Versatile Notes

PHYSICS XII
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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

CHAPTER 11
ELECTROSTATICS

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Exercise Mcq’s Chapter 11

I. A charge Q is divided into two parts q and (𝑸 − 𝒒) and separated by a distance R. The force ofrepulsion
between them will be maximum when:
(a) q= Q/4 (b) q = Q/2 (c) q=Q (d)None of these
II. Three objects are brought close to each other, two at a time. When objects A and B are brought together, they
attract. When objects B and C are brought together, they repel. From this, we conclude that
(a) Objects A and C possess charges of the same sign
(b) Objects A and C possess charges of the opposite sign
(c) Al three of the objects possess charges of the same sign
(d) One of the objects is neutral
III. Objects A has a charge of +2 and object B hass a charge of +6 . Which statement is true about the electric
forces on the objects?
(a) (b) (c) (d)
IV. Some charge is being given to a conductor. Then its potential:
(a) Is maximum at surface
(b)Is maximum at center
(c) remains same throughout the conductor
(d) Is maximum somewhere between surface and the center
V. The unit of electric field intensity is
(a) Volt / meter (b) newton/ Coulomb (c) Joule / Coulomb. Meter (d) Volt.meter
VI. A proton is about 1840 times heavier than an electron. When it is accelerated by potential differenceof 1KV, its
kinetic energy will be:
(a) 1840 keV (b) 1/1840 keV (c) 1keV (d) 920keV
VII. The electric field at a distance of 20 cm from 2 charge is ………..N
(a) (b) (c) (d)
VIII. An electric charge q is placed at the center of a cube of side “a” . the electric flux ion its one side will be
(a) (b) (c) (d)
IX. The electric flux through the surface of a sphere due to charge q placed at its center depends upon
(a )The radius of the sphere
(b)The quantity of the charge outside the sphere
(c) The surface area of the sphere
(d) The quantity of charge inside the sphere
X. A one microfarad capacitor of a TV is subjected to 4000 V potential difference. The energy stored in capacitor
is:
(a)8J (b)16J (c)4 × 10–3J (d) 2 × 10–3J
XI. In the figure below, the charge on 3µF capacitor is:

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

a. 5 µC b.10 µC c. 3 µC d. 6 µC
XII. Two parallel, metal plates are a distance 8.00 m apart. The electric field between the plates is
uniform, directed toward the right, and has a magnitude of 4.00 N/C. If an ion of charge +2e is
released at rest at the left-hand plate, what is its kinetic energy when it reaches the right-hand
plate?
a. 4eV b. 64eV c. 32eV d. 16eV
XIII. The electric potential between two points A and B is ∆V. The work done by the field is
a. W= - q ∆V b. W= q ∆V c. W = -∆V/q d. W = ∆V/q

Exercise Short Questions

Q.1 The electric potential is constant throughout a given region of space. Is the electric field
zero or non-zero in this region? Explain.
Ans. Case-I: The electrical field may be zero in the region if electric potential is constant.

As V = constant

● Then potential difference is zero. 𝑽=0

Putting 𝑽 ,

Therefore, inside hollow charged sphere electric field is zero. E = 0

Case-ii: The potential is constant at equipotential surface but electric field is non-zero there.
Q.2 If a point charge q of mass m is released in a non-uniform electric field with filed lines
pointing in the same direction will it make a rectilinear motion?
Ans. Yes, it will make a rectilinear motion.

Reason i) A rectilinear motion means a motion along a straight line. If a point charge q of
mass m is placed at any point in the non-uniform electric field of a single positive point charge
then the charge will experience a repulsive force.

This force will act on the charge along the straight line and the charge will follow a straight
path .Therefore it makes rectilinear motion.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

F= q E
► The electrostatic force produces linear acceleration.

► So the charge q will acquire rectilinear motion with non-uniformacceleration when released in
a non-uniform electric field.

► (ii) In case of the field of two opposite charges it will not follow a
rectilinear path. For two oppositec
charge will move along straight path in this electric
field.

Q.3 What is the relationship between voltage and energy? Moreover precisely, what is the
relationship between potential difference and electric potential energy?
Both of them are closely related with each other.

Explanation:

● Let two plates A and B are oppositely charged. A positive test charge of very small magnitude and
dimension is displacedfrom A to B.
• The work done on the charge increases (change ) the electric P.E. of charge against the electric field.

This work done per unit charge to displace it from one point to another point against
𝑾
electric field keepingelectrostatic equilibrium is called potential difference. 𝑽 𝒒
As
𝑼
𝑽
𝒒
Hence change in potential energy per unit test charge in called potential difference.
Electric potential energy is possessed by the charge whereas the
potential difference is theproperty associated with electric field.

Q.4 How are units of volts and electron volts related? How do they differ?
Ans. Volt is the unit of potential difference and electron volt is the unit of energy or work.
Volt: If one joule work is done in carrying a unit positive charge from one point to another keeping
electrostatic equilibriumthen the potential difference between two points is one volt.

Electron volt. The amount of energy acquired or lost by an electron as it traverses through a potential
difference of onevolt is
called 1 eV energy.
𝑼 𝒒 𝑽 (1)
As q = e = 1.6 × 10-19 C and ∆V = 1V, then the energy gained is called 1 electron volt and from equation
“1” we have.

1ev = 1.6 × 10-19 c × 1 volt = 1.6× 𝟏 -19

J

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Differences: 1. Volt is the unit of voltage or potential difference and electron volt is the unit o used
for nuclear energy inatomic physics.

2- Potential difference is the property associated with electric field between two oppositely charged
parallel plates whereaseV is energy of charged particle in that electric field.

Q.5 How can electric potential be high when the electric potential energy is relatively low?
Ans: This is possible only for charges of small magnitude.

Electric potential is given as

And electric potential energy is given as

So from equations 1 and 2 it is clear that for small magnitude of charge, that electric potential be
high when the electric potential energy is relatively low.

Q.6 Can the potential of a non-uniformly charged sphere be the same as that of a pointcharge?
Explain.

Ans. The electric potential at a point due to a point charge is is given by ...

As there is non-uniform charges distribution on an insulating sphere then close to the surface of sphere ‘q’
is not equal forsame distance ‘r’

● So potential of non- uniformly charges distribution sphere and that of a pointcharge are not
same very close to surfaces.
► But for a point at large distance from a non-uniformly charged sphere the electric potential
may be same as that of theelectric potential due to a point charge.
Q.7 Will the energy stored in three capacitors be greater when they are connected in series or
in parallel?
Ans: As we know that energy stored in capacitor is given as

This relation shows that energy id directly related to capacitance.

 So when three capacitors are connected in series then equivalent capacitance is given as

 And when three capacitors are connected in parallel then equivalent capacitance is given as

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

 Above relations shows that in parallel combination equivalent capacitance is always greater than
individual capacitor as compared to series combination.
 So energy stored in parallel combination will be greater.
Q.8 Can different equipotential lines cross? Explain.
Ans. No it is not possible for two different equipotential lines to cross each other.
Reason. There is a certain value of potential V at each point of an equipotential line which is given by

► Now if two or more equipotential lines intersect at a point,there will be two

or more values of electric potential at a single point, which is not possible.

Therefore equipotential lines can never cross each other.

Q.9 Water has a large dielectric constant but it is rarely used in capacitors. Explain why?

Ans. Water has very high value of dielectric constant of 78.5. It is not used in
capacitors as a dielectric.This is because of the following reasons.

► Pure water molecules have dipole moments, so it can be easily polarized under a given electric
field. This decreasing theeffect of the electric field between a capacitor’s plates
► Water can conduct electricity because it ionizes quickly and contains 𝐻 + and 𝑂𝐻 ions. Water have +
and 𝑂 𝐻 ions which are mobile that may leak charge between the plates of a capacitor and will discharge
the capacitor.
► The value of dielectric constant of water varies with temperature.
Q.10 How can you increase the capacitance of capacitor?
Ans: As capacitance of capacitor is given as

So from above equation we see that capacitance depends upon

• Area of plates
• Separation between plates of capacitor
• Relative permittivity of dielectric material
So by decreasing separation between plates, increasing area and using insulator of large relative
permittivity capacitance will be increased.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Additional MCQ’S Chapter 11

1. A closed surface contain two equal and opposite charges. The net electric flux from the surface will be (2010)
A. Negative B. Positive C. Infinite D. Zero
2. What is S.I unit of electric flux? (2011)
A. NmC-1 B. Nm-1C-1 C. Nm2C-1 D. Nm2C-2
3. What is quantity ΔV/Δr called ? (2011)
A.Electric potential B. Electric energy C. Potential Barrier D. potential gradient
4. The fact that Electric field exist in space aroud an electrical charge is (2012)
A. Electrical property B. gravitational field C. Intirnsic property of nature D. All of these
5. One columb charged is carried by ………electrons. (2012)
𝟏
A. 6.25 x 𝟏 B. one C. 1.6 x D. none of these
6. Electric field and a potential difference inside a hallow charge conducting sphare are (2012)
A. 0.0 B. .0 C. 0. D. None of these
7. The negative of potential gradiant is (2012)
A. Electric filed intensity B. Potential difference
C. Electric potential D. None of these
8. Aluminum is a/an (2012)
A. Photo conductor B. Insulator C. Excellent conductor D. Bad conductor
9. The electric intensity near in infinite plate of positive charge will be (2013), (2017)
A. B. C. D. None of these
10. One electron Volt is equal to ……… Joule (2013)
𝟏
A. B. C. 𝟏 𝑿𝟏 D.

11. The ratio of gravitational force to the between two electron the same distance a apart is (2013)

A. 9.8 B. 24 X C. 24 X D.24 X 𝟏

12. The SI unit of relativity permittivity is (2013)

A. B. C. D. No unit
13. It is required to suspend a proton of charge “q” and mass “m” in an Electric field. The strength of field must be
(2014)
𝒈
A. B. C. 𝒒
D.
14. The energy stored per unit volume in the electric field between the plates of charged capacitor with dielectric is
(2014)
A. B.
𝟏
C. 𝑼 D.
15. The total capacitance of the given cmbination between P and Q is (2014)
A. B. 2C
C. D.

16. Dielectric placed between the plates of a charged capacitor can (2014)

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

A. Decreases the potential difference B. Reduce electric intensity

C. Increase the value of capacitance D. All of these
17. The work done is moving a positive charge on an equuipotentail surface is (2015)
A. Finite and positive B. Infinite
C. Finite and negative D. Zero
18. The slope of potential distance graph provides (2015)
A. Electric potential B. Magnetic induction
C. Electric field intensity D. Electrostatic force
19. Three capacitor each of capacity C are given. The result capacity can be obtained by using them (2015)
A. All in series
B. All in parallel
C. Two in parallel and the third one in series with this combination
20. A capacitor stores energy in (2015)
A. Its magnetic field B. Its electric field
C. Its coil D. Battery
21. Two charges of and are 12cm apart. The force between them is (2016)
A. B.
C. D.
22. The minimum indivisible unit of charge is (2016)
A. The charge on an electron B. One micro coulomb
C. One coulomb D. The Charge on
23. The value of permittivity for free space is (2016)
A. B. 𝟏 𝟏
C. D.
24. A capacitor has a potential difference of across it. The charge on the capacitor is (2016)
A. 𝟏 B. C. D.
25. If time constant in R-C circuit is small the capacitor is charged (2016)
A. Rapidly B. Slowly C. Neither rapidly nor slowly D. Infinitely
26. The direction of field lines due to a test charge “+q” is (2017)
A. Circular B. Curve C. Radially outward D. Radially Inward
27. A capacitor of capacitance “C” has a charge “Q” and stored energy is “w” if the charge increased of “2Q” The
stored energy will be (2017)
A. B. C. D.

28. The ratio of gravitational force to the between two electron the same distance a apart is (2017)

A. 9.8 B. 24 X C. 24 X D.24 X 𝟏
29. The minimum charge on an abject is
a) 1 coulomb b) 1 state coulomb c) 1.6 x 10-19 C d) None
30. Which of the following is correct
a) J = C/V b) J = V x A c) J = V/A d) J = C x V
31. Polarization of matter is possible only for
a) Conductors b) Insulators c) Gases d) S. conductors
32. There are two charges 1 and 6 , the ratio of forces acting on them will be
a) 1:25 b) 1:6 c) 1:1 d) 6:1
33. An electric field lines provides information about ________

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

a) Electric Force b) Direction c) Medium d) All of them

34. If two charges are experiencing a force of 10 N, when medium is Air, if the medium is change whose relative
permittivity is ‘2’ then force will be
a) 3 N b) 5 N c) 10 N d) 0.3 N
35. Unit of electric flux is
a) V.m b) N/C c) V.m2 d) N2/C2
36. Gauss’s law can be applied to
a) Plane surface b) Curved surface c) Any surface d) Closed surface
37. Objects may acquire an excess or deficiency of charge by
a) Electric force b) Heating c) Striking d) By rubbing
38. Coulomb’s law is only applicable for
a) Big charges b) Small charges c) Point charges d) Any charges
39. The force per unit charge is known as
a) Electric flux b) Electric potential c) Electric intensity d) Electric current
40. Electric field intensity is also known as
a) Electric potential b) Electric flux c) Potential gradient d) None
41. The work done in moving a charge along an equipotential surface is
a) Greater than zero b) Equal to zero c)Negative d)Depends on the path
42. In the region where the electric field is zero, the electric potential is always
a) Positive b) Negative c) Constant d) Zero
43. The electric intensity is expressed in unit of N/C or
a) Volts b) Walt c) Joules d) V/m
44. The energy stored in the capacitor is
a) ½ CV2 b) ½ C2 V c) ½ QV2 d) ½ Q2V
45. A charge of 0.01c accelerated through a p.d of 1000V acquires K-E
a) 10 J b) 100 J c) 200 J d) 400 eV
46. If the charge on the particle is double then electric field is
a) Half b) Double c) Unchanged d) None
47. The area of plates of 1 farad capacitor separated 8.85mm placed in the air is
a) 109m2 b) 05m2 c) 10-9m2 d) 10-5m2

