CPE 108 - THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION

This Module 1 is all about the school curricula and the teacher.
It describes the school curriculum in terms of its definition, nature and scope.
It provides the necessary concepts and activities that a teacher can refer to as to prepare as
curriculum designer.
No curriculum should stop at the planning or designing phase. It has to be implemented.

OBJECTIVES

1. Describe the different curricula that exist in the schools

2. Analyze the significance of curriculum and curriculum development in the teacher’s
classroom
3. Enhance understanding of the role of the teacher as a curricularist in the classroom and school
4. Define curriculum from the different perspectives
5. Describe the nature and scope of curriculum
6. Describe the different approaches of curriculum
7. Explain by examples how the approaches clarify the definition of curriculum
8. Reflect on how the three approaches interrelate with each other
9. Explain and summarize the curriculum development process
10. Describe the foundations of curriculum development
11. Explain how each foundation influences the curriculum development
12. Identify the fundamentals of curriculum designing
13. Appreciate the task of designing a curriculum
14. Identify some familiar curriculum designs
15. Analyze the approaches in the light of how these are applied in the school setting
16. Define curriculum mapping and curriculum quality audit
17. Explain the benefits of curriculum mapping and curriculum quality audit
18. Familiarize one of some examples of curriculum maps
19. Define curriculum implementation
20. Analyze what is change process in curriculum implementation
21. Explain the process of curriculum implementation
22. Review the components of a daily plan for teaching
23. Identify intended learning outcomes
24. Match learning outcomes with appropriate teaching methods
25. Discuss the roles of technology in curriculum delivery
26. Identify the factors in technology selection including the use of visual aids
27. Identify stakeholders of the curriculum
28. Enumerate the role of each stakeholder

I. CURRICULUM ESSENTIALS

The Teacher and the School Curriculum

This identifies the different types of curricula that exist in the teacher’s classroom and school. It
describes the important roles of the teacher as a curricularist who engages in the different facets
of curriculum development in any educational level.

The Curricula in School

The educational levels in our current Philippine educational system:

1. Basic Education
This level includes Kindergarten, Grade 1 to Grade 6 for the elementary and for the secondary,
Grade 7 to Grade 10 for the Junior High School, and Grade 11 and 12 for the Senior High
School
The new basic education levels are provided in the K to 12 Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 of
the Department of education
2. Technical Vocational Education
This is post-secondary technical, vocational educational and training taken care of by the
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)
For the TechVoc track in SHS of DepEd, DepEd and TESDA work in close coordination
3. Higher Education
This includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate Degrees (Master’s and
Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED)

Types of Curricula Simultaneously Operating in Schools

1. Recommended Curriculum
The recommendations from DepEd for the Basic Education, CHED for Higher Education and
TESDA for vocational education come in the form of memoranda or policies, standards and
guidelines.
Other professional organizations or international bodies like UNESCO also recommend
curricula in schools.
2. Written Curriculum
They come in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional guides
among others.
The K to 12 for the Philippine basic Education is the most written curriculum.
3. Taught Curriculum
The implemented curriculum depends on the skill of the teacher to facilitate learning with the
aid of instructional materials and facilities.
This will depend largely on the teaching style of the teacher and the learning style of the
learners.
4. Supported Curriculum
This is described as support materials that the teacher needs to make learning and teaching
meaningful.
5. Assessed Curriculum
It can either be assessment for learning, assessment as learning or assessment of learning.
6. Learned Curriculum
If a student changed behavior, one has learned that can be indicated in the cognitive, affective
and psychomotor outcomes.
7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum
This is not deliberately planned, but has a great impact on the behavior of the learner.

The Teacher as a Curricularist

According to the study conducted by Sandra Hayes (1991), the most influential curricularists in
America include John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba and Franklin Bobbit
A curricularist is a person who is involved in curriculum knowing, writing, planning,
implementing, evaluating, innovating, and initiating

The teacher as a curricularist:

1. knows the curriculum (Knower)

2. writes the curriculum (Writer)
3. plans the curriculum (Planner)
4. initiates the curriculum (Initiator)
5. innovates the curriculum (Innovator)
6. implements the curriculum (Implementor)
7. evaluates the curriculum (Evaluator)

The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum

This provides a wider perspective for the teachers about the curriculum, in terms of curriculum
approach, curriculum development process, some curriculum models and the foundations upon
which the curriculum is anchored

