4.1.

Introduction to Mountaineering

● Mt. Pulag is one of the highest mountains in the Philippines. It is the highest peak
in Luzon, with an elevation of 2 922 meters (m) above sea level and the third
highest in the Philippines, next to Mt. Apo and Mt. Dulang-Dulang, which are both
in Mindanao.
● It is located between the borders of Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya in northern Luzon.
Recently, it has gained prominence as more and more people, Filipinos and
foreigners alike, come to visit its peak to witness its famous view of the sea of
clouds.
● Not all visitors of Mt. Pulag are experienced mountaineers or people who
regularly climb mountains as a career, a sport, or a hobby.
● Some of them just climb it for recreation. Many people prefer the fun and joy of
climbing mountains to what they feel in exploring the depths of seas and the
cities and provinces in the lowlands.
● It is hoped that after going through the modules in this unit, you will one day
consider mountaineering as a means to spend your leisure time or perhaps as a
hobby - or even as a career in the future.

WHAT IS MOUNTAINEERING?
● Mountaineering is a physical activity where participants try to reach the summit or
peak of a mountain (a large landform that rises more than 500 meters above the
surrounding plains) to experience the pleasure of a climb.
● Technically, it refers to the sport of mountain climbing, which includes rock
climbing and ski mountaineering. In some countries in Europe, mountaineering is
popularly called alpinism, which refers to climbing the mountains in the Alps.
● People who engage in this sport are called mountaineers.
● According to the book Mountaineering in the Philippines, mountaineering is not
just a physical activity, but also a mental one.
● It is defined in the book as a "physical and mental activity that requires skills,
experience, common sense, and guts in ascending and descending mountains.”
According to the same book, mountaineering as an activity requires physical
strength as one needs to trek kilometers of terrain to reach the mountain peak.
● In trekking, you carry your body weight and the weight of your backpack against
the gravitational pull as you walk up to the mountain top.
● This is the reason why mountaineers are required to have a semblance of
physical fitness.
 ● Aside from physical skills, mental skills are also required to climb mountains
because one's decisiveness and decision-making are constantly tested in
calculating risks and ensuring safety during the climb.
● Mental skills are also needed in making sound judgments and in being
resourceful and creative to survive the challenges of a climb.
● Mountaineering in the Philippines also emphasizes the importance of the basic
skills in mountain climbing. These basic skills include proper breathing,
backpacking, and cooking. Other skills such as rappelling, caving or spelunking,
swimming, and camping also help in making the mountaineering experience a
better one. Skills and knowledge in first aid and search and rescue are just as
important as well.
● However, skills alone are not enough. Most of the time, common sense helps just
as much in surviving the mountains.
● The use of one's senses is oftentimes a better basis in making practical decisions
on the steps and actions to take while climbing.
● The decision as to which trail to take or if it is safe to cross a river most often
depends on what one sees or feels. In this regard, guts become an important
element as well. In the mountains, your common sense usually tells you whether
what you are doing is safe or dangerous.
● But sometimes, you are hindered by your fear of what lies ahead even though
your senses tell you it is safe to move further.
● In the mountains, one may encounter unexpected things. Thus, your guts will
push you to go much further and to not settle in your comfort zone.

4.2. Health Benefits of Mountaineering

HEALTH BENEFITS
● Generally, mountaineering is a walking activity, and any walking activity has
benefits to one's health.
● Mountain walking is undertaken not on level ground, but in a multi-terrain
environment that requires walking with more effort and for longer periods.
● Thus, mountain walking is considered a vigorous-intensity physical activity, as it
requires greater aerobic performance and workload compared to walking on level
paths.
● As you have learned, vigorous-intensity activities burn more than six METs or
metabolic equivalents - one MET is defined as the energy it takes to sit quietly for
a healthy adult. Moderate intensity physical activities usually burn up to three to
 six METs. Mountain hiking or trekking at 4.5 m per hour burns, on average, seven
METs.
● Vigorous-intensity physical activities are recommended for maximum
cardiovascular protection.
● Regular moderate to vigorous physical activities (MVPAs)-mountaineering,
included-are known to reduce the risk factors for various diseases.
● Aside from improving cardiovascular endurance, MVPAs also develop
musculoskeletal strength; boost the metabolic, endocrine, and immune systems;
and help in reducing or maintaining body weight.
● Aside from the physical benefits, mountaineering also has a positive impact on
one's mental health.
● Experiencing the natural environment can reduce stress, while walking helps you
concentrate and become more creative.
● Because mountaineering requires mental skills, this activity normally improves
mental agility and self-awareness.