48. A capacitor acts as blocking elements when applied signal is

a) A.C b) D.C c) both d) None
49. The surface consider for gauss’s law is called
a) Closed surface b) Spherical surface c) Gaussian surface d) None
50. Gravitational force does not depends on
a) Force b) Masses c) Distance d) Medium
51. The medium used b/w the plates of capacitor is called
a) Polarization b) Dielectric c) Insulators d) Medium
52. Selenium is a conductor material which when exposed to ________
a) Light b) Mono chromatic light c) Dark d) None
53. When capacitors are connected in parallel the net capacitance will
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Constant d) None
54. When two capacitors of same capacitance are connected in parallel and then in series, the capacitance in these
two cases are in ratio of
a) 1:4 b) 4:1 c) 6:1 d) 1:2
55. S.I unit of permittivity of free space is
a) Farad b) Weber c) C2/N.m2 d) C2/N.m

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56. The field inside the hollow conductor will be

a) Zero b) Greater than zero c) E = kq/r2 d) Infinite
57. If the potential difference on a surface is equal to zero b/w any two points, then surface is said to be
a) A dielectric b) An equipotential surface c) Polarized d) None
58. A unit of electric charge is
a) Volt b) Hennery c) Ampere d) Coulomb
59. Potential gradient is defined as
𝑽
a) b) c) d)
60. Large RC (Time constant) value has
a). Small time constant b) Large time constant
c) Equal time constant d) none of these
61. A Capacitor of 2μF is connected with a battery of 12 Volts, the charge stored in capacitor
a) 2.5 × 10 -5C b) 2.4 × 10-6C c) 2.4 × 10-5C d) 2.4 × 10-6C
62. An electric field can deflect
a) Neutron b) x – rays c)  – rays d) α – rays
63. The relative permittivity for germanium is
a) 16 b) 17 c) 18 d) 22
64. Xerography means
a) Type writing b) Wet writing c) Dry writing d) none
65. A 25eV electron has a speed of
a) 2 × 106m/sec b) 3 × 106m/sec c) 5 × 106m/sec d) 4 × 106m/sec
66. If mica sheet is place between the plates, the capacity will
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Remain same d) None
67. The force exerted by two charged bodies on one another, obeys Coulomb’s law provided that
a) The charges are not too small
b) The charges are in vacuum
c) The charges are not too large
d) The linear dimension of charges is much smaller than distance between them
68. Coulomb Law is also known as
a) Electrostatic Law b) Force Law c) Inverse Square Law d) None
69. The ratio of Cvac and Cmed is equal to
a) b) c) d)
70. The force of proton in electric field of magnitude 106 N/c is
a) 1.6 × 10-15N b) 1.6 × 109N c) 1.6 × 1013N d) 1.6 × 1013N
71. A cylinder of radius R and length L is placed in a uniform electric field E parallel to the cylindrical axis. The total
flux for the surface of the cylinder is:
a) R / E c) 2R / E d) 2R E
2 2 2
b) Zero
72. In an inkjet printer the charged ink drops are diverted by the deflection plates
a) Towards the charging electrodes
b) Towards the gutter
c) Towards a blank paper on which the print is to be taken
d) In inkjet printer ink cannot be charged
73. The constant K in Coulomb’s Law depends upon
a) Nature of medium b) System of units c) Intensity of charge d) a & b

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74. The force between two charges in 8N. now placed a mica of relative permittivity 4 between two charges as a
medium, the force then reduced to
a) 2N b) 4N c) 6N d) 8N
75. Selenium is an
a) Insulator b) Conductor c) Semiconductor d) Photoconductor
76. The magnitude of the electric field on the surface of a sphere of radius ‘r’ having a uniform surface charge
density  is
a) b) c) d)
77. Of the following quantities, the one that is vector in character is an electric……..
a) Charge b) Potential Difference c) Energy d) Field
78. Dielectric has the charge of the type inside it
a) Moving charge b) Static charge c) Both a & b d) None
79. The Coulomb’s force between two charges q1 and q2 separated by distance ‘r’ is F. If the separation between two
charges is doubled keeping charges constant, then Coulomb’s force becomes
a) 4F b) F/4 c) F/2 d) 2F
80. The dimensions of relative permittivity are
a) [A2T4ML-3] b) [ML-3A2T4] c) [ML3A2T2] d) None

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Additional Short Questions Chapter 11

1. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C is charged using an emf 𝑽. After the capacitor is charged the battery is
removed and the distance between the capacitor is halved. Find the new energy stored? (2010)
Ans: When the capacitor is being charged then energy is stored in a capacitor is given as

( )

( )

2. What do you understand by an equipotential surface in an electric field? (2010), (2017)

Ans: Any surface over which the potential is constant is called equipotential surface. In other words potential difference between
two points on an equipotential surface is zero.
Properties of Equipotential surface
 Work done in moving a charge on equipotential surface is zero.
 The electric field is always perpendicular to the equipotential surface.
 Two equipotential surfaces never intersect each other.
3. Verify that an Ohm time’s farad is equivalent to second? (2010), (2014), (2015) (2017)
Solution: Ohm’s law in term of potential difference V, current and resistance can be written as

Putting this equation transforms into the equation,

Or
According to equation
Multiplying this equation with above equation given

Hence 1ohm x 1 farad = 1 second

Where ohm is the unit of resistance
4. By assuming that a hydrogen atom consists of an
electron of charge e- orbiting a proton of charge e+. Calculate the ratio of the electric force between the electron and proton to
the gravitationnal force between them ( Mass of electron me=9.1 X 10-11 kg mass of proton mp = 1.67 x 10-27 Kg )
(2010)
Ans:

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

⁄
⁄

5. Compare Electric and Gravtitional forces? (2011), (2017)

Ans: These can be compared as
Gravitational Force Electric Force
1. It is Long range force 1. It is short range force
2. It is weak force. 2. It is strong force
3. It is attractive only. 3. It is attractive as well as repulsive.
4. It can’t be shielded 4. It can be shielded
-11 2
5. The value of its constant G is 6.67 x 10 Nm / 5. The value of its constant K is 9 x 109
2
kg Nm2/ C2

6. Prove that the electric intensity at any point inside a hallow charged sphare is zero? (2011)
As there is no charge inside the sphere, so . According to Gauss's law:
As ( )
So,
We know electric flux,
=0
( )

7. Define Electric flux and give its unit.? (2012)

Ans: It is defined as total number of electric field lines passing through a surface is known as electric flux. OR
The dot product of elctric field intensity and vector area is called electric flux.

It is scalar quantity. Its unit is Nm2 / C

8. How can the positively charged plate of a capacitor be identified? (2012),(2013), (2016)

Ans: We can identify the positively charged plate by following methods:

 The plate connected with positive terminal of battery is positively charged while the other is negatively charged.
 We can use Gold leaf electroscope to determine the polarity of plates.
 When the charged capacitor is connected across a resistance, the current starts flowing from positively charged plate to
negatively charged plate, until it is discharged completely.

9. De electron tend to go to the region of high potential or of low potential? (2012)

Ans: Yes. As electrons are negatively charged particles, so they tend to move from region of lower potential to region of higher
potential. Because negative terminal is considered at lower potential as compared to positive terminal.

10. If a point charge q of mass m is released in a non-uniform electric field with fields lines pointing in the same direction will
it make a rectilinear motion? (2013)

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Ans: Yes, q will make a rectilinear path, if it is moved in electric field due to single charge, since the field line is pointing in some
direction, so the charge q will move along the line.

If it is allowed to move in in electric field due to two charges, it will move along the curved path.

11. Suppose that you follow an electric field line due to a positive point charge. Do the Electric field and the potential
increase or decrease (2013), (2017)

Ans: Electric field intensity as well as electric potential will decrease by following electric field lines around a positive point charge,
because electric field lines are directed away from positive charge so distance will increase when field line is followed, as

V= ⇒

And E = ⇒

So electric field and the potential will decrease.

12. Electric lines of force never cross. Why (2013), (2017)
Ans: Electric field lines cannot intersect each other. This is because E has only one direction at any given point. If the lines cross, E
would have two directions at a single point i.e. point of intersection of two field lines which is not possible.
13. What is one electron volt energy? Derive its formula. (2014)
Ans: “The amount of energy gained or lost by an electron when it travels through a potential difference of one volt”.

( )( )
As

14. Does there exist any electric field inside a hollow charged shell? Prove your answer. How can metal body act as
electrostatic shielding for electronic device? (2014)
Ans: No, electric field does not exist inside a hollow charged shell.
As there is no charge inside the sphere, so . According to Gauss's law:
As ( )
So,
We know electric flux,
=0
( )

. It is well known that no electric fields exist inside a hollow conductor, even if there are charges present outside. The
conductor (metal) acts like an electrostatic shield. This is only true if the conductor is kept at a constant potential. Indeed,
assuming electrostatic equilibrium and the concept of equipotential surface
15. What is potential Gradient? Prove that the electric field intensity is equal to the negative of potietial gradient i.e
𝑽
? (2014)
Ans: “Change in electric potential with respect to the distance is called potential gradient. It is equal to electric field intensity”.
When a charge is moved between two points from A to B in an electric field of value E.Potential difference at that point is given
as

Here

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

So
Or
If distance between two points is very small i.e

16. What is the role of material medium if it is placed in between plates of Capacitors? (2015), (2018)
Ans: If an insulating material called dielectric of relative permittivity is inserted between the plates. Then the capacitance of the
capacitor is increased by the factor called dielectric constant.
Consider of an experimental demonstration in which a charged capacitor is connected to a voltmeter. The reading of the voltmeter
gives potential difference between the plates. When the dielectric is placed between the plates, the reading of voltmeter is
decreased. Now
𝑸
𝑽
Since ‘Q’ remains constant so when ‘V’ decreases the value of ‘C’ increases. Then above eq. becomes,

𝒆𝒅
𝒅

17. How do shark fish locate their prey precisely? (2016)

Ans: Fish and other sea creatures produce electric fields in a variety of ways. Sharks have special organs , called the ampullae of
lorenzini, that are very sensitive to electric field and can detect potential difference of the order of nanovolt and can locate their
prey precisely.

18. What do you understand by electric filed lines(2016)

Ans: An electric line of force is an imaginary continuous line or curve drawn in an electric field such that tangent to it at any point
gives the direction of the electric force at that point. The direction of a line of force is the direction along which a small free positive
charge will move along the line. These lines show the strength of electric field also.
19. The potential is constant throughout a given region of space. Is the electric field zero or non-zero in the region? Explain
(2017)
For constant potential in a region, the electric field is zero, as,

Hence, when potential difference is zero, electric field is also zero

20. Define Electric field intensity. Also give its unit. (2018)
Force per unit charge in an electric field is known as electric field intensity.
It is given as
Its unit is . It is vector quantity.
21. A particle carrying a charge of 2e falls through a potential difference of 3 volt. Calculate the energy acquired by it (2015)

Solution:

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

q=2e
The energy acquired by the particle is
( )( )

Comprehensive Questions Chapter 11

► Q. State and Explain the Coulomb’s Law.
COULOMB’S LAW
The quantitative measurement of force between two electric charges was first made by Coulomb in 1784 AD.He
carried out series of experiment to measure the electric force between two electric charges using torsion balance
apparatus.
Statement
“The electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of magnitudes of charges
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.
Mathematical Form
The magnitude of electric force between two point charges q1 and q2separatedby a
distance r is given by

Combining these two relations we get

Where k is the constant of proportionality called electrostatic constant.

9 2 2
► In S I-unit value of k is k = 9 × 10 Nm /C Point charges: The
► Dimensions of [ ]
► Value of k depends upon: charged bodies whose size is
very small as compared to
► System of units.
distance between them are
► The nature of medium between two charges. called point charges.
The constant k can be expressed in terms of permittivity of free space
(epsilon nought)

So

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Putting value of k from equation (2) in equation in (1) So, the electrostatic force is given by

Equation (1) and (3) give the magnitude of force between two charges when there is air or vacuum betweenthem.
𝟏
Dimensions of [ 𝑻 ]

Vector form of Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s force is mutual force, it means that if q1 exerts a force on q2, then q2
also exerts an equal andopposite force on q1.
⃗ = Force exerted on charge q2 by q1
̂ = unit vector directed from q1 to q2
⃗ = force exerted on charge q1by q2

̂ unit vector directed from q2 to q1

⃗ * + ̂

⃗ * + ̂

As from fig

̂ ̂

Put in eq 4

⃗ * +( ̂ )

Putting value from equation (5) in (6)

⃗ ⃗
This equation shows that two forces are equal in magnitude. Negative sign in equation (7) shows that two forces
are opposite indirection. Hence Coulomb’s law is in accordance with Newton’s third law of motion.

Effect of medium on electric force between two charges

● If an insulating medium is placed between the charges, it reduces theelectrostatic force as compared to free
space.
● Permittivity is the property of medium which affects the magnitude offorce between two-point charges.
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Coulomb’s force in medium is

* +

Where ε is permittivity of medium.

Relative permittivity: The permittivity of material medium compared with the permittivity of vacuum is calledrelative
permittivity or dielectric constant.

► Value of is different for different mediums.

► is always greater than unity.
► have no unit and no dimensions.Putting in equation (8)
► * +

* +Putting value from Eq. (3) in (8)

is times less than

For vacuum the value of is 1 while for air the value of 1.0006.

Relative Permittivity ( )
From Eq (10) Relative permittivity or dielectric constant can be defined as
The ratio of electrostatic force with vacuum between two charges to the force with mediumbetween
the charges.

Q What is Absolute electric Potential. Derive a relation for the electric potential (or absolute
potential) at a certain point due to a point charge
Definition: The work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point keeping electrostaticequilibrium is called
electric potential or absolute electric potential at that point

Derivation: Consider an isolated charge +Q fixed in space as shown in fig.