The School Curriculum: Definition, Nature and Scope

Some Definitions of Curriculum

1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes,
formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the
auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal social
competence (Tanner, 1980).
2. Curriculum is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives,
content, learning activities, evaluation procedures, etc. (Pratt, 1980).
3. Curriculum is made up of the contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned
activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and the agenda to
reform the society (Schubert, 1987).
4. Curriculum includes all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of
education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is
planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present professional
practice (Hass, 1987).
5. Curriculum is a program of activities by teachers and pupils designed so that the pupils will
attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives (Grundy,
1987).
6. Curriculum is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place,
a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities
and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school
(Goodland and Su, 1992).
7. Curriculum provides answers to three questions: What knowledge, skills and values are most
worthwhile?, Why are they most worthwhile?, How should the young acquire them?
(Cronbeth, 1982).

Some Points of View of Other Curricularists

1. Traditional – defined curriculum as a field of study. It is highly academic and concerned with
broad historical, philosophical, psychological and social issues. It is mostly written such as
syllabus, course of study, books and references where knowledge is found but is used as a
means to accomplish intended goals
2. Progressive – is the total learning experiences of the individual

Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

1. Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as permanent studies where rules of grammar, reading,
rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized while liberal education
should be emphasized in college
2. Arthur Bestor as an essentialist believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual
training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental disciplines of grammar, literature
and writing that should include mathematics, science, history and foreign language
3. Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline, academic disciplines
or subject areas
4. Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from
the various disciplines

Curriculum from Progressive Points of View

1. John Dewey believes that education is experiencing and reflective thinking is a means that
unifies curricular elements that are tested by application
2. Holiss Caswell and Kenn Campbell view curriculum as all experiences children have under
the guidance of teachers
3. Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore define curriculum as a sequence of
potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in
group ways of thinking and acting
4. Colin Marsh and George Willis view curriculum as all the experiences in the classroom which
are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the students

Approaches to the School Curriculum

Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

It is the topic outline, subject matter, or concepts to be included in the syllabus or books
2. Curriculum as a Process
It is the interaction among the teachers, students and content in which curriculum happens in
the classroom as the questions asked by the teacher and the learning activities engaged in by
the students
3. Curriculum as a Product
It is what the students desire to achieve as learning outcomes

Four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum:

1. Topical approach – is based on knowledge and experiences

2. Concept approach – with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub-concepts and their
interaction with relatedness emphasized
3. Thematic approach – as a combination of concepts that develop conceptual structures
4. Modular approach – leads to complete units of instruction

Criteria in the Selection of Content

1. Significance
Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and generalizations that should attain
the overall purpose of the curriculum
The content becomes the means of developing cognitive, affective or psychomotor skills of the
learner
The content also addresses the cultural context of the learners
2. Validity
The authenticity of the subject matter is checked and verified regularly
3. Utility
The usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are going to use
it
4. Learnability
The complexity of the content should be within the range of experiences of the learners which
is based on the psychological principles of learning
5. Feasibility
The subject content is learned within the time allowed, resources available, expertise of the
teachers and nature of the learners
6. Interest
The contents are meaningful to the learners for them to learn better

Guide in the Selection of the Content of the Curriculum

1. Commonly used in the daily life

2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career
4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and integration
5. Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines

Fundamental Principles for Curriculum Contents

Proposed by Palma in 1952

1. Balance
Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth
2. Articulation
As the content complexity progresses with the educational levels, vertically or horizontally,
across the same discipline smooth connections or bridging should be provided
3. Sequence
It is the order or logical arrangement of the content done vertically or horizontally
4. Integration
The content in the curriculum is related or connected to other contents because it does not
stand alone or is not isolated
 It provides a holistic or unified view of curriculum instead of fragmentation
5. Continuity
The content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it was before, to where
it is now, and where it will be in the future
6. Scope
It consists of all the contents, topics, learning experiences comprising the curriculum

Some ways of teaching, ways of managing the content, guiding learning, methods of teaching
and learning and strategies of teaching or delivery modes:

1. Problem-based
2. Hands-on, Minds-on
3. Cooperative Learning
4. Blended Curriculum
5. On-line
6. Case-based

Guiding Principles when Curriculum is Approached as a Process:

1. In the form of teaching methods or strategies are means to achieve the end
2. There is no single best process or method since its effectiveness depends on the desired
learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher
3. Should stimulate the learners’ desire to develop the cognitive, affective and psychomotor
domains
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered
5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be described as
cognitive, affective and psychomotor
6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered that always result to
learning outcomes
7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the implementation of the
curriculum

Curriculum Development: Processes and Models

Curriculum Development: Process

Curriculum development - is a dynamic process involving many different people and procedures
Development – connotes changes which is systematic

Four Phases of Curriculum Models

1. Curriculum planning – considers the school vision, mission and goals that includes the
philosophy or strong educational belief of the school and are eventually translated to
classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners
2. Curriculum designing – is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and
organization of content, learning experiences or activities and assessment procedure and tools
to measure achieved learning outcomes
3. Curriculum implementing – is putting into action the plan which is based on the curriculum
design in the classroom setting or the learning environment that involves the activities that
transpire in every teacher’s classroom where learning becomes an active process
4. Curriculum evaluating – determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been
achieved

Curriculum Development Process Models

1. Ralph Tyler Model – or Tyler’s Rationale, Four Basic Principles

The curriculum development model emphasizes the planning phase
2. Hilda Taba – Grassroots Approach
The curriculum development model begins from the bottom or teachers rather than the from
the top or administrators
3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model
Curriculum development is consisting of four steps
Curriculum is a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational
 and goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single
school center

Four fundamental principles of Ralph Tyler Model which are illustrated as answers to the
following questions:

1. What education purposes should schools seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes?
2. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?

Tyler’s Model shows that in curriculum development, the following considerations should be
made:

1. Purposes of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experiences

Six major steps of the Hilda Taba Model:

1. Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the larger society

2, Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of learning contents
4. Organization of learning contents
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it

Four steps of curriculum development as viewed in the Galen Saylor and William Alexander
Curriculum Model:

1. Goals, Objectives and Domains

2. Curriculum Designing
3. Curriculum Implementation
4. Curriculum Evaluation

Foundations of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundations
Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or strong
belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers’ classrooms or
learning environment
2. Historical Foundations
Chronological development along a time line
3. Psychological Foundations
Provide a basis to understand the teaching and learning process and unify the elements of the
learning process
4. Social Foundations
Society is a source of change
Schools are agents of change
Knowledge is an agent of change

Philosophies in Education

1. Perennialism
Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas
Aim: To educate the rational person, cultivate intellect
Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason or critically
Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis, Curriculum is enduring
Trends: Use of great books and Liberal Arts
2. Essentialism
William Bagley (1874-1946)
Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent
Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area
Focus: Essential skills of the 3 Rs, essential subjects
Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy
3. Progressivism
John Dewey ( 1859-1952)
Aim: Promote democratic social living
Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners
Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects, Learner-centered, Outcome-based
Trends: Equal opportunities for all, Conceptualized curriculum, Humanistic education
4. Reconstructionism
Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)
Aim: To improve and reconstruct society, Education for change
Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms
Focus: Present and future educational landscape
Trends: School and curricular reform, Global education, Collaboration and Convergence,
Standards and Competencies

Great Contributions of Historical Foundations of Curriculum

1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)

Started the curriculum development movement
Curriculum as a science that emphasizes students’ needs
Curriculum prepares learners for adult life
Objectives and activities should group together when tasks are clarified
2. Werret Charters (1875-1952)
He posited that curriculum is science and emphasizes students’ needs
Objectives and activities should match
Subject matter or content relates to objectives
3. William Kilpartick (1875-1952)
Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centered
The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth
Introduced this project method where teacher and student plan the activities
Curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960)
Curriculum should develop the whole child
It is child-centered
With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should produce
outcomes
Emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher plans curriculum in advance
5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
Curriculum is organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge learners’
interest
Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated
Curriculum is a set of experiences
Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners’ interests
6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)
Curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s philosophy
It is based on students’ needs and interests
Curriculum is always related to instruction
Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values
The process emphasizes problem solving
Curriculum aims to educate generalists not specialists
7. Hilda Taba (1902-1967)
Contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts development and
critical thinking in social studies curriculum
Helped lay the foundation for diverse student population
8. Peter Oliva (1992-2012)
Described curriculum change as a cooperative endeavor
Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the professional core of planners
Significant improvement is achieved through group activity

Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

1. Association and Behaviorism

a. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Father of the classical conditioning theory, the S-R theory
The key to learning in the early years of life is to train them what you want them to become
S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called indoctrination
b. Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
Championed the connectionism theory
Proposed the three laws of learning: Law of readiness, Law of exercise, Law of effect
Specific stimulus has specific response
c. Robert Gagne (1916-2002)
Proposed the hierarchical learning theory, learning that follows hierarchy
Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions
Introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives

2. Cognitive Information Processing Theory

a. Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity
Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-7), concrete operation stage (7-11) and
formal operations (11-onwards)
Assimilation is incorporation of new experience
Accommodation is learning modification and adaptation
Equilibration is balance between previous and later learning
b. Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
Cultural transmission and development stage
Children could, as a result of their interaction with society, actually perform certain cognitive
actions prior to arriving at developmental stage
Learning precedes development
Sociocultural development theory
Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to development
The child is an active agent in his or her educational process
c. Howard Gardner
Gardner’s multiple intelligences
Humans have several different ways of processing information and these ways are relatively
independent of one another
There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, and naturalistic
d. Daniel Goleman
Emotion contains the power to affect action
Called this Emotional Quotient

3. Humanistic Psychology
a. Gestalt
Gestalt Theory
Learning is explained in terms of wholeness of the problem
Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but to an organization or pattern of stimuli
Learning is complex and abstract
Learners analyze the problem, discriminate between essential and nonessential data, and
perceive relationships
Learners will perceive something in relation to the whole
What/how they perceive is related to their previous experiences
b, Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
Advanced the Self-Actualization Theory
Classical theory of human needs
A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested in acquiring knowledge of the
world
 Put importance to human emotions based on love and trust
Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow and actualize his or her
human self
c. Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Nondirective and therapeutic learning
Established counseling procedures and methods for facilitating learning
Children’s perceptions, which are highly individualistic, influence their learning and
behavior in class
Curriculum is concerned with process, not product; personal needs, not subject matter;
psychological meaning, not cognitive process

Social Foundations of Curriculum

1. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Influence of society and social context in education
Things that surround individuals can change and develop their behavior
Considered two fundamental elements which are schools and civil society
2. Alvin Toffler
Wrote the book entitled Future Shock
Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the future
Suggested that in the future, parents might have the resources t teach prescribed curriculum
from home as a result of technology, not in spite of it, called Home Schooling
Foresaw schools and students worked creatively, collaboratively and independent of their age

Other Theorists

1. Paolo Freire (1021-1997)

Education is a means of shaping the person and society through critical reflections and
conscientization
Teachers use questioning and problem posing approach to raise students’ consciousness
Emphasis on questioning problem posing and critical thinking
Major book: Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1968
2. John Goodlad (1920-2014)
Curriculum organized around needs of society and students
Reduce student conformity in classroom
Constant need for school improvement
Emphasis on active learning and critical thinking
Involvement of students in planning curriculum content and instructional activities
Need to align content with standards
Major book: A Place Called Schools, 1984; What Are Schools For?, 1989
3. William Pinar (1947)
Broaden the conception of the curriculum to enrich the practice
Understand the nature of the educational experience
Curriculum involves multiple disciplines
Curriculum should be studied from a historical, racial, gendered, phenomenological,
postmodern, theological and international perspectives

II. DESIGNING THE CURRICULUM

The Teacher as a Curriculum Designer

Fundamentals of Curriculum Design

Building on Peter Oliva’s 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers

1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary and desirable

2. Curriculum is a product of its time
3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum changes
4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of alternatives
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process
8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather than a
piecemeal
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic process
10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is

Major Components or Elements of the Curriculum

1. Intended Learning Outcomes

What learning outcomes need to be achieved?
2. Subject Matter
What content should be included to achieve the learning outcomes?
3. Teaching-Learning Methods
What learning experiences and resources should be employed?
4. Assessment of Achieved Learning Outcomes
How will the achieved learning outcomes be measured?