4.3. Hazards of Mountaineering

HAZARDS
● Mountaineering is a dangerous physical activity. Exploring the wilderness of the
mountains poses hazards that can cause injuries or serious consequences, such
as death.
● Mountaineering is a dangerous physical activity. Exploring the wilderness of the
mountains poses hazards that can cause injuries or serious consequences, such
as death.
● Mountain hazards can be man-made or natural. Man-made hazards are also
called subjective hazards, and they are caused by a lack of preparation and
carelessness. Poor judgment and unsound decisions can also put one's health
and life in danger.Dehydration, falling, and overexertion are some common
consequences of man-made hazards. Careful preparation and planning are the
antidotes to subjective hazards in the mountains.
● Natural hazards, also called objective hazards, are caused by the natural
environment in the mountain and by the weather. Some natural hazards include
weather conditions, altitude, strong winds, rock falls, and visibility. Dangerous
animals, plants, and other organisms are also natural hazards.
4.4. Mountain Classification according to Difficulty
● Early mountaineers classify mountains as level I, II, or III.
● Level I mountains are those whose height are 1 000 m above sea level or less;
level II mountains are 1 000-2000 m above sea level; and level III mountains are
over 2 000 m above sea level. This early classification system, which used height
as the sole criterion, was created to identify which mountains require much effort
to climb. This classification system, however, has been proven as somewhat
unreliable because of instances where some level III mountains, such as
Mt.Pulag, are not as difficult to climb because of the existence of trails that can
be used to make the climb. Some level ll or even level I mountains can be harder
to climb because there are no available routes.
● To make the classification more relevant, experts reconsidered other mountain
characteristics-distance and trail difficulty, for instance-that affect the climb.
According to an interview with Long Henson (one of the authors of
Mountaineering in the Philippines), which appeared in
www.pinoymountaineer.com early mountaineers had accepted two local
classifications of mountain climb-minor and major. A minor climb requires a
maximum of a one-day hike to climb the summit, while a major climb requires an
overnight stay or camping for several days. However, this classification remains
limited.
ANOTHER SYSTEM OF MOUNTAIN CLASSIFICATION IS THE TRAIL CLASS. IN
THIS SYSTEM, MOUNTAINEERS IDENTIFY HOW THE TRAILS ARE NAVIGATED
BASED ON THE TERRAIN. THIS ONE IS AN INTERNATIONALLY RECOGNIZED
MOUNTAIN CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE TRAIL
CLASSES:
● TRAIL CLASS 1 -THE TERRAIN CAN BE NAVIGATED BY WALKING AND AN
EASY STROLL.
● TRAIL CLASS 2 - HIKERS WALK ALONG A PATH/RUGGED TERRAIN.
● TRAIL CLASS 3 - HIKERS SCRAMBLE USING HANDS FOR BALANCE AT
SOME POINTS OF THE TERRAIN.
● TRAIL CLASS 4 - HIKERS WOULD NEED TO CLIMB EASY CLIFFS BUT WITH
ENOUGH DROP-OFF. SOME BEGINNERS SHOULD BE ROPED.
● TRAIL CLASS 5 - AT SOME POINTS IN THE TERRAIN, HIKERS WOULD
NEED TO USE THEIR FREE HANDS IN CLIMBING.
● TRAIL CLASS 6 - AT SOME POINTS, THERE WILL BE A NEED TO USE
ARTIFICIAL METHODS TO CLIMB.
5.1. Hiking and Trekking
Hiking
● Hiking is walking in a natural environment through pre-charted paths and
man-made trails and roads. In some countries, such as the United States
and Canada, hiking is referred to as a long and vigorous walk on trails in
the countryside. In New Zealand, they refer to this as tramping. Hiking is
usually longer than walking on city streets or similar pathways. It usually
lasts continually for a day. When it lasts overnight, it is referred to as
backpacking, where you need to camp in a campsite. People hike in
beautiful environments to enjoy the sight of trees and animals, breathe
fresh air, and appreciate the beauty of the natural environment. Hiking,
therefore, is mainly done for leisure.
Trekking
● Trekking is a series of hiking activities done on paths that are usually
unmarked and may not be previously chartered. It is a longer journey
within a challenging environment or in areas of relatively unspoiled
wilderness. Normally, people trek in remote places such as mountainous
areas where common means of transportation are absent. They walk
through trails and paths that are not usually explored by ordinary people.