► Let a test charge q is moved from point A to point B against the electric field of charge Q keeping the electrostatic

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

equilibrium. 𝑟 𝑟𝐴
𝑟𝑎𝑣
Let and 𝐵 be distances of point A and point B from charge Q.

As 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟𝐴 ⇒ 𝑟 𝑟𝐴 𝑟

𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐴 𝑟 𝑟𝐴 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟𝑎𝑣 𝑟𝐴

By squaring on both sides

𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟𝑎𝑣 (𝑟𝐴 ) 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐴 ( )

𝑟
( ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

► We divide the distance between A and B into very small displacements (as shown)𝑟𝑎𝑣so 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐴 𝑟 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐴 (𝑟 𝑟𝐴 )
that the field intensityE over each displacement remains same.

𝑟𝑎𝑣 𝑟𝐴 𝑟 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐴

𝑟𝑎𝑣 𝑟𝑟

So

Replace on r by and another by

So equation (1) becomes

( )

► Work done in moving the test charge q from point A to 1 is:

⃗ ⃗

As electric force and displacement

So,

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Because q is moved against the electric field.

As

From equation 2,3 and 4 we get

( )( )

By rearranging

( )

( )

Similarly

( )

……

……

……

( )

► So total work done in moving the test charge q from A to B is:

( )

Now consider point A lies at infinity.

So

( )

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

This work done is equal to electric potential energy.

( )

Electric potential at distance r from charge Q is

► Q. State and explain Gauss’s Law.

GAUSS’S LAW
𝟏
Statement: “It states that “The electric flux through any closed surface is times the total charge enclosed in the closed surface.”
(or)

It states that “The net electric flux through a closed is equal to total charge enclosed by closedsurface
divided by permittivity of free space.
Electric flux through any closed surface
Consider a closed sphere of radius r having a point charge +q at its center.

► To calculate electric flux divided surface area into n number of small patches,
sothat electric field is same for each patch.
Let the electric intensities at the center of vector areas

⃗ , ⃗ , ⃗ , …………………… ⃗ are ⃗⃗ , , ⃗⃗ , …………………… ⃗⃗ respectively.

Electric intensity is same for all patches of areas.

The electric flux through the area Δ A 1 is, …………….

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ …………

Similarly The total electric flux through the

closed surface will be

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

A

+q
As electric intensity is same for all small patches.

The total electric flux through the

surface of the spheredue to a charge

* + +q

Putting in eq. 1
* +

Putting surface area of sphere =

* +

► Now consider a closed surface around the sphere as shown in figure. The flux through the closed surface is
the same as the flux through the sphere. So we can conclude,
Conclusion
 The electric flux through a closed surface does not depend upon the shape or geometry of closed
surface.
 The flux through the surface depends upon the medium and magnitude of charge enclosed.

Explanation of Gauss’s law

Consider an irregular closed surface having n point charges q1, q2, q3, ….…, as q3
q2
shown in figure. The totalelectric flux through the closed surface is equal to sum of
electric flux of all the charges, q1 qn
q6

q5
q4

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

( )

( )

Where

This represents the mathematical form of Gauss’s Law.

► The electric flux through any closed surface is 𝟏 times the total charge enclosed in it”.

Q. What is Gaussian surface? What is use of Gauss’s law?

Gaussian surface
A Gaussian surface is an imaginary closed surface of arbitrary shape which passes
through the point where we want to calculate electric intensity.

Applications of Gauss's Law:

Gauss's law provides a convenient method to calculate E in the case of sufficiently
symmetrical charge distribution.

► Q. What is location of charges on a hollow closed surface? Also calculatethe Electric

Intensity for Hollow Charged Sphere?
Intensity of Field inside a Hollow Charged Sphere
Gaussian surface
In order to calculate the electric intensity inside the sphere, we
imagine a Gaussian sphere of radius inside the sphere, where radius of
Gaussian sphere is less than R (i.e. < R)

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Charge enclosed
It can be seen in figure that the charge enclosed by Gaussian
sphere iszero. i.e.

q=0 (1)
Flux through the surface
The electric flux through the closed surface is

⃗⃗ ⃗

Calculation of Electric Intensity

By Gauss’s law

Using equations (1) and (2) in equation (3), we have

⃗⃗ ⃗

Since vector area can never be zero. So

Thus, the interior of a hollow conducting charged metallic sphere is field

free region.

Location of Excess Charge on a Conductor:

We know that the electric field E = 0 at all points due to electrostatic
equilibrium in a conductor (the charges will reside on the outer surface of the
hollow closed body).

Case 1:

 Consider the charged conductor as shown in the figure.

 Charges are present on the outer surface of the conductor.
 If we imagine a Gaussian surface S, in the interior of a conductor, as
shown in fig:
 We see that there are no charged inside the conductor so there will
be no electric field inside it (E = 0) everywhere in this surface.
 Conversely, we can say that there cannot be a net charge at any
point within the conductor if that's so, that means all the charge
must be on the outer surface of the conductor, as shown in fig.
Case 2:

 Now let's consider a hollow conductor as shown in the illustration.

 Since the conductor is hollow so there is no net charge at any point
within the conductor.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

 The cavity is surrounded by a Gaussian surface S which encloses no

net charge and so there is no charge on the internal cavity.
 Again, all the charge is deposited on the outer surface of the conductor.
Case 3:

 In the third case as shown in the fig, Lets put a charge q inside
thehollow conductor.
 Initially the conductor was uncharged but when charge q is inserted, then
therewill be negative charge on the inside cavity in order to maintain
its neutral
Status due to electrostatic induction. Also there will be equal positive charge on the outer surface of the
cylindricalconductor.

 Now if we use Gauss's Law with Gaussian surface S inside the

conductor as shown, the net charge of what it encloses has to be
zero sum of positive charge q at center of cavity and negative charge
on inside of cylinder is zero.
 Therefore, there will be no electric field inside the conductor.
 So the other surface must have a charge equal but opposite the
charge ofthe internal cavity, or the outer surface's charge is equal to
that of charge q.
Derive an expression for the Electric Intensity Due to an Infinite Sheet of Charge.
► Consider an infinite plane sheet of surface charge density
► Let P be the point at a distance r from the sheet. E be the electricfield at point P due to
positive sheet of charges.
► Consider Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder of cross-sectional area A
perpendicular to the sheet of charge.
The direction of E is perpendicular to face containing P and parallelto the curved surface.

Since we know by Gauss’s law

( )

Surface charge density is amount of charge per unit area =

Or

So

Now we calculate the electric flux through each of the three surfaces of
Gaussian cylinder.
i) Flux through right end flat surface at P
⃗⃗ ⃗

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

( )

ii) Flux through left end flat surface at 𝑷′

⃗⃗ ⃗

( )

iii) Flux through curved surface

As no field lines pass through the curved surface, so

⃗⃗ ⃗

( )

Hence, the total flux through the cylinder is,

By putting value

Comparing equation (2) and (3),

In vector form ̂
Where ̂ is the unit vector normal to the sheet directed away from sheet of charge.

ELECTRIC INTENSITY BETWEEN TWO OPPOSITELY CHARGED PARALLEL PLATES

► Consider two oppositely charged parallel metal plates of infinite extent separated by vacuum.
The surface charges densities of these plates are +σ and -σ. Electric field between the plates is uniform.
Gaussian Surface
► Consider a Gaussian surface in form of hollow box, whose top is inside the upper metal plate and
thebottom is in space between the plates, as shown in figure.
Let A = surface area of the top surface of the hollow box.
uniform surface charge density

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Or

► Electric Flux through sides of the box

As the field lines are perpendicular to the vector area of
sides of the box.
⃗⃗ ⃗

( )

So electric flux through the sides is zero.

► Flux through upper surface of the box
As there is no field inside the metal plate. So flux
through the upper end of the box is also zero.
► Flux through lower surface of the box
The flux through the lower surface of the box is given by,
⃗⃗ ⃗

( )

Total flux through the box

Hence net flux through the box is,

According to Gauss’s law

Putting

Comparing equations (1) and (2) we have

In vector form ̂
Where ̂ is unit vector directed from positive to negative plate.
► Q.What is a capacitor and capacitance of a capacitor? Give SI Unit of Capacitance.
CAPACITOR

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The capacitor is a device which is used to store electric charge.Parallel plate capacitor
► A simple capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates separated by air, or some insulating
mediumcalled dielectric. This type of capacitor is called parallel plate capacitor.
Charging of capacitor
► If the plates are connected to a battery of voltage V, then the plate of capacitor connected with +ve terminal
gains +Q charge and the other plate connected with -ve terminal of battery gain – Q
charge. These charges remain on the inner surface of the plates due to attraction
between the opposite charges.
► Let Q is the magnitude of the charge on either of plates and V is potential
difference between the plates. Then it is observed that,

𝑸 𝑽

Where C is the constant of proportionality called the capacitance ofcapacitor.

Capability of a capacitor to store charges is called capacitance.
Dependence of Capacitance

Capacitance depends upon the following factors;

► Area of the plates
►Separation between the plates.
► The medium between the plates.
Definition of capacitance

The capacitance can be defined as the ratio of magnitude of charge on either plate to potential difference
produced between the plates.
► SI unit of capacitance is farad.

Definition of farad

► The capacitance of a capacitor is said to be one farad if a charge of one

coulomb, given to one of the plates ofa parallel plate capacitor, produces a
potential difference of one volt between them.
𝟏
► Dimensions of capacitance [ 𝑻 ]

► Q. Derive an expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.

CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

Let us consider a parallel plate capacitor connected with a battery as shown in figure.
Area of each plate = A
Distance between the plates = d
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The charge stored on plates are +Q and –Q when potential differencebetween the plates is V.

The electric field between the plates =

Surface charge density of plates

Capacitance when air or vacuum between the plates

► According to the application of Gauss’s law the electric field intensity

betweentwo oppositely charged plates is

As

So

Comparing equation (1) and (2)

𝑽
𝑸
𝒅
Let there is air or vacuum between the plates of the capacitor.
𝑸
𝒂𝒄
𝑽

Putting this value of Q from equation (3) in (4), we get

Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor depends upon:

i- Aera of plates
ii- Distance between two plates
iii- Medium between two plates
ii) Capacitance With dielectric as the medium between two plates
ofcapacitor

► If a dielectric, of relative permittivity is placed between the two plates, then capacitance of capacitor increase
factor . So, equation (5) can be written as

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

( )

Put equation 5 in 6

( )

Equation (7) shows that is times greater than

 How capacitance increases with dielectric

When an insulating material is placed between the plates, then potential
difference and electric field between the plates decreases.

Q
As C=
V

Since V decreases while Q remains constant, so value of C increases,Dielectric

constant
From equation (5) and (6)

● Dielectric constant can be defined as the ratio of capacitances of a parallel

plate capacitor with a dielectric to its capacitance with vacuum or air as the
medium between the plates.
Explain series and parallel combination of capacitors in detail.
Combinations of Capacitors:
We know that the capacitors can be connected either in series or in parallel. We want to find out an
equivalentcapacitor that has the same capacitance as that of the combination of capacitors.
Series Combination of Capacitors:
● When the capacitors are connected plate to plate i.e. the right plate of one capacitor is connected to
the leftplate of the next capacitor so on as shown in figure, then it is called series combination.
● A battery of voltage V is connected between points A and B.
● Then it deposit the +Q charge on the left plates of the capacitor C and - Q charge is induced on its right plates.
► In series combination of capacitor amount of charge Q is same on each of its plates.
► The potential difference V must be equal to the sum of potential difference, V1, V2& V3 across the
capacitors
.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

, ,

Put in eq 1

( )

( )

Thus the equivalent capacitance of a series combination is always less than any individual capacitance in
thecombination.
Parallel Combination of Capacitors:
► When two or more capacitors are connected between the same two points in a circuit, as shown in
figure thenit is called parallel combination of capacitors.
● Three capacitors of capacitance C1, C2 and C3 areconnected in parallel between two points A and B.
► The potential difference between the plates of each capacitor is
the same and is equal to applied potential difference V i.e.

► When Q charge is supplied to the capacitors C1,

C2 and C3, they acquire different amount of
charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 respectively depending upon
their capacitances.
► Let Ce be the capacitance of an equivalent
capacitor, which would hold the same amount of
charge as sum of charge of all the three capacitors
C1, C2 and C3 hold under the same potential
difference.
........................................ (3)

Putting , , and in equation (3)

( )

𝒆 𝟏 ....................................... (4)

● Thus the equivalent capacitance of a parallel combination is always larger than any individual capacitance in the combination.

Q.17 Explain the phenomenon of electric polarization of dielectrics. What is the effect of polarization of dielectrics
onthe capacitance of a capacitor

● The appearance of charges on the faces of dielectric due to the effect of external electric field is calledelectric polarization

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of dielectric.
► When a dielectric material is placed in an electric field, the negative and positive charges of
atoms/moleculesof dielectric are slightly displaced, this phenomenon is called polarization and the
dielectric is said to be polarized
Explanation
● If a dielectric material is placed in electric field between the plates of a capacitor, negative charges
(electrons) are attracted towards the positively charged plates and the positive charges (nuclei) are
attracted towards the negatively charged plates. Thus, the electrons and nuclei are slightly displaced.
► The external electric field E is directed from left to right.
► The electric field EP due to induced charges is directed from right to left.
► The electric field EP due to induced charges is opposite in direction to the electric field of oppositely
ENet = E- EP

charged plates of capacitor therefore net electric field decreases.

► A Polar molecule behave like a permanent electric dipole and it is neutral as

a whole e-g NaCl sodium ion is +ve and chlorine ion is -ve.
► Non-polar molecule like oil has no electric dipole moment in the absence of
external electric field. The centerof positive charge coincides with the center of
negative charge.

● When non-polar molecules are placed in external electric field the center of
positive and negative charges nolonger coincides with each other.

