Bit

Quantum information processing or quantum information science is an interdisciplinary
field. It is an amalgamation of quantum physics, information science engineering,
computer science, mathematics and chemistry. A bit; a binary digit, is the base of classical
information theory. Regardless of its physical representation, it is always read as either a
0 or 1. For instance, a 1 (true value) is represented by a high voltage, while a 0 (false value)
is represented by a low voltage. A quantum bit, or qubit (sometimes qbit) is a unit of
quantum information. In quantum cryptography, two process are carried out. They are
conversion and polarization. That means the data is converted to bits of 0s and 1s, which
are then transferred using polarized photons. Photons are placed into a particular quantum
state by the sender which will be observed by the receiver. A photon can be in one of four
polarizations: 90, 0, 45 and -45 degrees
A photon is measured using three different bases: rectilinear (horizontal or vertical),
circular (left-circular or right-circular), and diagonal. The receiver can distinguish the
polarization of the photons between 0 and 90 degrees polarizations, or -45 and 45 degrees
polarizations.

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Fig. Classical bits vs Quantum bits

B. Quantum Cryptography Model

In Quantum Key Distribution model, Alice is used to refer to as the sender, Bob as the
receiver, and Eve as the eavesdropper. Figure shows the QKD Model.

Fig. Quantum Key Distribution Model

The most fundamental of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HUP) is that in a

quantum system only one property of a pair of conjugates is known with certainty. As
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that who was initially referring to the position and
momentum of a particle, described how any conceivable measurement of a particle's
position would disturb its conjugate property. Therefore, it is impossible to simultaneously
know both the properties with certainty. Quantum cryptography can influence this
principle but generally uses the polarization of photons on different bases as the conjugate
property. The reason is that the photons can be exchanged over fibre optic links and are

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perhaps is the most practical quantum systems for transmission between sender and
receiver.

Fig: Photon Polarization

Figure shows how a bit can be encoded in the polarization state of a photon. A binary 0 as
a polarization of 0 degrees in the rectilinear bases or 45 degrees in the diagonal bases
[7][8]. Similarly, a binary 1 can be 90 degrees in the rectilinear bases or 135 in diagonal
bases. Thus, a bit can be represented by polarizing the photon in either one of two bases.

C. Quantum key distribution- Key exchange methods

Consider a scenario in which the Alice and Bob communicates to agree on a key called
a sifting key. This process is explained in two phases. Figure illustrates on the bits Alice
chose, the bases she encoded them in, the bases Bob used for measurement, and the
resulting sifted key after Bob and Alice discarded their unmatched bits.
Phase I: Sending
1. Alice determines the polarization (horizontal, vertical, left-circular or right-circular) of
each burst of photons which she's going to send to Bob. A common key is agreed between
the sender and the receiver and the aim is not to transfer a specific key.
2. Polarized photons are produced using a light source from a light-emitting diode (LED)
or from a laser.
Phase II: Receiving and converting
1. Bob randomly generates a sequence of bases (rectilinear or circular), and measures the
polarization of each photon.
2. Bob tells Alice which sequence of bases he used, without worrying about other people
hearing this information in the classical channel.

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3. Alice publicly responds in the classical channel, which bases were chosen correctly.
4. Alice and Bob discard all observations except the correctly-chosen bases.
5. The remaining observations are converted on to binary code (left-circular or horizontal
is 0, and right-circular or vertical is 1).

Fig: Sifted key

D. Quantum entanglement
This process can be generated by firing a laser through a crystal and splitting a single
photon into two. By disturbing the state of one will instantly disturb the other, no matter how
far apart they are. If one of the particles is measured according to the rectilinear basis and is in
vertical polarization, then the other particle will be in a vertical polarization if it is measured
according to the rectilinear basis. If, however, the second particle is measured using circular
basis, it may be found to have either left-circular or right-circular polarization. This is
extremely useful in detecting eavesdroppers.

The procedures for a transfer are similar to the original process described earlier, where
Alice sends polarized photons to Bob, who in turn measures the photons using randomly
selected states. A photon generator is placed between Alice and Bob so that pairs of entangled
photons with the same polarization go to Alice and Bob at the same time. Then both sender
and receiver measure the signals with randomly varying bases, and record the result and the
time received. After comparing the bases, they keep those that are the same and discard the bits
measured with different bases. They can then test for errors using the algorithms described in
the previous section.

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D. Detecting eavesdropping

To detect the eavesdrop; polarization of the photon is to be measured. The key concept
is that it is impossible to measure the polarization of the photon without destroying it. So, if
Eve intercepts the signal, she will have to send new photons to the receiver so that she may not
be detected about her presence. However, she will inevitably introduce errors, since she doesn't
know the state and polarization. So, Alice and Bob can check for errors by revealing a random
subset of their generated sequence and comparing it publicly. If they are not satisfied with the
error rate, they can set up a different channel. This ensures that while Alice and Bob cannot
stop Eve from listening in, they would always know that she is there.