5.2. Hiking or Trekking Equipment

● In hiking or trekking, there are some basic pieces of equipment that you
need to bring to help you survive in the wilderness of the mountain. The
following are the things that you will need when you hike or trek a
mountain — for recreation only, in this instance — as recommended by
Mountaineering in the Philippines.
Bag
● Your bag is one of your most important companions in your climb. It is
where you put almost all the things that you need for the climb. A
backpack-which is a type of bag carried on your back and secured with
straps that go over your shoulder — is recommended in climbing. It is an
ideal bag for any climb because it frees your hands from holding anything.
Having your hands available at all times is crucial since you will need them
to secure support from tree branches or rocks as you hike along the trails.
Moreover, using a backpack affords you freedom of movement.
Two things must be considered in choosing a backpack for climbing. First, it
should be comfortable. Second, it must be big enough to carry your things. For
leisure hikes, a mountaineering daypack is good enough. It can contain
necessary things such as food, water, and extra clothing.

Mountaineering enthusiasts, however, use specially designed backpacks for

climbing activities. Ordinarily, they use internal or external frame backpacks. The
internal frame backpack is designed to make the weight of the bag closer to the
body's center of gravity. Thus, it helps you move easily as it lessens the
backward pull. Most mountaineers in the Philippines prefer this kind of backpack.
However, one disadvantage of this backpack is that the owner perspires a lot on
his or her back while using it as it does not allow air to circulate between the bag
and the back part of the body. Unlike the internal frame backpack, the external
frame backpack holds the weight of the bag away from the body, allowing air to
circulate and prevent too much sweat on your back. However, because the frame
is external, it often gets entangled with tree branches, which can affect your
pacing in the trail.

Aside from a backpack, you can also bring with you a belt bag where you can put things
that you need to easily access such as trail food, emergency kits, wallet, and camera.

Choosing a backpack is your personal decision. However, in selecting your

mountaineering backpack, always consider the kind of activity that you want to engage
in-is this a day hike or a trek that will last for days? This will help you in assessing how
big your backpack should be. You may also consider the design features and durability
of the backpack.
Footwear
Your feet are the most used body part during a climb. They carry your body weight as
you move through the terrain. It is important that you select footwear that will provide
you comfort and aid you during the climb. A pair of boots that have traction and a sole
that can grip on the slippery ground is advisable in a climbing activity. There are two
kinds of boots that you can use for recreational mountaineering.

■ Fabric boots - This kind of boots is a combination of

fabric and leather. Fabric boots provide comfort to your
feet as they are soft, flexible, and lightweight. They let
the feet breathe, and they can dry quickly when wet.
■ Leather boots - Leather boots are heavier than fabric
boots, but they are more durable and can give maximum
protection to your feet. They are water-resistant and
have strong cleated soles.

However, for day hikes and other short-span recreational mountaineering, a good pair of
hiking or trekking shoes should be enough. Remember also to wear a pair of
comfortable socks that will keep your feet warm and dry.

Aside from a good pair of shoes, you may also consider bringing with you a pair of
sports sandals or slippers. During the camp, these will give you comfort after some
hours of trek wearing your shoes.
Clothing and Other Body Protection
Typical mountaineering clothing in the Philippines consists of a pair of shorts, a T-shirt,
long socks, and liners. However, you must also consider the weather or temperature in
the mountain in choosing your clothing. For sunny weather, the typical mountaineering
clothing previously mentioned is the most appropriate. You may also consider using a
hat or bandanna to protect your head and face from the sun's heat.