● So, one end of the molecule shows negative charge and the other end
shows an equal amount of positivecharge, hence a dipole is formed, the
molecule is said to be polarized and the phenomenon is called polarization.

Electric Dipole: Two equal but opposite charges separated by a small distance d
form an electric dipole.
Electric dipole moment (p) ; It is the product of charge q present in the dipole and distance d between two
charges of the dipole.

► Where p is vector quantity.

► EFFECTS OF POLARIZATION ON CAPACITANCE

When a dielectric is placed between the plates of a capacitor, then capacitance of a capacitor increases
due topolarization of dielectric.
Dielectric effectively decreases surface charge density ( ) on plates.

This decreases the electric intensity between the plates decreases by relation

With the decrease of electric intensity E between the plates, the potential difference (V = Ed) between the plates
𝑸
decreases. With the decrease of voltage V the capacitance 𝑽
of a capacitor increase.

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► Q. Derive an Expression for Energy stored by the Capacitor.

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

● Let us suppose that initially when the capacitor is uncharged,Initial potential difference between plates of capacitor
● When it is connected with battery of potential difference V it is charged, then charge Q is deposited on
plates.
The work is to be done to deposit charge on the plates. It increases the potential difference between plates and
a large amount of work is needed to bring further charge. Electrical energy stores in the electric field of
capacitor.Final potential difference between plates = V

Average potential difference =

Energy stored = Average potential difference × charge

Putting

Energy stored in terms of electric field

The energy is being stored in the electric field between the two plates rather than the potential energy
of thecharges on the plates .

It is the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium)

And
(4)
●Putting values of C and V from equation (3) and (4) in equation (2), we get
( )

( )
( )
( )
●It is an expression for energy stored in the electric field between the plates of a capacitor.
Energy density : Energy density is defined as the energy stored per unit volume.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Energy density

Volume between plates= Ad

( )
► This equation shows that the energy density of a capacitor is directly proportional to the square of electric
field.
► Q.Describe the charging and discharging of a capacitor. What is time constant?
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
● The circuit consisting of a capacitor and a resistor is called R-C circuit
CHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
● According to figure 1(a) when the switch S is closed then a battery of voltage Vstarts
charging the capacitor.
● The capacitor is not charged immediately, rather charges build up
gradually tothe maximum value of
● The growth of charge with time for different resistances is shown in figure 1(b).
● According to graph q = 0 at t = 0 and increases gradually with time till it
reachesits equilibrium value
● It can be shown that after time t ,as charge builds up on the plates ,it repel
more charges and current decreases.
● Charging will stop when the potential difference between the capacitor
plates is equal to e.m.f of the battery.
Maximum charge on capacitor= capacitance ×(e.m.f of battery)
● The charging process of a capacitor exhibits the exponential behavior
therefore we can write its equation as
( )

Time constant
● The time required by the capacitor to deposit 0.63 times the
equilibrium charge qo is called time constant.

(OR)
● The time during which the capacitor charges to 63.2 % of its maximum value is called time constant.
● The time taken to charge a capacitor in a given time is given by time constant.
The factor RC is known as time constant.
Putting t=RC in equation (1)
( )

( )
( )

( )

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

( )

So for small value of time constant, the capacitor reaches to its equilibrium value very quickly.
DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
● In fig 2(a) when switch S is closed the charge +q can flow clockwise and neutralize the
charge –q.
● The graph between time and charge shown in fig 2(b) represents thatdischarging
starts at t = 0 when charge q0= CVo and decreases gradually to zero.
● The charge left on either plate at time t is

Smaller value of time constant RC lead to a more rapid discharging.

Putting in equation (2)

( )
Applications

● The charging and discharging of capacitor has many applications

► Capacitor discharge ignition (CDI) is a type of automotive electronic ignition system which is widely
used in motorcycle, lawn movers, chain saws, small engines, turbine powered air craft and some cars.

● It is used in high inductance coils used in inductive ignition system.

● It makes the ignition system more suitable for high engine speeds (for small engines, racing engines
androtatory piston engines).

● It can increase the capability of power supply and make the spark much stronger.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

CHAPTER 12
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Exercise Mcq’s Chapter 12

i. Three resistors of resistance R each are combined in various ways. Which of the following cannot be obtained?
a. (a) 3R b. (b) c. (c) d. (d)
ii. When n resistances each of value r are connected in parallel, then resultant resistance is x. When these n resistance are connected
series, total resistance is:
a. (a) nx b. (b) r n x c. (c) x / n d. (d) n2 x
iii. Two bulbs marked 200 watt-250 volts and 100 watt-250 volts are joined in series to 250 volts supply. Power consumed in circuit is:
a. (a) 33 watt b. (b) 67 watt c. (c) 100 watt d. (d) 300 watt
iv. Resistance of wire is r ohms. The wire is stretched to double its length, then its resistance in ohms is:
a. (a) r / 2 b. (b) 4 r c. (c) 2 r d. (d) r / 4
v. 106 electrons are moving through a wire per seconds, the current developed is:
a. (a) 1.6 × 10-19 A b. (b) 1 A c. (c) 1.6 × 10-13 A d. (d) 106 A
vi. When a wire is stretched and its radius becomes r / 2, then its resistance will be
a. (a) 16 R b. (b) 4 R c. (c) 2 R d. (d) 0
vii. How much voltage is required to make 2A flow through a resistance of 8 ?
a. (a) 16 A -1 b. (b) 16 -1
c. (c ) 16 A d. (d) 16 A-1 -1
viii. A wire of uniform cross section, A length L and resistance R is cut into two equal parts. The resistivity of each part will be
a. (a) Doubled b. (b) Halved c. (c) Remains the same d. (d)One fourth
ix. The resistivity of two wires is 1 and 2 which are connected in series. If there dimensions are same then the equivalent resistivity o
combination will be
a. (a) ( 1 + 2) b. (b) + c. (c) d. (d)
x. The powers of two electric bulbs are 100 W and 200 W. which are connected to power supply of 220 V. the ratio of resistance of the
filament will be,
a. (a) 1 : 2 b. (b) 2 : 1 c. (c) 1 : 3 d. (d) 4 : 3
xi. Thermocouple is an arrangement of two different metals
a. To convert heat energy into electrical energy b. To produce more heat
c. To convert heat energy into chemical energy d. To convert electrical energy into heat energy
xii. In order to achieve high accuracy, the slide wire of a potentiometer should be
a. (a) As long as possible b. (b) As short as possible c. (c) Very thin d. (d) Very thick
xiii. When a potentiometer is used for measurement of voltage of an unknown source, the power consumed in the circuit of the unknow
source under null condition is
a. high b. small c. ideally zero d. very high
xiv. in a Wheatstone bridge method, the bridge is said to be balanced, when the current through the galvanometer is
a. (a) 1 A b. (b) 0 A c. (c) Maximum d. (d) Half of the maximum value

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Exercise Short Questions Chapter 12

Why it is not possible to measure the drift speed for electron by timing their travel along aconductor?
Ans. It is not possible to measure the drift speed of an electron by timing their
travelalong a conductor because electrons are microscopic particles

Reasons.

●The drift velocity of electron is of the order of 10−5 / which is impossible to

measure

● Electrons collide with lattice atoms and move on the zig zag path in different
directions and the motion it acquires is unpredictable.
● So, it becomes difficult to measure their actual distance covered by electron per unit time.
● Therefore, we cannot measure the drift speed of electrons by timing their travel along a conductor.
●The drift speed of electrons also changes due to change in temperature.

Q.2: The relationship R = V/I tell us that the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to thepotential
difference applied to it. What do you think of this proportion?
Ans. According to Ohm’s law

𝑽 𝑹 (At constant temperature)

end of the conductor to the electric current flowing through it is constant.

► Therefore resistance R is called proportionality constant.

► At constant temperature, the resistance of an Ohmic
conductor is independent of the current I and the
potentialdifference V.
► The value of resistance R depends upon the
nature, dimensions and physical stare of a conductor
such astemperature of the conductor.
Where is the resistivity of the conductor.
Q.3: A heavy duty battery of a truck maintains a current of 3A for 24 hours. How much charge flows fromthe battery
during this time?
Ans.

4: While analyzing a circuit the internal resistance of emf sources is ignored why?
Ans. The opposition offered by the electrolyte of source of emf such as battery to the flow of electric current

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

iscalled internal resistance (r) of battery.

We know that:
●Where R is the load resistance and “r” is the internal resistance.

●In practical applications R >>r (R is very much greater than r) therefore r is negligible as

compared to R.

● Generally, the internal resistance of emf sources is very small and we neglect it.

Q.5: Under what circumstances can the terminal P.D of a battery exceed its emf?
Ans. Whenever a source of emf ɛ is being changed, its terminal potential difference Vt is greater than the emf.
Reason:
When a battery of emf ɛ is connected in a circuit then terminal potential difference Vt is less than emf due
topotential drop (I r) across internal resistor of emf source.
The equation for terminal potential difference is;

► Now if an emf source is being charged, then its current reverses in direction making terminal potential
difference greater than the emf ɛ of the circuit.
( )

►The last equation shows that during the charging of an emf source, its terminal potential difference is (I r)
factor greater than the emf ɛ.
Q.6: What is the difference between an emf and a P.D?

Ans. The differences between emf and potential difference are given below

EMF Terminal p. d.
● It is the work done in bringing a unit positive charge ● It is the work clone in bringing the unit positive from
from negative to positive terminal within the source positive to negative terminal with in the circuit

● It is the effect.
● It is the cause. ● It becomes zero across the ends of resistor ‘R’ when
● It is always present even though no current is nocurrent is flowing through the circuit.
flowingthrough the circuit ● Generally terminal P-D. is less than the emf of
● Generally, emf is greater than terminal P-D thesource
whenbattery is connected in the circuit.

Q.7: The loop rule is based on the conservation of energy principle and the junction rule on conservationof
charge principle. Explain how these are based on these principles?

Ans. 1. Kirchhoff’s voltage (Loop) rule:

This law is based on the law of consecration of energy.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Statement: It states that “In any closed electrical circuit the algebraic sum of all the electromotive force and
thevoltage drops in resistors is equal to zero.

Multiplying both sides by tor

Energy supplied by battery = Energy consumed in circuit

Kirchhoff’s current (Junction) rule:

This law is based on the conservation of charge.

Statement. It states that the algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a junction in an
electrical circuitis zero.

As

So,

Or
► Charge flowing towards the point per unit is equal to charge flowing away from the point per unit time.
Q.8: Why rise in temperature of a conductor is accompanied by a rise in the resistance?

Ans. Reason
● When temperature of the conductor rises, then
● The amplitude of vibration of the atoms in the lattice increases.
●The number of collisions of electron with atoms collision cross-section of the atoms increases with rise
in temperature.
● The atoms then offer a bigger target and probability of their collision with free electrons also
increases.
► Hence resistance of conductor increases due to rise in temperature.
Also, we know that ( )

Where is resistance at high temperature and is resistance at C.

Q.9: Does the direction of emf provided by a battery depend on the direction of current flow through thebattery?
Ans. No, the direction of emf provided by a battery does not depend on the direction of current flow
throughthe battery.
Reason: An emf source has two terminals; a positive at higher potential and the other negative terminal at
low potential.

►Inside the battery current flows due to positive charges, which flows from –ve to
+veterminal of battery.
►Conventionally current flows from positive to negative terminal of battery.
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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

●Hence direction of e.m.f is independent of the direction of current.

Additional MCQ’s Chapter 12

1. What will be the current in the circuit shown (2010)
A. 1/45 A B. 1/10 A C. 1/5 A D. None

2. Watt-hours measures (2010)

A. Current B. Electric energy C. Power D. voltage
3. Temperature coefficient of the thermistor is (2010)
A. Always negative B. Always positive
C. Change form positive to negative and vice versa
D. May be positive of may be negative
4. In carbon resistor, what is the value of violet volour (2011)
A. 6 B. 7 C. 9 D. 9
5. Which equation represent the maxium output power (2011)
A. P= 𝑹 B. P= C. P= D. P=
6. Power of an electric generator of voltage (V) and driving current (I) through an appliance is (2012)
A. P=VI B. P= R C. P= D. All of these
7. Refer to the figur given below The effective resistance of the circuit is (2012)
A. 5R B. 2R
C. D. 3R
8. Potentiometer is an accurate measuring instrument because (2012)
A. It does not draw any current B. It has low resistance
C. It draw maximum current D. None of these
9. For doubling the current in a circuit of resistance R the applied volatage must be (2012)
A. Kept constant B. Halved C. Double D. Quadrupled
10. Which electric bulbhas the least resistance? (2013)
A. 60 watts B. 100 watts C. 200 watts D. 500 watts
11. Potentiometer can be used as (2013)
A. Ohm meter B. Ammeter C. Galvanometer D. Potiential divider

12. Terminal potential difference of a battery of internal resistance r and electromotive force (2013), (2014), (2017)

A. B. 𝑽

C. D.
13. Which of the following is not a semi conductor? (2013)
A. Silicon B. Germanium
C. Gallium Arsenide D. Copper
14. In the given circuit when ‘S’ is closed the current through all the branches are (2014)

A. [ ] B. [ ]

𝟏
C. [ ] D. [ ]

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

15. The total applied voltage in the given circuit is (2014)

A. [𝑽𝟏 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 ] B.
C. D.

16. It is required to increase the current to double in a circuit of total resistance ‘R’ For this purpose a new resistance is conneted to
then (2014)
A. ( ) B. ( )
C. 𝑹 𝑹 (𝑹 𝒊 𝒂 𝒂 𝒆 𝑹) D. ( )
17. If the temperature of a conductor increased the product of resistivit and conductivity (2015)
A. increases B. Decreases
C. Remains constant D. May Increases or decreases
18. If the current flowing through the 3Ω resistor 0.8 A the potential whch drops across the 4Ω resistor
will be (2015)

A. 6.4 volts B. 4.5 volts

C. 8.8 volts D. None of these
19. Five resistances are connected as shown in figure below. The equivalent resistance of the given circuit
is (2015)

A. 35 Ohm B. 25 Ohms
C. 15 Ohms D. None of these
20. Kirchhoff’s second rule (loop rule) for electric circuit is essentially statement of ________ in
electric circuit (2015)
A. Conservation of energy B. Conservation of charge
C. Conservation of temperature D. Conservation of resistance
21. The proportionality constant between current and potential difference is (2016)
A. R B. C. P D.