A lesson plan or teaching guide includes:

1. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO)/Desired Learning Outcomes (DLO) – behavioral

Objectives
2. Subject Matter/Content
3. Teaching and Learning Methods
4. Assessment/Evaluation

Elements/Components of a Curriculum Design

1. Behavioral Objectives/Intended Learning Outcomes

SMART-Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-oriented, Time-bound
2. Content/Subject Matter
The content of the lesson or unit is the topic or subject matter that will be covered
3. References
Tell where the content or subject matter has been taken (book, module, or any publication)
4. Teaching and Learning Methods
Activities where the learners derive experiences
Lecture, laboratory classes, fieldwork, cooperative learning activities, independent learning
activities, competitive activities, use of various delivery modes, online learning, direct
instruction, guided instruction, mastery learning, systematic instruction
Detailed Steps of Direct Instruction: State leaning objectives/outcomes, Review, Present new
materials, Explain, Practice, Guide, Check for understanding, Provide feedback, Assess
performance, Review and test
Detailed Steps of Guided Instruction: Review, Anticipatory set, Objective, Input, Modeling,
Check for understanding, Guided practice, Independent practice
Detailed Steps of Mastery Learning: Clarify, Pretest, Group, Enrich and correct, Monitor,
Posttest, Assess performance, Reteach
Detailed Steps of Systematic Instruction: Review, Development, Assess comprehension,
Seatwork, Accountability, Homework, Special reviews
Criteria of the Teaching-learning environment: Adequacy, Suitability, Efficiency, Economy
5. Assessment/Evaluation
Three main forms-Self-assessment, Peer assessment, Teacher assessment
Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more) or
summative (expressing a judgment on the student’s achievement by reference to stated
criteria)

Application of the Fundamental Components to Other Curriculum Designs

Major components of a Course Design or Syllabus:

1. Intended Outcomes or Objectives
2. Content/subject Matter with references
3. Methods/Strategies with needed resources
4. Evaluation means of assessment
Approaches to Curriculum Designing

Types of Curriculum Design Models

1. Subject-Centered Design
Focuses on the content of the curriculum
a. Subject design
Is the oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers, parents and other laymen
b. Discipline design
Focuses on academic disciplines
Discipline refers to specific knowledge learned through a method which the scholars use to
study a specific content of their fields
c. Correlation design
Coming from a core, links separate subject designs in order to reduce fragmentation
Subjects are related to one another and still maintain their identity
d. Broad field design/interdisciplinary design
Was made to cure the compartmentalization of the separate subjects and integrate the
contents that are related to one another
Holistic curriculum, thematic design

2. Learner-Centered Design
a. Child-centered design
Is anchored on the needs and interests of the child
b. Experience-centered design
Experiences of the learners become the starting point of the curriculum
c. Humanistic design
The development of self is the ultimate objective of learning
It stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling and doing and the
development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills.

3. Problem-Centered Design
Draws on social problems, needs, interest and abilities of the learners
a. Life-situations design
The contents are organized in ways that allow students to clearly view problem areas
b. Core problem design
The problems are based on the common human activities
The central focus includes common needs, problems, and concerns of the learners

Approaches to Curriculum Design Models

1. Child or Learner-Centered Approach

Is based on underlying philosophy that the child or the learner is the center of the educational
process
The curriculum is constructed based on the needs, interest, purposes and abilities of the
learners
2. Subject-Centered Approach
Is anchored on the curriculum design which prescribes separate distinct subjects for every
educational level basic education, higher education or vocational-technical education
3. Problem-Centered Approach
Is based on a design which assumes that in the process of living, children experience problems
Problem solving enables the learners to become increasingly able to achieve complete or total
development as individuals

Curriculum Mapping and Curriculum Quality Audit

Curriculum Mapping
Is a model for designing, refining, upgrading and reviewing the curriculum resulting in a
framework that provides form, focus and function
It is a reflective process that helps teachers understand what has been taught and how learning
outcomes are stressed
Benefits of Curriculum Mapping

1. Curriculum mapping ensures alignment of the desired learning outcomes, learning activities
and assessment of learning
2. Curriculum mapping addresses the gaps or repetitions in the curriculum
3. Curriculum mapping verifies, clarifies and establishes alignment between what students do in
their courses and what is taught in the classrooms and assessed as their learning
4. The curriculum maps visually show important elements of the curriculum and how they
contribute to student learning
5. Curriculum mapping connects all initiatives from instruction, pedagogies, assessment and
professional development