For cold weather, you may use a fleece jacket and jogging pants. If the temperature is
extremely cold, you may try using thermal clothing or wear layered clothing to keep your
body warm.

Aside from these pieces of clothing, you may also consider wearing a beanie (a
head-hugging brimless cap) to protect your head from cold temperature and gloves to
protect your hands from gripping rough objects.

Tent and Sleeping Accessories

Your tent is your shelter in the mountain. Tents are used for overnight recreational hikes.
The tent keeps you warm during a cold night and protects you from getting wet in case it
rains during the camp. You need to choose a tent that is big enough to accommodate
you(and your partner, if you have one). Also, choose a light tent, and if possible, a
freestanding one. A freestanding tent lets you transfer the tent to another place without
dismantling it all over in case your chosen spot does not work out for you.

For some people, sleeping bags, pillows, and blankets may not be necessary for a
single night's sleep on earth ground. However, during treks that last for days and
backpacking in mountains with extremely cold temperatures, a sleeping mat, and a
space blanket are considered necessities. A sleeping mat or pad provides padding to
your sleeping bag from small rocks that can hurt your back. It also protects your body
from the cold ground. A space blanket is a lightweight heat-reflective thin plastic
sheeting that looks like aluminum foil. This special blanket regulates the body
temperature. Thus, it helps mountaineers remain warm and comfortable in spite of the
cold temperatures in the mountain.
First Aid and Emergency Kits
A first aid kit is important in any physical activity. You will not find a clinic or a hospital in
the mountains; thus, it is important that you have with you a medical aid kit to help you
in emergency situations that will require first aid medical care. Here are some of the
recommended items for your first aid kit:

■ over-the-counter medicines such as paracetamol (for

fever and headache), analgesic or ibuprofen (painkiller),
meclizine (for motion sickness, nausea, vomiting),
antihistamine (for allergic reactions and itchiness),
Ioperamide (antidiarrheal), antacid (for stomach acidity),
oral rehydration salt
■ gauze pads or rolls
■ bandages (elastic bandage, adhesive bandage, butterfly
bandage, triangular bandage)
■ medical tape or adhesive tape
■ tweezers,safety pins, bandage scissors
■ povidone-iodine or hydrogen peroxide solution
■ rubbing alcohol
■ bar of plain soap
■ absorbent cotton
■ sunscreen cream or lotion
■ insect repellent lotion
■ snakebite kit (scalpel and suction device for the venom)
■ flashlight or penlight
■

Other Equipment and Things to Bring

You may also consider bringing the following to help you in your survival in the
mountain, especially in longer treks.

1. Cooking and eating utensils - For a day or overnight hike, you can just bring your
packed lunch and dinner. But in case you want to cook food at the campsite, you may
bring with you some cooking and eating utensils. Portable camp stoves are advisable as
man-made fires may cause harm to the forest. Lightweight small pots and cooking
utensils are usually preferred by hikers.

2. Camp necessities -These include flashlight/headlamp, extra food, extra clothing,

pocket knife, matches, and whistle (in case you get separated, you can call for help by
blowing a whistle). A map and a compass may be of help; however, in places where
mountain trails are already well-established, you do not need to bring them.
3. Repair equipment - These include duct tape, needle and thread, and other repair kit
essentials in case your tent, backpack, or camping stove gets broken.

5.3. Preparation

What to Do Before the Climb?

In any physical activity, you must always prepare yourself and plan ahead. The following
are the things that you need to do before you engage in a recreational mountaineering
activity.

Physical Preparation
Mountaineering can be a strenuous activity. Thus, you must prepare your body
physically before your scheduled climb. You can do so by engaging in other physical
activities to develop the necessary physical skills. For instance, you can do regular brisk
walking, running, jogging, biking, swimming, or even stair climbing. You can also do
sports such as basketball and football. These activities will improve your
cardiorespiratory endurance which is much needed when hiking for hours and trekking
for days in a multi-terrain environment.