22. Which of the following properties affect the resistivity of all metals to a great extent? (2016)
A. Temperature B. Applied magnetic field
C. Pressure D. Volume
23. The amount of heat produce in a resistor when a current is passed through it, can be found by using (2017)
A. Faraday’s law B. Lenz’s law C. Joule’s law D. Kirchhoff’s law
24. The SI unit of resistivity is
A. Ωm B. Ω C. Ω D.
25. The accurate potential measuring device should be of (2013), (2014) (2017)
A. Neither very low nor very high B. Infinite resistance
C. Very low resistance D. Very high resistance
26. If the length and diameter of conductor is double, the resistance is
a) Remain same b) Double c) Half d) Four time
27. The expression for the co-efficient of resistivity is
𝑹
a).𝑹 𝑻 b). c). d).
28. The reciprocal of resistivity is called
a) Resistance b) Conduction c) Conductivity d) None
29. One coulomb per second is equal to
a) Joule b) Volt c) Ampere d) Watt
30. In the metallic conductor the current is due to flow of charge
a) Positive b) Negative c) Proton d) None
31. In the thermocouple the heat energy is converted into ………… energy.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

a) Mechanical b) Electrical c) Magnetic d) None

32. An electric heater 220V, 440W has a resistance
a) 2 Ω b) 110 Ω c) 0.5 Ω d) 20 Ω
33. Through an electrolyte electric current is passed due to drift of
a) Free electrons b) Positive and negative ions
c) Free electrons and holes d) Protons
34. The e.m.f. of two cells can be compared by
a) AVO meter b) Voltmeter c) Potentiometer d) Galvanometer
35. At null point the current through the galvanometer is
a) Zero b) Maximum c) Minimum d) None
36. A current of 10A flows in a conductors of 10 Ω resistance for 1 mint the heat produce will be
a) 102 J b) 6 x 102 J c) 6 x 103 J d) 6 x 104 J
37. The unit of conductivity is
a) Ω. M b) (Ω.m)-1 c) Ω.m-1 d) None
38. When the bulb is turned on, ohm’s law is applicable
a) Yes b) No c) May or may not d) None
39. In series circuit the net resistance is
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Remain constant d) Non
40. Joule law can be expressed as
a) I2 Rt b) IR2t c) IRt2 d) V2/R
41. The graph b/w V and I in case of ohm law is
a) Parabolic b) Curve c) Slope d) Straight line
42. The e.m.f. of a cell or battery is the voltage b/w its terminals, when
a) It is closed circuit b) It is open circuit c) Its internal resistance is zero d) None
43. The S.I unit of e.m.f. is same as
a) Work b) Energy c) Power d) Voltage
44. A heat sensitive resistor is called
a) Amplifier b) Diode c) Thermistor d) Conductor
45. The temperature co-efficient of thermistor is
a) Positive b) Negative c) both a & b d) None
46. Thermistor can be used for the accurate measurement of
a) Voltage b) Resistance c) Temperature d) Heat
47. A circuit which has only one voltage source is called
a) Network b) Simple circuit c) Complex circuit d) None
48. The algebraic sum of all the current at junction is zero, is Kirchhoff’s
a)1st law b) 2nd law c) 3rd law d) 4th law
49. The algebraic sum of voltages changes around a closed circuit or loop is zero, is Kirchhoff’s
a)1st law b) 2nd law c) 3rd law d) 4th law
50. If the resistance of a certain length wire, diameter 5mm is 10Ω if the diameter is change to 10mm, then new resistance is …. Ohm.

a)40 b) 5 c) 20 d) 2.5
51. The unit for the consumption of electrical energy commonly used is
a) Joule b) Watt sec c) Killo. watt. hr d) Watt. hr.
52. If the resistor is traversed opposite to the direction of current, then potential is
a) Positive b) Negative c) Zero d) None
53. Which one gives pure nature of the material
a) Resistively b) Conductivity c) Temperature co-efficient d) None
st
54. Kirchhoff’s 1 law is manifestation of law of conservation of
a) Charge b) Mass c) Energy d) None
55. The resistivity of copper in Ω.m is

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

a) 1.78 × 10-8 b) 1.54 × 10-8 c) 1.56 × 10-8 d) None

56. The wire used in Rheostat is made from
a) Constantan b) Chrome c) Maganin d) Tungsten
57. If three resistances of equal resistance R are connected in parallel, the net resistance will
𝑹
a) 3R b) c) d) R + 3
58. An electric bulb rated at 220V, 140watt is connected to 110V power line, the current that Flows in it is
a) 1.27 A b) 1.83 A c) 2.27 A d) 2.83 A
59. Which one is relatively non-ohmic?
a) Diode b) Carbon resistance c) Copper wire d) Tungsten wire
60. The unknown e.m.f can be determined by
a) b) c) 𝑿 d)
61. Three two ohm resistors are connected to form a triangle. The resistance b/w any two corner is
3 4
a) Ohm b) Ohm c) 4 × 3 Ohm d) 4 + 3 Ohm
4 3
62. The resistivity of a material is  . If the area of cross-section of material is doubled and length is halved then the resistivity of
material is:
a) b) 4 c) 2 d)
63. Four bulbs of 10W, 20W, 30W and 40W are connected in parallel, the bulb that will shine more is
a) 10W b) 20W c) 30W d) 40W
64. A source of 200V provides a current of 10.0 Amperes to a house. The power delivered by the source is
a) 20 watt b) 40 watt c) 2000 watt d) 200 watt
65. When the battery is connected at its ends, an electric field is set up at
a) Its ends b) Every point c) Middle d) All of them
66. The value of resistance depends upon
a) Nature b) Dimension c) Physical state d) All of them
67. An accurate measurement of emf of a cell is made by
a) A voltmeter b) An ammeter c) A potentiometer d) All of them
68. Do bends in a wire affect its electrical resistance?
a) Yes b) No c) Affects a little d) None
69. A 50 volt battery is connected across a 10 ohm resistor. The current is 4.5A. The internal resistance of the battery is:
a) 1.1 Ω b) 1.2 Ω c) 1.3 Ω d) 1.4 Ω
70. A 25 watt and 40 watts bulbs were connected in a series to a 220 V line. Which electric bulb will grow more brightly?
a) 25 watts bulb b) Neither will give light
c) Both will have same incandescence d) none
71. A 100 watt bulb and a 200 watt bulb are designed to operate at 110V and 220V respectively. The ratio of their resistance is
𝟏
a) 1 b) c) d)

72. A thermocouple consists basically of

a) 1 wire b) 2 wires c) 4 wires d) 3 wires

73. The thermocouple circuit works on…………
a) Seebeck effect b) Peltier ffect c) Thomsan effect d) none
74. In thermocouple when both junctions are a same temperature then, there will be …….. emf
a) zero b) high c) positive d) negative
75. In thermocouple, the temperature at which themo -emf reaches at its maximum value is called ………… temperature.
(a) neutral b) critical c) curie d) none

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Additional Short Questions Chapter 12

1. Write down the heating effect of current? (2010)
Ans: Current flows through a metallic wire due to motion of free electrons. During the course of their motion, they collide
frequently with the atoms of the metal. At each collision, they lose some of their kinetic energy and give it to atoms with which
they collide. Thus as the current flows through the wire it increases the kinetic energy of the vibrations of the metal atoms. i.e.,
it generates heat in the wire. It is found that the heat H produced by a current in the wire of resistance during a time interval
is given by 𝐻
The heating effect of current is utilized in electric heaters, kettles toasters and electric irons etc.
2. State Ohm’s Law? (2010)
Ans: According to ohm's law, “applied potential difference is directly proportional to current flowing through a conductor
provided that the temperature of conductor must remain constant”.

Where R is proportional constant and is known as resistance of the conductor which is “opposition offered by conductor to the
flow of current”
3. A dry battery can deliver 3000 J of energy to small 2W electric motor before the battery is exhausted. For how many minutes doe
the motor run? (2010)
Ans:

As

or 25 min
So motor will run for 25 min before the battery is exhausted.
4. What are the difficulties in testing whether the filamaents of a lighted bulb obeys Ohms law? (2011), (2013), (2017)

Ans: According to ohm's law, applied potential difference is directly proportional to current flowing through a conductor provided
the temperature of conductor must remain constant. Therefore, after some time, while current is flowing through the lighted bulb
temperature rises, which changes the resistance. Hence Ohm's law becomes invalid.
5. Define electric power Obtain the maximum power equation. (2012), (2014)
Ans: When current flows through the resistance , the charge flow from higher potential to lower potential and loose their poten
energy. If is the potential difference across then loss of P.E. per second is . This loss of energy per second is known as powerd
deleverd to by the current .
Power deleverd to R =
But

Also
( ) ( )

( )
( ) ( )
When R=r, the is maximum because then the denominator is minimum. Thus when internal resistance is equal to load
resistance then maximum power is delivered to load resistance.
r=R

( )
6. Why does the resistance of a conductor rise with temperature? (2012), (2013), (2016)

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Ans: The resistance offered by a conductor is due to the collisions of electrons with the atoms of lattice. As temperature rises, K
the atoms increases and, hence, more collisions with the electrons occur, thereby increasing the resistance of the conductor.
7. Describe a circuit which will give a continuous varying potential? (2012)

Ans: For continuously varying potential, following circuits can be used:

 Rheostat as potential divider

 Potentiometer as potential divider

Rheostat as potential divider:

Consider a Rheostat R with ends A and B. Potential difference V is applied across A and B. The current I
passing through R is, I = V/R. The potential difference between B and, third terminal of Rheostat, C is:

 VBC =
 putting values of I
 VBC = ( )V
 Where R = resistance of wire AB, and r = resistance of portion BC of the same wire.

The circuit can provide varying potential difference ranging from 0 to maximum potential difference of battery, depending on po
of sliding contact C.
8. The potential difference between the terminal of a battery in open circuit in 2.2 volt. When it is connected across a resistance of
Ω the potential falls to 1.8 volt. Calculate the current and internl resistance of the battery. (2012)
Ans:

So

Now by using

9. What is Wheatstone bridge? How can it used to determine an unknown resistance? (2013), (2014)

Ans: Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit which is used to find unknown resistance of a wire.
Whenever bridge is balanced i.e. galvanometer shows no deflection then following condition is
satisfied:

 =

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

If in the Wheatstone bridge circuit R1, R2 and R3 are known and R4 is unknown, then we can find R4:


10. A potential difference is applied across the ends of copper wire. What is the effect on the drift velocity of free electron by
(2013), (2015) a. Increasing the potential difference
b. Decreasing the length and the temperature of the wire
A. Ans: Increasing the potential difference: As we know that the drift velocity of free electrons is directly proportional to
the potential difference i.e. 𝒅 ( ). Therefore, if potential difference is increased then the drift velocity of free
electrons is also increased.
B. Decreasing the length and the temperature of the wire: As the resistance depends on temperature and length of the
conductor, so on decreasing the temperature and length of the conductors, the resistance decreases and, therefore,
drift velocity increases.
11. A wire having total resistance of 32Ω, Is cut into 4-equal lengths. Three of them are connected in parallel and one in series to
them. Find total resistance of the combination (2014)
Ans: As wire is cut in four pieces, so resistance of one piece = 8
Given condition
Consider three resistors are connected in parallel so,

12. Find 𝑹 and total current in the given circuit if 𝑹𝒆 (2014)

,
,
As

13. Why the terminal potential difference of a battery decreases when the current dawns form it is increased? Explain (2015),
(2016)
The relation between terminal potential difference and emf is:

Here r is the internal resistance of the cell. So, when current is increased, the factor becomes large and becomes s
Therefore, the P.D. of a battery decreases when more current is drawn from it.

14. Briefly describe the term “Resistance Tolerance”. (2015)

Ans: Tolerance indicates how much the measured value of its actual resistance is different from its theoretical value, and it is
calculated using percentages.
For example a 1000 resistor with tolerance of will have an actual resistance anywhere between 900 and 1100
15. What is Drift velocity? What are the factors on which drift velocity depends? (2015)
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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Ans: The drift velocity is the average velocity that a particle, such as an electron, attains in a conductor due to an electric field in
the direction opposite to electric field when potential difference is applied across the conductor.
Drift velocity mostly depends upon following two factors.
 Nature of conductor
 Temperature
16. Define resistivity , Conductivity and Temperature Co-efficient of resistance (2015)
Ans: Resistivity: It is resistance of one cubic meter of a material. It varies from one material to another. Its unit is
Conductivity: It is reciprocal of resistivity of a material. Its unit is ( )
Temperature Co-efficient of resistance: The fractional change in resistance per kelvin is called Temperature Co-efficient of
resistance. It is denoted by

17. Under what circumstances (2015)

a. Electromotive force is equal to Terminal potential difference
b. Electromotive force is greater than Terminal potential difference
c. a. Electromotive force is less than Terminal potential difference
Ans: Electromotive force will be equal to Terminal potential difference when battery is not connected in the circuit.

Electromotive force will be greater than Terminal potential difference when battery is discharging.

Electromotive force will be less than Terminal potential difference when battery is charging.

18. Calculate the resistance range of the following given carbon resistor. (2016)

Ans:

 1st band is yellow =first digit= 4

 2nd band is violet =2nd digit = 7
 3rd band is brown=1 = no. of zeros = 0
 4th band is gold = tolerance = ±5%
 So, Resistance = 470 ± 5%

19. Find the reading of the ammeter in the circuit diagram? (2016)
Ans:

First of all we find equivalent resistance

As all resistors are in series so

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

As batteries are connected in series with opposite polarities.