Curriculum Mapping Process

Example A
1. Make a matrix or a spread sheet
2. Place a timeline that you need to cover (one quarter, one semester, one year)
3. Enter the intended learning outcomes, skills needed to be taught or achieved at the end of the
teaching
4. Enter in the same matrix the content areas/subject areas to be covered
5. Align and name each resource available
6. Enter the teaching-learning methods to be used to achieve the outcomes
7. Align and enter the assessment procedure and tools to the intended learning outcomes, content
areas, and resources
8. Circulate the map among all involved personnel for their inputs
9. Revise and refine map based on suggestions and distribute to all concerned

Example B
1. Make a matrix or a spread sheet
2. Identify the degree or program outcomes
3. Identify the subjects or courses under the degree
4. List the subjects along the vertical cells of the matrix in a logical or chronological order
5. List the degree program outcomes along the horizontal cell (PO1, PO2…)
6. Cross the subject and the outcome, and determine if such subject accomplishes the outcomes
as either learned (L), performed (P) or given opportunity (O)
7. Fill up all cells
8. After accomplishing the map, use it as a guide for all teachers teaching the course for students
to complete the degree in four years

The Curriculum Map

Curriculum maps
Are visual timelines that outlined desired learning outcomes to be achieved, contents, skills and
values taught, instructional time, assessment to be used, and the overall student movement
towards the attainment of the intended outcomes
Provide quality control of what are taught in schools to maintain excellence, efficiency and
effectiveness
Intended to improve instruction and maintain quality of education that all stakeholders need to be
assured of

Examples of a Curriculum Map

1. Example A for Basic Education

Excerpt from DepEd for Curriculum Guide for Science 3 for Quarter 1 and 2
2. Example B for College
Curriculum Map for Bachelor of Elementary Education Courses

Curriculum Quality Audit

CQA is a form of curriculum mapping
Is a process of mapping the curricular program or syllabus against established standards
Questions that are worth considering in curriculum quality audit:

1. Is the curriculum planned, executed, and assessed in accordance with appropriate standards?
2. How does the school system conform to the standards of quality in instructional organization
like specificity, quality and scope for teaching, learning and assessment?
3. Are all students achieving success equally and effectively? If not, what can be done about it?

Benefits of Curriculum Quality Audit

1. Identify gaps, under and overrepresentation of the curriculum based on the standards
2. Ensures the alignment of learning outcomes, activities and assessment to the standards
3. Achieves an internationally comparable curriculum as standards become the basis of the
curriculum analysis

PPST-Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers

RCTQ-Research Center for Teacher Quality
PNU-Philippine Normal University
CNU-Cebu Normal University
WVU-West Visayas University
WMSU- Western Mindanao State University
CHED-Commission on Higher Education
CMO-CHED Memorandum Order
BSED-Bachelor of Secondary Education
CFT-SEA-Competency Framework for Teachers in Southeast Asia

III. IMPLEMENTING THE CURRICULUM

The Teacher as a Curriculum Implementor and a Manager

Implementing the Designed Curriculum as a Change Process

Curriculum Implementation Defined

Curriculum implementation means putting into practice the written curriculum that has been
designed in syllabi, course study, curricular guides, and subjects.
Is a process wherein the learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge, skills, and attitudes
that are aimed at enabling the same learners to function effectively in society

Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) defined curriculum implementation as the interaction between the
curriculum that has been written and planned and the teachers who are in charge to deliver it.

Curriculum implementation implies:

1. Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced curriculum
2. Change in knowledge, actions, and attitudes of the person involved
3. Change in behavior using new strategies and resources
4. Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable

Loucks and Lieberman (1983) defined curriculum implementation as the trying out of a new
practice and when it looks like when actually used in a school system.
It simply means that implementation should bring the desired change and improvement.
In the classroom context, curriculum implementation means teaching what has been written in
the lesson plan.
Implementing means using the plan as guide to engage with the learners in the teaching-learning
process with the end in view that learning has occurred and learning outcomes have been
achieved.
In a large scale, curriculum implementation means putting the curriculum into operation with the
different implementing agents.
In higher education, curriculum implementation happens for the course, degree program, the
institution, or the whole higher education system.

Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process

Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Theory and Curriculum Change

Two forces that always oppose each other in the education landscape:
1. Driving Force
2. Restraining Force
When the driving force and restraining force are equal, the state is equilibrium or balance and
there will be a status quo or no change, so the situation or condition will stay the same.
When the driving force overpowers the restraining force, change will occur.
When the restraining force is stronger than the driving force, change is prevented.
Kurt Lewin (1951) – father of social psychology

Driving Force Restraining Force

E
Government Intervention Q Fear of the Unknown
U
Society’s Values I Negative Attitude to Change
L
Technological Changes B Tradition Values
R
Knowledge Explosion I Limited Resources
U
Administrative Support M Obsolete Equipment

Based on Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Theory

Categories of Curriculum Change

by McNeil (2000)

1. Substitution
The current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a new one
2. Alteration
There is a minor change to the current or existing curriculum
3. Restructuring
Means a major change or modification in the school system, degree program or educational
system
4. Perturbations
Changes are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust to them within a fairly short time
5. Value orientation
Shift in the emphasis that the teacher provides which are not within the mission or vision of
the school

Three important elements contained in the process of change in curriculum and implementation:

1. Developmental
It should develop multiple perspectives, increase operation and make learning autonomous,
create climate of openness and trust , and appreciate and affirm strengths of the teacher
2. Participatory
Especially because other stakeholders like peers, school leaders, parents and curriculum
specialists are necessary
3. Supportive
Material support like supplies, equipment and conductive learning environment like
classrooms and laboratory should be available

Implementing a Curriculum Daily in the Classrooms

DepEd Order No. 70 s. 2012

Teachers of all public elementary and secondary schools are not required to prepare detailed
lesson plans.
Teachers adopt daily lesson logs.
TG-Teacher Guide
TM-Teacher Manual
Daily Lesson Plans

I. Objectives or Intended learning outcomes (ILO)

II. Subject Matter (SM) or Content
What in teaching
III. Procedure or Methods and Strategies of teaching
How in teaching
IV. Assessment of learning outcomes (ALO)
V. Assignment or Agreement

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO)

Are the desired learning that will be the focus of the lesson
Are based on Taxonomy of Objectives

Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy by Anderson

(2001)
EVALUATION CREATING
SYNTHESIS EVALUATING
ANALYSIS ANALYZING
APPLICATION APPLYING
COMPREHENSION UNDERSTANDING
KNOWLEDGE REMEMBERING

Three major changes in the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy:

1. Changing the names in the six categories from nouns to verbs
2. Rearranging these categories
3. Establishing the levels of the knowledge level in the original version

Categories in the Cognitive Domain:

1. Remembering
Recall or retrieve previous learned information
2. Understanding
Comprehend meaning, translation, state problem in own words, making meaning
3. Applying
Use concept in new situation, applies what has been learned in new situation
4. Analyzing
Separate materials or concepts into component parts so that the organization is clear
Distinguishes between facts and inferences
5. Evaluating
Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials
6. Creating
Build a structure or pattern from various elements
Put parts together to create a whole, to make new meaning and structure

HOTS-Higher-Order Thinking Skills

LOTS-Lower-Order Thinking Skills
ALO-Assessment of Learning Outcomes
IMs-Instructional Materials

Levels of Knowledge

1. Factual knowledge
Ideas, specific data or information
2. Conceptual knowledge
Concepts are facts that interrelate with each other to function together
3. Procedural knowledge
How things work, step-by-step actions, methods of inquiry
4. Metacognitive knowledge
Knowledge of cognition in general, awareness of knowledge of one’s own cognition, thinking
about thinking
Many ways of teaching for the different kinds of learners

1. Direct Demonstration Methods

Guided Exploratory/Discovery Approach, Inquiry Method, Problem-Based Learning (PBL),
Project Method
2. Cooperative Learning Approaches
Peer Tutoring, Learning Action Cells, Think-Pair-Share
3. Deductive or Inductive Approaches
Project Method, Inquiry-Based Learning
4. Other Approaches
Blended Learning, Reflective Teaching, Integrated Learning, Outcomes-Based Approach

Different learning styles:

1. Visual 7. Verbal
2. Auditory 8. Logical/Mathematical
3. Physical/Kinesthetic 9. Social
4. Audio-Visual 10. Solitary
5. Experiential 11. Naturalist
6. Musical

Dale’s Cone of Learning

Is a visual device which can help teachers to make decision on what resources and materials
will maximize learning

The Role of Technology in Delivering the Curriculum

e-Philippine plan
An electronically enabled society where all citizens live in an environment that provides quality
education, efficient government services, greater sources of livelihood and ultimately a better
way of life through enhanced access to appropriate technologies
ICT-Information and Communications Technology
3Rs-reading. ‘riting, ‘rithmetic
Instructional media may also be referred to as media technology or learning technology, or
simply technology