In entangled photon transfer method can also be used for this purpose. According to
physics law, a change in the polarization of one photon in a pair will affect the other one, no
matter how far apart they are. In order to eavesdrop, Eve would have to detect one of the
photons and measure it, thus destroying half of the pair. This act will end the quantum
relationship of the two members of the pair, which is very easy to detect by Alice and Bob, and
impossible to reverse for Eve. Without revealing the specific results of their measurements, the
sender and the receiver can talk publicly and see where intervention has occurred[3].

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Chapter 4

Benefits & Limitations

Benefits of quantum cryptography

Benefits that come with quantum cryptography include the following:

 Provides secure communication. Instead of difficult-to-crack numbers, quantum

cryptography is based on the laws of physics, which is a more sophisticated and
secure method of encryption.

 Detects eavesdropping. If a third-party attempts to read the encoded data, then the
quantum state changes, modifying the expected outcome for the users.

 Offers multiple methods for security. There are numerous quantum cryptography
protocols used. Some, like QKD, for example, can combine with classical
encryption methods to increase security.

Limitations of quantum cryptography

Potential downsides and limitations that come with quantum cryptography include the
following:

 Changes in polarization and error rates. Photons may change polarization in

transit, which potentially increases error rates.

 Range. The maximum range of quantum cryptography has typically been around
400 to 500 km, with the exception of Terra Quantum, as noted below.

 Expense. Quantum cryptography typically requires its own infrastructure, using

fiber optic lines and repeaters.

 Number of destinations. It is not possible to send keys to two or more locations in

a quantum channel.

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Chapter 5

Applications

Quantum encryption already protects both sensitive national security information in the public
sector and financial information in the private sector. Its security is tested and proven. Here are
some current and near-future applications of quantum cryptography.

 Switzerland has been using quantum cryptography to conduct secure online voting in
federal and regional elections.
 Secure communications with satellites and astronauts.
 A Smart Power Grid implemented by America.
 Quantum Internet

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Chapter 6

Conclusion

Quantum Cryptography could theoretically be used to achieve totally and provably

secure communication where the adversary cannot decipher the communication regardless of
the amount of computing power and time available at their disposal. However, the technology
is still in experimental stage and it is still evolving.

It is hard to see practical implementation of this technology today, given its limitations.
But with future breakthroughs in Quantum transmission, Quantum computing and Quantum
cryptography, it may just provide us with a truly secure communication means.

It is concluded that to transmit sensitive information between two or more points, some
stronger technique is needed. It’s sure that Quantum key distribution and other quantum
encryption methods will allow us to secure sensitive information more effectively in the future.
Quantum encryption is a powerful and positive step in the right direction, toward a future in
which we can feel more secure about how and what we share. Thus, we can also expect
considerable feedback from QKD into basic physics, which leads to a new perspective on the
foundations of quantum mechanics.

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Chapter 7
Future Scope

Security for cyberspace in the future Internet should be guaranteed as it is the collection
of all information systems and the information environment for human survival. For the
growing security problem in cyberspace, quantum cryptography becomes the first
consideration.

With the potential to become the cornerstone technology in the future of data security,
it won’t be long before we see corporations and government agencies adopting quantum
cryptography to greatly advance their capabilities and day-to-day operations. However, it
remains essential that quantum-resistant public-key cryptography becomes available within the
near future in order for us to maintain existing levels of information security within the age of
quantum computing. Unlike other existing security solutions, quantum cryptography is secure
from all future advances in mathematics and computing.

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References

[1] Wiesner, Stephen., 1983. “Conjugate coding”. ACM Sigact News 15.1:78-88.

[2] Ford, James., 1996. “Quantum cryptography tutorial.”

http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/jford/crypto.html.

[3] Harrison, David M., 2001. “Quantum Teleportation, Information and Cryptography.”
http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/GeneralInterest/Harrison/QuantTeleport.html.

[4] Knight, Will., 2004. “Entangled photons secure money transfer.” Newscientist.com.
http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994914.

[5] “Quantum cryptography.” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_cryptography. Modified 17 September 2004.

[6] “The BB84 Quantum Coding Scheme”, June 2001.

http://www.cki.au.dk/experiment/qrypto/doc/QuCrypt/bb84coding.html

[7] Gisin, N., Ribordy, G., Tittel, W., Zbinden, H., “Quantum Cryptography”, Reviews of
Modern Physics, vol. 74, January 2002, pp. 146-195.
http://www.gapoptique.unige.ch/Publications/Pdf/QC.pdf

[8] Martinez-Mateo, Jesus, David Elkouss, and Vicente Martin. “Key reconciliation for
High Quantum Cryptography using Quantum Key Distribution and its Applications 294
Published by: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering & Sciences Publication Pvt. Ltd.
Performance quantum key distribution.” Scientific reports 3 (2013).

[9] C.H. Bennett and G. Brassard. 1984 Quantum Cryptography: Public Key Distribution
And Coin Tossing. In Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Comp.,Sys. And Signal Process., pages
175-179, Bangalore.

[10] A.K. Ekert. Quantum Cryptography Based on Bell’s Theorem. Phys. Rev.
Lett.67(6):661-663,1991.

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