So
20. A circuit shown in the figure. Find the current through the 10 Ohm resistor and the equivalent resistance of the circuit. (2016)
Ans:

and are in series with each other so their equivalent resistance is

and are in series with each other so their equivalent resistance is

total resistance R is

21. Is the filament resistance lower or higher in 500W, 220V light bulb than in a 100W, 220V bulb? (2017)

As P = ⇒ R=

R1 = 2202/500 = 96.8 Ω

R2 = 2202/100 = 484 Ω

So the resistance of 500 W bulb is less than the resistance of 100 W bulb. But 500 W bulb will draw more current.

22. What are Ohmic and non Ohmic devices? (2018)

Ans: Ohmic devices: These are those devices which obey Ohm’s law. Their resistance rem
constant when current flows through them.

Non-Ohmic devices: These are those devices which obey Ohm’s law. Their resistance doe
remain constant when current flows through them.

23. Write color codes for carbon resistance in tabular form. (2018)
Black 0 Orange 3 Blue 6
Brown 1 Yellow 4 Violet 7
Red 2 Green 5 Gray 8
White 9

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Comprehensive Questions Chapter 12

Explain the construction and working of thermocouples? Also explain the variation in thermoelectric

e.m.f with temperature

Thermocouples:

In early 1821, Thomas See beck searched experimentally for a relation between electricity and heat.
He joined to wires of two different metals to form a circuit. He discovered that “if one junction is heated to a
high temperature, and the other junction remained at low temperature then the galvanometer connected at
their ends shows a deflection”. This is known as See beck Effect.
The e.m.f. generated in the circuit is called thermoelectric e.m.f. The resulting current is known as thermoelectric
current. The two-junction circuit is called a thermocouple. In this
process heat energy is directly converted into electrical energy.

The wire pairs can be composed of noble metals (such as

platinum, iridium, silver, osmium, gold andrhodium) or base
metals, (such as copper, iron or nickel copper alloy, lead and
zinc).

Thus, it remains true for any pair of metals.

Thermocouples are the most widely used temperature
sensors in industry due to their low cost, simplicity,size and
useable temperature range.
The electromotive force is a function of the temperature gradient.
The thermo e.m.f produced is very small, of the order of mV per every degree of temperature difference.
The See beck effect is reversible, i.e., if the hot and cold junctions are
interchanged, the direction of e.m.f.(and hence current) reverses.

The greater the separation of the metals forming the thermocouple in the
series, greater is the thermo e.m.f. produced.
The thermo e.m.f. of many thermocouples has been measured as a function of
the temperature T of the hot junction, when the cold junction is maintained at
C. Its temperature dependence is given by

Where and are constants (called thermoelectric co-efficient) which

depends on the nature of the metals.

Variation in Thermoelectric e.m.f with Temperature: Figure shows an arrangement

to study the effect of temperature difference between the two junctions in a Cu-Fe
thermocouple.

● Keeping the junction B at 0ºC, the temperature of junction A is increased.

When both the junctions are at same temperature, there is no thermo e.m.f.
● The thermo e.m.f. increases with temperature and reaches a maximum value

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

at a certain temperature, called the neutral temperature Tn.

● The value of the neutral temperature is constant for a thermocouple, depends on the nature of material
independent of the temperature of the cold junction.
● As the temperature of the hot junction is increased, the thermo e.m.f. starts decreasing instead of increas
particular temperature at which, the thermo e.m.f. becomes zero is called the inversion temperature. The graph sh
variation of the thermo e.m.f. with the temperature of hot junction, with the cold junction.

Q.19 What is Wheatstone bridge? How it can be used to find the unknown resistance?
 Wheatstone bridge
This bridge was first proposed by Wheatstone an English telegraph engineer for measuring accurately the
valueof an unknown resistance.
CONSTRUCTION: It consists of four resistors (two fixed resistances P and Q which are known.
● One variable resistance R which is also known.
● One unknown resistance X whose value is to befound) as shown in fig.
●A battery is connected and across one pair ofopposite junctions A
and C.
●A galvanometer is connected the other oppositepair of junctions B
and D.
WORKING:

●The value of P and Q are properly fixed.

●When the key is switched on, the current I divideunequally
between the two branches and the galvanometer shows current.
●The value of resistance R is varied until thegalvanometer shows
zero current.
● Under such conditions, the bridge is said to be balanced.
●The point at which the bridge is balanced is called null point.
●Let I1 and I2 be the current through P and R respectively when the
bridge is balanced. Since there is no currentthrough Galvanometer, the current in Q and X are also I1 and I2.
●Point B and D are at same potential.
●This means that voltage drop from A to B and A to D must be equal. Also, voltage drop from B to C and D to C
must be equal. Hence for a balanced bridge
Potential drop across AB= potential drop across AD.
𝟏𝑷 𝑹 𝟏

Similarly
Potential drop across BC= potential drop across DC.
𝟏𝑸 𝑸

Dividing eq (1) by eq (2), we get

Or

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Solving for unknown resistance “X”

Hence, if three resistances on the right side of equation are known, the fourth resistance X can be calculated. This is
the principle of determining unknown resistance by Wheatstone bridge.

Q.20 What is potentiometer? Discuss the construction and working of potentiometer in

detail?

 Potentiometer
●A potentiometer is a null type resistancenetwork device for measuring potential differences.
► For the accurate measurement of potentialdifference, current and resistance the potentiometer is one of the
most useful instruments, it does not draw any current from circuit.
PRINCIPLE: Its principle of action is that an unknown emf or
P.D is measured by balancing it, completely or in partially,
against a known potential difference.
Construction: A simplest potentiometer consistsof wire LM
of uniform cross-section, stretched alongside a scale and
connected across battery of potential V as shown in fig.
► A standard cell of known emf is connected
between L and terminal 1 of a two-way switch S.
Working: Slider N is moved against wire LM and its position
is adjusted until the galvanometer deflection iszero when N
is making contact with LM.
► Let 1 be the corresponding distance between L and
N. The fall of potential over length 1 of the wire is then the same as the emf .
► Then move the switch to 2 for another cell the emf of whsich is to be measured. Adjust the slider N again to
give zero deflection on G.
If 2 be the new distance between L and N, then

Applications of potentiometer: Following are the applications of potentiometer.

1. Measurement of small emf

2. Comparison of emf of two cells.
3. Measurement of high emf (say 250 V).
4. Measurement of resistance.

5- To find internal resistance6- Used as potential divider

Formula for unknown emf =
For 1st cell emf is and for 2nd cell emf is
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CHAPTER 13
ELECTROMAGNETISM

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Exercise Mcq’s Chapter 13

i. A current is flowing North in a magnetic field that points West it experiences,
a. (a) A force down b. (b) A force up c. (c) A force west d. (d) No force
ii. Two long, straight wires have currents flowing in them in the same direction, the force between the wires is
a. (a) Attractive b. (b) Repulsive c. (c) Zero d. (d) Infinity
iii. One weber is equal to
a. (a) N A2 / m b. (b) N m2 / A c. (c) N A / m d. (d) N m / A
iv. Magnetic flux will be maximum if the angle between magnetic field strength and vector area is:
a. (a) 0 b. (b) 45 c. (c) 60 d. (d) 90
v. Ampere’s law is applied over any
a. (a) Surface b. (b) Closed surface c. (c) Path d. (d) Closed path
vi. When the number of turns in a solenoid is doubled without any change in the length of the solenoid its self-induction will be,
a. (a) Four times b. (b) Double c. (c) Halved d. (d) One forth
vii. If the charge is at rest in magnetic field, then force on charge is:
a. (a) 𝐵 b. (b) 𝐵 c. (c) 𝐵 d. (d) Zero
viii. work done on a charge particle moving in a uniform magnetic field is :
a. (a) maximum b. (c) minimum c. (c) zero d. (d) infinity
ix. The earths northern magnetic pole acts like:
a. the north pole of a magnet b. the south pole of a magnet
c. it has a positive charge d. it has a negative charge
x. The pole pieces of magnet in galvanometer are made concave to make the field:
a. (a) Radial b. (b) Stronger c. (c) Weaker d. (d) Both A & B
xi. When a small resistance is connected parallel to galvanometer, the resulting circuit behave as
a. Voltmeter b. Ammeter c. Velocity Selector d. AVO meter
xii. To measure the voltage the voltmeter is connected with the circuit in
a. (a) Series b. (b) Parallel (c) Perpendicular c. (d) Straight line
xiii. The resistance of ideal voltmeter is
a. (a) Small b. (b) Large c. (c) Zero d. (d) Infinite
xiv. The torque in the coil can be increased by increasing
a. No of turns b. Current and magnetic field c. Area of coil d. All of these

Exercise Short Questions Chapter 13

1. A compass needle is deflected when a charged plastic rod is held near it. What is the origin of the force that deflects it?
The origin of deflection is not magnetic force because stationary charged plastic rod can’t produce magnetic field.
Actually deflection of compass needle is due to electric force.
When a charged plastic rod is held stationary near neutral metallic compass needle then due to electrostatic induction opposite cha
is induced on the side of metallic compass needle near the charged rod.
The compass needle is deflected due to electrostatic force of attraction between charged plastic rod and induced opposite charges
near side of metallic compass needle.
2. What is the difference between permittivity and permeability?
Differences between the permittivity and permeability

i. The permittivity of material is a measure of the capability of the material to support the formation of an electric field within the
material, whereas the permeability is the ability of the material to allow magnetic lines to pass through it.
ii. The permittivity is represented by whereas represents the permeability.
iii. The SI unit of permittivity is Henry/meter and that of the permeability it is Farad/meter.
iv. The permittivity is because of polarization whereas the permeability is because of magnetization.
v. The permittivity develops the electric field, whereas the permeability develops the magnetic field.

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vi. In capacitor we consider permittivity whereas in the inductor and the cores of the transformer permeability of material.
3. Can the objects in rotational motion create a magnetic field? Provide an example.
Yes. Objects in rotational motion create a magnetic field.
Example: Magnetic field due to rotational motion of electron.
When electron revolves around nucleus (orbital motion) and around its own axis (spin motion) then magnetic field is produced.
Direction of spin motion and orbital motion defines the direction of magnetic field.
4. Electron and proton are projected with the same velocity normal to the magnetic field. Which one will suffer greater deflection?
The deflection of a charged particle by a magnetic field is proportional to its electric charge and to its velocity. The deflection is als
inversely proportional to its mass. So given a proton and an electron going at the same velocity in a magnetic field and having equa
(but opposite) electric charge the electron will deflect much more since the ratio of the masses is 1836.

5. A charged particle moves in a straight line through a particular region of space. Could there be a non-zero magnetic field in this
region?

Ans: There are two possible conditions.

i. Yes magnetic field is zero.

The charged particle moves in a straight line if there is no magnetic field in the region.

. No, magnetic field is not zero.

Because the charged particle may be moving parallel or anti-parallel to the magnetic field. So θ = 0° or θ = 180° ⇒ 𝐵
since there is no magnetic force acting on the charged particle (although the magnetic field exists), it will move in a straight line.
6. If a current is passed through an un-stretched spring, will the spring contract or expand?
When two wires are placed parallel to each other, the current which flows is in the same direction, the wires attract each other.
Similarly, in the given question the various turns attract each other and the spring will compress.
Now spring can be assumed as a coil which is parallel to each other. When the current flows in the spring then each coil gets curren
flow in the same direction. So, they are attracted to one another which in turn results in compression of spring.
7. Can neutrons be accelerated in a cyclotron? Give reason.
Ans: Neutrons cannot be accelerated in cyclotron.
In cyclotron charged particles are accelerated using magnetic field. As neutron is charge-less particle so it does not experience magn
force
i.e 𝐵 ( ) 𝐵
8. A current carrying loop, free to turn is placed in uniform magnetic field B. What will be the orientation relative to B, in equilibriu
state?
Ans: The plane of loop should be placed perpendicular to the field to maintain equilibrium. i.e ( )
When plane of loop is held perpendicular then,

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

So torque will be zero as

𝐵
𝐵
Hence loop will be in equilibrium
9. How does the current carrying coil behave like a bar magnet?
Ans: When current passes through a coil, it produces magnetic field that resembles with the magnetic field of bar magnet as shown

The position of north and South Pole depends upon direction of current and can be found b using right hand rule.