You must also supply your body with the necessary energy. As previously discussed,
food is your primary source of energy. In mountaineering, you must be aware of your
food intake to prepare your body. The food pyramid designed by the Food and Nutrition
Research Institute can be your guide on your daily food intake. You can view this food
pyramid at

Psychological Preparation
Determination to finish the climb is important for every climber. A half-hearted hiker
would most likely come down the mountain halfway through the trail because of
discouragement and pressure brought about by difficulties during the climb. Therefore, it
is important that you are psychologically prepared for the climb. Set your heart and mind
on the importance of the climb. Focus on the goal of experiencing the wilderness of the
mountains and reaching the summit. You may have a group talk with your fellow
climbers so that each of you can motivate each other for the climb. For beginners in
mountain climbing, joining a support group is highly recommended.

Organizing the Climbing Team

Regardless of the size of the climbing group, it is important that there is an organized
setup for the roles of each member. A group of climbers should have a leader. The
leader should be in charge of making decisions during emergencies and settling any
disagreements on the decisions of the group members, especially during difficult times.
He or she also assigns the tasks for the other members of the team. The leader must
also inspire everyone to do his or her best in achieving the group's objectives for the
climb. There should also be pacers in the group. The task of a pacer is to prod climbers
in maintaining the rhythm of the hike. He or she ensures that all members of the group
walk in the correct trails and at the right pacing. He or she also suggests when to rest
and regain energy and strength. At the end of the line during the climb is the sweeper.
He or she ensures that no one is left behind during the ascent and descent. There
should also be first-aiders, who would administer first aid treatment during emergencies.

It is important that these roles are identified before the climb so that the members of the
team would know who to follow and what to do during the climb.

Organizing the Things to Bring

It is important that you organize the things that you should bring for the hike. The
duration of the hike will be your basis in determining what to bring and how many or
how much of each item. Remember, however, that you should always pack light. Leave
out things that you will not need as these will just add to the weight of your backpack
and ultimately be a hindrance to the climb. As a general rule, the weight of your
backpack must not exceed one-third of your body weight. The following figure shows
the recommended way of organizing the items in your backpack:

Your bag must have your set of clothes, eating utensils, and when necessary, sleeping
equipment. Consider the weather condition in the mountain when preparing the clothes
you will bring. It is also advisable that you have your own first aid kit, especially if you
have specific medical needs. Your bag should also contain your food and water supply.

Choosing the Food and Amount of Water to Bring

As mentioned, food is your primary source of energy. You must be aware of the kinds of
food that you should bring during the hike or trek. Generally, you must bring food that

■ does not spoil easily;

■ lightweight;
■ does not require a lot of water to digest;
■ easy to prepare; and
■ nutritious.

Remember also that you need carbohydrates in your trek or hike to sustain your energy.
Hence, you must bring food that is rich in carbohydrates. Aside from the usual meals for
the day, you should also bring with you some trail food. Sweets and food with sugar
such as jelly, candies, and chocolates are the best trail food as sugar replenishes one's
energy. Fruits that are sweet and juicy are also advisable as trail food because they
provide sugar and fluid as well.
Mountaineering in the Philippines suggests the following food for your climb.

* Gorp (good old raisins and peanuts) is a mixture of raisins, dried fruit, and
peanuts.

Another important thing that you should prepare is drinking water. During the hike or
trek, you will perspire a lot, and you must replenish your body with water or else you will
be dehydrated. An average mountaineer needs around 1.5 liters of water for a moderate
day hike. But this need increases depending on the temperature condition. There are
other water sources in the mountain, but these must be taken with caution. Natural
waters such as those found in rivers and falls may carry silt and floating objects. Before
drinking from natural water sources, you must filter the water first and purify using
puritabs or iodine tablet/magnesium sulfate.

Be Familiar with the Mountain

Before you climb a mountain, it is important that you first research about it. Learning
about where you are going will help you prepare for it. Thus, you must learn about the
mountain; specifically, find out the following:

○ How high is it?

○ How difficult and dangerous is the trail?
○ What are the customs and traditions observed in the area?
○ What are the usual hazards that I might encounter?

5.4. Safety Protocol

What to Do and Remember During the Climb?
While the actual climb gives you much pleasure and fun, you must exercise extreme
caution when hiking and trekking. The following are the things that you must remember
during your climb.