Types of Instructional Media/ Technology

1. Non-projected media
Real objects, models, field trips, kits, printed materials (books, worksheets), visuals (drawings,
photographs, graphs, charts, posters), visual boards (chalkboard, whiteboard, flannel board,
etc.), audio materials
2. Projected media
Overhead transparencies, opaque projection, slides, filmstrips, films, video, VCD, DVD,
computer/multimedia presentation

Factors in Technology Selection

1. Practicality
2. Appropriateness in relation to the learners
3. Activity/suitability
4. Objective-matching

The Role of Technology in Curriculum Delivery

Three current trends that carry on to the nature of education in the future:
1. Paradigm shift from teacher-centered to student-centered approach to learning
2. Broadening realization that education is not simply a delivery of facts and information, but an
educative process of cultivating the cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and much more the
contemplative intelligence of the learners of a new age
3. Increase in the use of new information and communication technology or ICT
Primary roles of educational technology in delivering the school curriculum’s instructional
program:

1. Upgrading the quality of teaching-and-learning in schools

2. Increasing the capability of the teacher to effectively inculcate learning, and for students to
gain mastery of lessons and courses
3. Broadening the delivery of education outside schools through non-traditional approaches to
formal and informal learning, such as Open Universities and lifelong learning to adult learners
4. Revolutionizing the use of technology to boost educational paradigm shifts that give
importance to student-centered and holistic learning

These primary roles are based on the framework of Technology-Driven Teaching and Learning
called TPACK:

1. Technological Knowledge
2. Pedagogical Knowledge and
3. Content Knowledge

Criteria for the Use of Visual Aids

1. Lettering style or font – consistency and harmony

2. Number of lettering style- no more than 2 in a static display (chart, bulletin board)
3. Use of capitals – short titles or headlines should be no more than 6 words
4. Lettering colors – easy to see and read. Use of contrast is good for emphasis
5. Lettering size – good visibility even for students at the back of the classroom
6. Spacing between letters – equal and even spacing
7. Spacing between lines – not too close as to blur at a distance
8. Number of lines – No more than 8 lines of text in each transparency/slide
9. Appeal – unusual/catchy, two-dimensional, interactive )use of overlays or movable flaps)
10. Use of directional – devices (arrows, bpld letters, bullets, contrasting color and size, special
placement of an item

Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation

Stakeholders are individuals or institutions that are interested in the curriculum

Curriculum Stakeholders

1. Learners are at the core of the curriculum

Learners have more dynamic participation from the planning, designing, implementing and
evaluating
2. Teachers are curricularists
Plan, design, teach, implement and evaluate
3. School leaders are curriculum managers
Understand fully the need for change and the implementation process
Ready to assist the teachers and the students in the implementation
4. Parents
Partners for the success of any curriculum development endeavor
5. Community as curriculum resources and learning environment
Extended school ground, a learning environment
6. Other stakeholders in curriculum implementation and development
a. Government Agencies
DepEd, TESDA, CHED, PRC, CSC, LGU
b. Non-Government Agencies and Professional Organizations
GK, Synergia, Metrobank Foundation, PAFTE, SUCTEA, NOSTE, MTAP

ESSAY
Directions: Write a one-page Essay on a short-sized bond paper for each question given.
1. What phase of the curriculum process do you find very important as a teacher and why?
2. What happens when a graduate from a teacher education program lacks the
competencies/standards of a beginning teacher?
3. Why will curriculum change or development succeed if all the stakeholders contribute
positively in curriculum implementation?
ACTIVITIES
Directions: Construct a 25-item Multiple Choice Test with four Choices (A., B., C., and D.) as
the Answers of the Questions in interrogative sentences starting with interrogative
pronouns ( Who, What, When Where, Why, How, etc.) for the following Topics:
1. Curriculum Essentials
2. Designing the Curriculum
3. Implementing the Curriculum

REFERENCES
1. Bilbao, Purita P, et al. (2020). The Teacher and the School Curriculum. Metro Manila:
LORIMAR Publishing Inc.
2. Bilbao, Purita P, et al. (2015). Curriculum Development for Teachers. Metro Manila:
LORIMAR Publishing, Inc.