Additional MCQ’s Chapter 13

1. An electron beam is moving parallel. The nature of force between them is (2010)
A. Attractive B. Repulsive
C. Attractive and repulsive depend on the magnitude of velocity
D. None of these
2. What is the unit of magnetic flux? (2011)
A. Nm-1A-1 B. NmA-1 C. Nm-1A D. Wb.m-2
3. The deflecting couple in a galvanometer is given by (2012)
A. B. NAIB C. D. None of these
4. In CRO the time base genrator circuit is connected to the (2012)
A. X-plate B.Y-plate C. Electron gun D.Accelerating Electrodes
5. Unit of magnetic induction is (2012)
A. Gauss B. Tesla C. Weber D. Volt/meter
6. To convert a weston-Type galvanometer into voltmeter the series reistance is given by (2013)
𝑽
A. B.𝑹𝒉 𝑹𝒈
𝒈

C. D.
7. Emission of electron by metals on heating is called (2013)
A. Secondary Emission B. filed effect C. Photoelectric Emission D. Thermionic Emission

8. The magnetic at the interior points of a toroid r and number of turns N and each turn carrying current (I) is (2013)

A. 𝐵 B. C. 𝐵 D. 𝐵
9. which of the following is NOT CORRECT ? (2013)
A. An ammter is moving coil galvanometer of low resistance
B. A voltmeter is moving coil galvanometer of high resistance
C. The terminal of ammeter are made of of thick bare metal while that of a voltmeter are light and well insulated

D. A voltmeter is always connected in series with the circuiit while an ammeter is always connected in parallel to a circuit
10. A charge q is placed stationary in a region where both the electric and magnetic fields are present. The charge will experience
(2014)
A. Both electric and magnetic forces B.Electric force
C. Magnetic force D. No force at all
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11. The resistance of an ideal ammeter and that of an ideal volmeter are respectively (2014)
𝑹
A. [ ] B. [ ] C. [ ] D. None of these
𝑹𝟏
12. A.C voltmeter used in A.C circuit always measures (2014)
A. 𝑽 𝒂 𝒅 B. 𝑂 C. D. None of these
13. when particle of charge “q” and mass “m” enters a region of constant magnetic induction “B” travelling with the velocity “V”
prependicular to the direction of the field, it describe a circular orbits of radius (2015)
A. ⁄ 𝐵 B. ⁄𝐵 C. ⁄ 𝒒 D. 𝐵 ⁄
14. Joule/ampare is the unit of (2015)
A. Magnetic induction B. Magnetic flux density C. Magnetic flux D. Potential gradient
15. The Lorentz force can be measured by (2015)
A. B. 𝒆 C. D. None of these
16. is the unit of ` (2015)
A. Magnetic dipole B. Magnetic flux Density C. Magnetic Flux D. potential Gradient
17. The magnetic force on an electron travelling perpendicular to a field of strength is (2016)
A. B. 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝟏 C. Zero D.
18. If current two nearby loops is in same order. They (2014) (2016)
A. Neither attracts nor repels B. Attract and Repel
C. Attract D. Repel
19. Which of the following relation between current and the angle of deflection is true for a moving (2016)
A. B. C. D.
20. The of an electron moving with speed along a circular path in a magnetic field is given as (2017)
𝒆
A. B. C. D. 𝑹
21. An instrument which can measure potential without drawing any current is (2017)
A. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) B. Ammeter
C. Voltmeter D. Galvanometer
23. The origin of magnetism is
a) Iron b) Steel c) Moving charge d) None of these
24. A moving charge is surrounded by
a) 2 fields b) 3 fields c) 4 fields d) None
25. A photon while passing through a magnetic field are deflected towards
a) North pole b) South pole c) Are ionized d) None

26. if the angle b/w v and B is zero then magnetic force will be
a) Max b) Min c) Zero d) None
27. when charge particle enter perpendicular to magnetic field, the path followed by it is
a) A helix b) A circle c) Straight line d) Ellipse
28. The S.I unit of magnetic flux is
a) Tesla b) Weber c) Joule d) Newton
29. It is possible to set a charge at rest into motion with magnetic field
a) Yes b) No c) Some Time d) None
30. A current carrying conductor carries current away from you the direction of magnetic field with respect to you is
a) Away from you b) Towards you c) Clock wise d) Anti clockwise
31. The shape of magnetic field around a long straight current carrying wire is
a) Electrical b) Squire c) Varies with current d) Circular
32. one Tesla is equal to
a) 104G b) 10-4G c) 106G d) 10-6G
33. The toque in the coil can be increased by increasing
a) No, of turns b) Current and magnetic field c) Area of coil d) All of these
34. A current carrying loop, when placed in a uniform magnetic field will experience

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a) Electric flux b) Torque c) Magnetic flux d) Force

35. The magnetic flux will be max, for an angle of
a) 0o b) 60o c) 90o d) 180o
36. The Weber and Maxwell are unit of measure of
a) Conductance b) Electric current c) Magnetic flux d) Electric flux
37. One weber is equal to
a) N.A2/A b) N.m2/A c) N.A/m d) N.m/A

38. An electron moves at 2x102m/sec perpendicular to magnetic field of 2T what is the magnitude of magnetic force
a) 1 x 10-6N b) 6.4 x 10-17N c) 3.6 x 10-24N d) 4 x 106N
39. The force on a charge particle moving parallel to magnetic field is
a) Maximum b) Minimum c) Zero d) None
40. The presence of magnetic field around a current carrying conductor was detected by
a) H. Orsted b) Ampere c) Weber d) Henry
41. Ampere’s law is applicable to
a) Circular path b) Rectangular path c) To any path d) None
42. The unit of permeability of free space is
a) T.m/A b) T.m2/A c) T.m/A2 d) None
43. The value of is
a) 4 x 10-6 b) 4 x 10-7 c) 4 x 107 d) 4 x 10-9
44. The magnetic induction of solenoid is
a) b) c) d) None
45. A solenoid of length 500m is wounded into 1000 turns. A current of 10 A flows in it, the magnetic field intensity is
a) 20 b) 200 c) 2000 d) None
46. When charge particle enters in the uniform magnetic field, the magnetic force will be balance by
a) Electric force b) Magnetic force c) Centripetal force d) None
47. The frequency of cyclotron is given by
𝒒
a) 𝒇 b) c) d)
48. The e/m value of electron is ………………..
a) 1.7588 x 1011 b)1.75599 x 1012 c) 1.7588 x 109 d) 1.7559x 1014

49. F = Fe + Fm is
a) Electric force b) Magnetic force c) Lorentz force d) None
50. The value of restoring torque in galvanometer is
a)   r b)   c c)   m d) None
51. In the galvanometer the current is proportional to
a) Magnetic field b) Electric field c) Angle d) None
52. When a small resistance is connected in parallel to the galvanometer it is called
a) Ammeter b) Voltmeter c) AVO Meter d) None
53. To find the shunt resistance we used equation
𝒈𝑹𝒈
a)𝑹 b) c) d)
𝒈
54. To convert a galvanometer into voltmeter we connect a ………. resistance in……..
a) high, Series b) high, Parallel c) low, parallel d) low, Series
55. AVO-meter is used to find
a) Current b) Voltage c) Resistance d) All of these
56. An ideal voltmeter has
a) Small resistance b) High resistance c) Infinite resistance d) None
57. Galvanometer can be more sensitive if C/BAN is made
a) Very large b) Very small c) Unaltered d) None

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58. To increase the scale of galvanometer to twice of its initial value we need to connect a shunt
a) Rs = Rg b) Rs < Rg c) Rs > Rg d) None
59. The sensitivity of galvanometer is directly depends on
a) Magnetic field b) Area of coil c) Number of turns d) All of these
60. The S.I unit of Magnetic Permeability is
a) web/m2 b) web /A.m c) web m/A d) None
61. Shunt resistor is also called
a) By-pass resistor b) Specific resistor c) Reactance d) None
62. The e/m value for an electron is
𝑽
a) b) c) d)
63. Minimum current require to produce a deflection of 1mm on a scale at a distance of 1mm is
a) 0.1A b) 1A c) current sensitivity d) 1mA
64. 1 weber = _______
a) 106 Maxwell b) 108 Maxwell c) 1010 Maxwell d) none
65. When the number of turns in a solenoid is doubled without any change in the length of the solenoid its magnetic-induction will be:
a) Four times b) Doubled c) Halved d) None
66. The potential difference across the shunt resistor is
a) b)𝑽 ( 𝒈 )𝑹 c) ) ( ) d)
67. A solenoid is a cylindrical, long and tightly wound coil of wire. When a current pass through it behaves like a
a) Source of emf b) Magnet c) source of current d) None
68. Due to radial field, a moving coil galvanometer is
a) Comes to rest quickly b) Magnetic field becomes strong
c) Movement is frequent d) None of these
69. A very high resistor Rh is connected in series with the galvanometer in order to convert it into voltmeter
𝑽
a) 𝑹𝒈 b) c) d)
70. Couple necessary to produce unit twist is
a) Deflecting couple b) Restoring couple c) Torsion couple d) None

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Additional Short Questions Chapter 13

1. By using formula describe the change in the magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying a steady current “I” if (α) the length of the
solenoid is doubled but the number of turns remaib the same and (b) the number of turns is doubled but the length remain the
same? (2011)

Ans: Magnetic field produced by a solenoid is given by:

B = µonI

𝐵 ( )

a. Let B′ be the magnetic field when the length of solenoid is doubled, i.e. L′ = 2L and the number of turns remain same. Then,

B′ = =

B′ = 𝐵 ( 𝐵 )

Therefore, the magnetic field becomes half if the length of solenoid is doubled but the number of turns remains same.

b. Let B′ be the magnetic field when the number of turns is doubled, i.e. N′ = 2N and the length remains same. Then,
( )
o B′ = = ( )
o B′ = 2B ( 𝐵 )

Therefore, the magnetic field becomes double if the number of turns in solenoid is doubled but the length remains same.

2. How can you use a magnetic field to separate isotopes of chemical element? (2012), (2016)

Ans: The isotopes of an element are projected perpendicular to the uniform magnetic field. Then different isotopes follow diff
paths due to the difference in their masses. This technique is called Mass spectrometry. As,






Therefore, isotopes of different masses will have different radii of their circular paths. Hence, they can be separated by a magnetic
3. What is stable or dead beat Galvanometer? (2012)
Ans: Such galvanometer in which the coil comes to rest quickly after the current passed through it or current is stopped from flo
through it, is called stabe or dead beat galvanometer.
i.e needle does not oscillate.
4. what is shunt resistance? How is it used to convert a Galvanometer into an Ammeter? (2012)
Ans: A resistor having a very low value of resistance connected in parallel with other resistor such type of resistor is called shunt
resistance. The shunt resistor is mainly made of the material having the low-temperature coefficient of resistance.

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To convert galvanometer into ammeter shunt resistor is connected

parallel with galvanometer, to bypass the excess current.
Value of can be found from the fig.
As ( )

5. Why does the picture on a T.v screen become disorted when a magnet is
brought near the screen? (2012), (2013), (2017)
Ans: The picture on a T.V. screen is due to the electrons striking the screen. If a magnet is brought near a T.V. screen, the path of
the electrons is disturbed due to the magnetic force acting on them. Therefore, the picture on the screen gets distorted.
6. Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform magnetic field such that the loop will not tend to rotate? Explain (2013),
(2017)
Ans: Yes it is possible. A current carrying loop when placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque, i.e 𝐵

Where α is the angle between magnetic field B and plane of the loop. When the plane of the loop is at right angle to the
magnetic field, i.e. α = 90°.

𝐵 90° = 0.

As the value of the torque is zero so the loop will not tend to rotate.

7. You are asked to design a solenoid that will give a magnetic field of 0.10 T yet the current must not exceed 10.0 A. Find the
number of turns per unit length that the solenoid should have. (2013)
𝐵

𝐵 𝐵
𝐵

8. What should be the orientation of a current carrying coil in a magnetic field so that torque acting upon the coil is
a. Maximum b. Minimum (2013) , (2015)

Ans: The torque acting on a rectangular coil of area A, in a magnetic field B while current I is passing through it, is given by:

 𝐵

where α is the angle between plane of coil and magnetic field.

a. If plane of coil is parallel to the magnetic field, i.e. α = 0°

o τ = BINA cos0° = BINA

So torque will be maximum.

b. If plane of coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, i.e. α = 90°

o τ = BINA cos90° = 0

So torque will be minimum.

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9. There exists a magnetic field of 0.30 T in space along +X-axis. What will be the magnetic force on a proton of 𝒒 𝟏 𝑿𝟏
𝟏
when it is moving with velocity 𝟏 at an angle of to the field (2014)
Ans: 𝐵

𝐵 𝐵

10. What is current sensitivity of a suspended moving coil galvanometer? How does it depend upon different factors? Describe by
mathematical formula. (2014)
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it gives a large deflection for a very small current.
Explanation:
For a galvanometer It is clear that the galvanometer can be more sensitive if ( ) is made small, I.e. for a given
current should be maximum. For this purpose, ‘C’ may be decreased or, ’B’, ‘A’ and ‘N’ may be increased. Thus,
 Decreasing ‘C’: It can be done by increasing the length of suspension wire and by decreasing its diameter.
 Increasing, ‘A’ & ’N’ : The area and number of turns of the galvanometer cannot be increased beyond a limit because it will
make the coil heavy.
 Increasing, ‘B’: It can be done by using a magnet having a strong magnetic field strength ‘B’ in order to increase the sensitivity
of the galvanometer.

11. Why should the resistace of Ammeter be very low and that of Volmeter should be very high? (2014), (2018)

Ans: An ammeter is always connected in series with the circuit; therefore, its resistance should be very low so that it does not
disturb the circuit current. If resistance of ammeter is kept high then it will become load and current can’t be measured
accurately. Ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
The resistance of a voltmeter should be very high so that it does not draw any current from the circuit, as it is connected in
parallel to the circuit. This enables a voltmeter to measure potential difference accurately. If resistance of voltmeter is kept low
then it will become load and voltage can’t be measured accurately. Ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.
12. Alpha particle ranging is speed from 1000m/s to 2000m/s enter a velocity selector where the electric field intensity is 300
V/m and the magnetic induction is 0.20 T. which particle will move un-deviated through the field (2015)

Solution:
, 𝐵
Only those particles will be able to pass through then plate for which electric force acting on the particles balances the
magnetic force 𝐵 on the particle.
Therefore 𝐵
Thus the selected speed is

𝐵
The alpha particles having a speed of will move undeviated through the field.
13. The magnetic field in a certain region is given by ( 𝒊 𝟏 )𝑾𝒃 . How much flux passes through a 𝒄 area loop in the
region if the loop lies flat in the xy-plane? (2014), (2015)
Ans:
Magnetic induction= B = Tesla
Area of the loop m2

( )( )

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14. If a solenoid 1m long and 10 cm in diameter and wound with 10 turns per cm of wire which carries a current of 100A.
Calculate the magnetic flux density within it (2016)
Ans:

𝐵
𝐵 𝐵
𝐵
𝐵
`
15. How can a current loop be used to determine the presence of a magnetic field in a given region of space? (2016)
When a current carrying loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field, at different orientations, a torque 𝐵
is produced in the loop. So if we place the loop in the given region and it gets deflected, then we can say that a magnetic field is pr
because a torque was produced. If it does not get deflected, then no magnetic field is present.

16. If a charge particle move in a straight line through some region of space can you say that the magnetic field in the region is
zero? (2017)

Ans: There are two possible conditions.