Hikers and trekkers must be responsible for their own safety, and preparation is the key.
Here are some safety protocols that every hiker and trekker must follow while on the
climb.

1. Preventing Dehydration and Hyperthermia

Dehydration happens when the body loses more water than it takes in. Symptoms of
dehydration include dry mouth, sunken appearance around the eyes, headache,
nausea, and dark concentrated urine. Dehydration can lead to hyperthermia (heat
stroke) and heat exhaustion. You can prevent dehydration by drinking plenty of water
and eating sugary food along the trail. You have to replenish the lost water in your body
because of sweating and urination, as well as used up energy. Pace yourself and rest in
the shade as you feel necessary. In case of dehydration, rest in a cool place and soak a
cloth (or your bandanna) with water and cover your head with it to cool down your
temperature. Drink plenty of water.

If a person has already suffered hyperthermia, move him or her to a shaded and cool
place. Remove excess clothing and gently bathe the person with cool water. Give the
person air by fanning him or her. Have the person drink water at intervals for a few
minutes. Allow the person to rest and sleep.

2. Preventing Hypothermia
Hypothermia happens when the body’s temperature drops below normal because of
severe cold temperatures. Symptoms of hypothermia include chilling and uncontrolled
shivering, impaired vision and sleepiness, and mental confusion. Hypothermia can be
prevented by wearing warm clothes and dressing in layers to help your body adjust to
the temperature. You can also use warmers such as a warm cap and warm sleeping
bag. Drink plenty of fluid and take in hot drinks as well. If the weather is deteriorating, do
not go on for a hike.

In case of hypothermia, immediately put the person at rest and in a warm shelter. Make
the person feel warm by giving him dry and warm clothes. In addition, give him hot
drinks and other necessary options to warm him or her, including a warm embrace and
body contact.

3. Learn basic first aid

in case of injuries such as open wounds, scrapes and scratches, cuts and lacerations,
puncture wounds, bruises, burns, sprains, and severe bleeding.

4. Apply insect repellent lotions

to prevent insects such as mosquitoes from biting you.

5. As much as possible, hike and trek with the company. Do not climb alone.

6. When you are lost, STOP—stop, think, observe, and plan. Retrace your steps
until you reach a familiar landmark. Camp on a safe site until you are rescued. Use your
whistle to contact your group. Three long blows on the whistle is a signal that you need
help. If you happen to get a cellphone signal, contact an emergency hotline (make sure
you know emergency numbers before you go on a climb).
5.5. Mountaineering Etiquette
Mountain etiquette refers to the proper conduct that hikers and trekkers must
demonstrate while in their journey. The following are some of the principles that hikers
and trekkers must follow.

○ The basic ethics of low-impact camping is “Take nothing but

pictures. Leave nothing but footprints. Kill nothing but time.”
Hikers and trekkers must practice the philosophy of “leaving no
trace.” This means that future hikers must not detect the presence
of the previous hikers. In this case, hikers and trekkers must leave
the place the way they found it. No trash or garbage must be left
behind. Leaving marks such as vandalism must not be practiced. In
addition, while hikers and trekkers practice leaving no trace, they
must also not take anything from the environment. A mountaineer
must never collect plants, animals, or even rocks. Killing,
disturbing, or harming living species in the mountain is prohibited
as well. In fact, cutting down trees or breaking tree branches are
not allowed for use as firewood. When building a campfire, fallen
branches can be used. However, building campfires are not
advisable as it can cause damage to the environment and careless
use of fire can lead to a forest fire.
○ Camp only on designated campsites.
○ Always stay on the designated pathway to avoid damage to soil
and plants. Avoid widening the trail.
○ Do not feed the animals.
○ In washing dishes, try detergent-free washing. Clean first the
remnants off the plates and utensils and dry them with cloth or
tissue. Wash the dishes away from any natural water sources.
○ Use biodegradable soaps and shampoos when taking a bath or
washing your body. However, even biodegradables can also cause
damage to the environment. As much as possible, do soapless
baths.
○ Keep your movements silent. Lower your voice when you speak.
○ Show courtesy to fellow climbers. Learn to share the trails.
○ Remember the 3Cs—courtesy, communication, and common
sense.
○ Respect the local practices in the area.