I. Yes. The charged particle moves in a straight line if there is no magnetic field in the region.
II. No. Because the charged particle may be moving parallel or anti-parallel to the magnetic field. So θ = 0° or θ = 180° ⇒
𝐵 Since there is no magnetic field acting on the charged particle (although the magnetic field exists), it will move
straight line.
17. What is right hand rule in electromagnetism? (2018)
Ans: If the wire is grasped in fist of right hand with thumb pointing in the direction current and the curling fingers will show the
direction of magnetic field lines.

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Comprehensive Questions Chapter 13

AMPERE’S LAW:
Statement: The sum of quantities ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ for all path elements into which the complete loop has been divided, equals
times the total current enclosed by the loop.

𝐵 =

● Ampere’s circuital law, discovered by Andre Marie Ampere in 1826, relates the integrated magnetic field in a loop
around a current carrying wire to the current passing through the wire.
● There is a magnetic field around a current carrying wire
► The magnitude of magnetic flux density B is directly proportional to current I in the wire
So

► The magnitude of magnetic flux density B is inversely

proportional to distance ‘r’ from the wire.
𝟏

Combining these two relations

Permeability of free space (4 × 10–7 Wb A–1 m–1

𝐵( )
● Now consider a closed path around the wire as sown in fig. For any path element we can write
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵
As B and ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗=
are parallel, so 𝐵
𝐵
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐵
𝐵 ( )
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵
𝐵
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Putting 𝐵 𝐵 in equation 2
𝐵 =
● Now summing over the entire closed path,
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗= (3)
Which is Ampere’s Law. The closed path is called the Amperian path. In general this law can be applied to anyclosed
path around a uniform magnetic field.

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Applying Ampere’s Law, derive an expression for the magnetic field of Current Carrying Solenoid

Magnetic Field Due to a Current Carrying Solenoid:

The solenoid is a long tightly wound cylindrical coil of wire.

When the current flows through the solenoid, then it

behaves like a bar magnet. The magnetic field due to
solenoid is shown in figure.

The field inside the solenoid is strong and uniform as

compare to outside.

The field outside of the solenoid is so weak that it can be

neglected as compare to inside field.

We consider a rectangular loop abcda. Divide the loop into

four elements of lengths as

To determine the value of B of a solenoid let us consider an

Amperian path abcda with length and longer as
compare to other two lengths.

Now applying Ampere’s law:

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗= ( )

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 + ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗+ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ) (1)

Now inside the solenoid, B and are parallel, so ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 = 𝐵 =𝐵 ( ) 𝐵

𝟏 𝐵 (2)

Outside B = 0, so B = (0) =0

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .................. (3)

For and , B and lengths are perpendicular

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵 [ ]
= B (0)

so ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗= 0 .......................... (4)

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and ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵

𝐵 ( )

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗= 0 ......................... (5)

● Therefore, the magnetic field for a solenoid can be determined by putting values from
equation 2,3,4 and 5 inequation (1)
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗= 𝐵 𝐵 ( )

Now if L = length of the solenoid and N = Total number of

turns in the solenoid, then

∑ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵 ( )
( )
𝐵

Where Number of turns per unit length

So 𝐵
Direction of B: The magnetic field is along the axis of solenoid. Its
direction can be determined by right hand rule.

Right Hand Rule

Hold the solenoid in right hand with fingers curling in the

direction of current, the thumb will point in thedirection north
pole.

Explain the motion of charged particle in uniform magnetic field. Also derive expression
for thecyclotron frequency and time period of a charged particle moving in circular path in
magnetic field.

Motion of a charged Particle in uniform magnetic field:

● When a charged particle enters at right angle in magnetic field then it experience a
magnetic force.
● The force acting on the charged particle results from the interaction of the external
magnetic field and themagnetic field created by the moving charge.
● For a positive charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field of magnetic flux density
B, the force actingon the charge is given by the expression:
⃗ (⃗ ⃗⃗)
𝐵
⃗ 𝐵 ̂
In magnitude form 𝐵
Where is the angle between the velocity and magnetic field.

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Special Cases
 ⃗⃗ are at right angle to each other (i.e.
When ⃗ and 𝐵 )
𝐵

𝐵 [ ]
When the charged particle moves at an angle of to the field, then the particle moves in a circle.
 When ⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗ are parallel. (i.e. )
𝐵

𝐵( ) (minimum)

 ⃗⃗are anti-parallel (i.e.

When ⃗ and 𝐵 )
𝐵

𝐵( )
(minimum)

When the charged particle moves at an angle of to the field, then and the charged particle
moves in a straight path.
 When the charged particle is at rest (i.e. v = 0)
𝐵
( )𝐵

● The direction of this force is determined by Fleming’s left hand rule as shown in
figure. The thumb and the first two finger of the left hand are set at right angles to each
other. With the first finger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field and second
finger pointing in the direction of velocity of the charged particle, the thumb gives the
direction of the force.
● Now as the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the direction of velocity, so
the charged particle follows a circular path as shown in figure.
● The symbol shows that the magnetic field is acting into the plane of the paper.
Fig shows that charge particle moves on spiral path when angle is between .

Circular motion of charged particle in uniform

magnetic field
► When charged particle moves in circular path in magnetic field
then magnetic force provides the centripetalforce to charged particle.

This is the expression for radius of circular path of charged particle

moving in magnetic field.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Also from equation (2)

𝐵

As we know 𝑂

So equation becomes

● This is expression for angular frequency of a charged particle.Putting in equation (4)

𝐵

𝒒
𝒇

This is often called cyclotron frequency because this is the frequency with which a charged particle moves in a
cyclotron.

To find , the time period of the charged particle moving in circular path in a magnetic field we know

DETERMINATION OF e/m OF AN
ELECTRON
● J.J Thomson firstly determines the
charge to mass ratio of an electron.
● The circular motion of an electron shot
perpendicularly into a magnetic fieldcan be
used to determine its charge to mass ratio.
● The magnetic force provides centripetal
force to the charged particle movingin
circle of radius r in a magnetic field B.
Therefore

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

If and are known, charge/mass of the electron can be determined.

Measurement of radius

● Practically we shot beam of electrons into a magnetic field of known value, so B is known.
● Radius of the circular path of electrons can be measured by making their path visible by colliding
them with agas like hydrogen or helium in a tube place in uniform magnetic field.
● Electrons excite the atoms of the gas and their de-excitation causes emission of visible blue light.
So the lightcircle forms whose radius can be measured from scale.
Measurement of Velocity

● For the velocity of the electrons their kinetic energy is measured by passing them through a
potentialdifference of known value.

Taking square of equation 2

………4

𝐵
So
Knowing all the values, /m can be calculated as

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Derive the expression for torque on the current carrying coil in uniform magnetic field.

Torque on a Current Carrying Loop/Coil

Consider a current carrying rectangular coil PQRS is placed in a uniform magnetic field, it experiences
force and torque.

Number of turns of coil = N

Current flowing through coil in anti-

clockwise direction= I

uniform magnetic field = B.

length of coil= a

width of coil= b

Area of rectangular coil = A = ab The coil

can rotate about an axis of rotation.

The forces acting on sides PS and QR try to

compress the coil. Since the coil is rigid, no distortion of the coil occurs.

The force F acting on the sides PQ and RS due to the magnetic field are in opposite directions and
normal to the magnetic field and the sides PQ and RS.

The magnitude of this force on sides PQ and RS is

F1 = F2 = F = N B I a ……. (1)

Fig: (b) shows the directions of the two forces as seen from the top.

The effect of this pair of forces is a couple which has a torque, given by

( ) (2)

Where is angle between the plane of the coil and the magnetic field, and ‘b’ is the moment arm of the
couple.

Putting value of F from equation (1), in (2) we have

𝐵 ( )

𝐵 ( )

Putting ab= A (Area of rectangular coil)

𝐵 (3)

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

The maximum torque is BINA it occurs

when the angle = 0,

= NBIA cos00

= NBIA (1)

= NBIA

when the angle = 900 ,

= NBIA cos 900

= NBIA (0)

𝝉=0

When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, then torque is zero

Special Case

When we consider vector area (perpendicular to plane of coil) then 𝝉 is used.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

CHAPTER 14
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

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Exercise Mcq’s Chapter 14

i. For inducing e.m.f in the coil the basic requirement is that
a. Flux should link the coil b. Change in flux should link the coil
c. Coil should form a closed loop d. Both b and c are true
ii. When single turn coil rotates in a uniform magnetic field, at uniform speed the induced e.m.f will be
a. (a) Alternating b. (b) Steady c. (c) Pulsating d. (d) Zero
iii. Principle of dynamically induced e.m.f is used in a
a. (a) Choke b. (b) Transformer c. (c) Generator d. (d) Thermo-couple
iv. In Fleming’s left hand rule the thumb always represents the direction of:
a. (a) Current flow b. (b) Induced e.m.f c. (c) Magnetic field d. (d) Mechanical force
v. The field at any point on the axis of a current carrying coil will be ………. axis
a. (a) Perpendicular to b. (b) Parallel to the c. (c) At an angle of 45 d. (d) Zero
vi. When a coil rotated in magnetic field the induced current in it:
a. (a) Continuously changes b. (b) Remains same c. (c) Becomes zero d. (d) Becomes maximum

vii. In AC generator increasing the number of turns in the coil:

a. (a) Decreases emf b. (b) e.m.f remains same c. (c)Increasing emf d. (d) Emf becomes zero

viii. The device in which induced e.m.f is statically induced e.m.f is

a. (a) Transformer b. (b) AC generator c. (c) Alternator d. (d) Dynamo
ix. What is the coefficient of mutual inductance, when the magnetic flux changes by 2 × 10-2 Wb and change in
current is 0.01 A?
a. (a) 2 H b. (b) 3 H c. (c) ½ H d. (d) Zero
x. The induced e.m.f in a coil is proportional to
a. magnetic flux through coil b. rate of change of magnetic flux through coil
c. Area of the coil d. Product of magnetic flux and area of coil
xi. In a coil current change from 2 to 4 A in 0.05 s. if the average induced e.m.f is 8 V then coefficient of self-
inductance is
a. (a) 0.2 henry b. (b) 0.1 henry c. (c) 0.8 henry d. (d) 0.04 henry
xii. Which of the following quantities remain constant in step up transformer?
a. (a) current b. (b) voltage c. (c) power d. (d) heat
xiii. Setup transformer has a transformation ratio of 3:2. What is the voltage in secondary, if voltage in primary is
30V
a. (a) 45 V b. (b) 15 Volt c. (c) 90 V d. (d) 300 V
xiv. Eddy current is produced when
a. A metal is kept in varying magnetic field b. A metal is kept in steady magnetic field
c. Circular coil is placed in a steady magnetic field d. Current is passed through a circular coil

Exercise Short Questions Chapter 14

I. What factors limit the size of back emf?
Ans: When the armature of motor rotates in magnetic field then it cuts the magnetic field. As
the change in magnetic flux occurs in motor an emf is induced known as back emf.
Following factors limit the magnitude of back emf (change in magnetic flux)
 Speed of motor
 Strength of magnetic field

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II. Why does back 𝒆 𝒇 tend to decrease as the rate of doing work increases?
Ans: In motor as the rate of doing work (power) increases, means load is connected to the
motor. So speed of motor decreases. Now change in flux also decreases.

So according to faraday’s ( ) induced emf (back emf) also decreases. And now according
to formula it will draw more current means rate of doing work increases.

III. In Faraday’s experiment what would be the advantage of using coils with many turns?

According to Faraday’s law induced emf is given as

As it is clear form above relation that , when number of turns are greater than large emf
will be induced.

The other advantage of using many turns in Faraday's experiments is that the emf and induced
current are proportional to N, which makes it easier to experimentally measure those
quantities.

IV. Show that the relationship is dimensionally correct?

Ans: As

L.H.S

[ ]

[ ]
So L.H.S =R.H.S
It is proved that relationship is dimensionally correct
V. Give the formula for the flux linkage in the term of angular orientation.
Ans: Flux linkage product of magnetic flux and number of turns which is given as
Flux linkage = 𝐵
As
So Flux linkage = 𝐵
So this represents flux linkage in terms of angular orientation. Where is angular velocity.
VI. How electromagnetic brakes work? Explain
Ans: Electromagnetic braking means to applying brakes by using electric and magnetic power.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

An electromagnet which can be energized by the current is placed beneath the train. Braking
action occurs when a large current is passed through the electromagnet.
The relative motion of magnet and rails induces eddy current in the rails and direction of these
current produces a drag force to oppose the rotation of the moving wheels.
Electromagnetic brakes are used in bullet train and aircraft as supplementary brake system.
VII. How eddy currents can be minimized in transformer?
When the change in flux occurs through the core of transformer then emf is induced in the core,
which establishes the current in the core known as eddy currents. The eddy currents flow
orthogonal to the magnetic flux.
To minimize the eddy currents laminated core is used instead of solid core. Laminated core
consists of thin sheets pressed together separated by thin insulating layers.
VIII. How electromagnetic induction is used in cook tops in electric ranges?
Ans: It is due to the effect of back (induced) emf.
In induction cookers coils are placed beneath metallic cook tops. When alternating current is
passed through the coils changing magnetic flux is produced. When this magnetic flux passes
through the metal pots eddy current are produced. This eddy current produce heat in the pots,
so food is cooked.
IX. what is meant by the term back emf in any electric motor operations.
When the armature of motor rotates in magnetic field then it cuts the magnetic field. As the
change in magnetic flux occurs in motor an emf is induced. This induced emf is called back emf.
This is given as
At starts back emf is less because rotational speed is less and change in flux is minimum so back
emf will be less. It goes on increasing as speed increases and becomes constant when motor is
running at uniform speed.
X. Why it is an advantage for the armature to rotate in a radial magnetic field rather than a
uniform one?
The radial magnetic field confirms that plane of coil rotating in the magnetic field is always
parallel to the external magnetic field and the angle between magnetic field and vector area of
coil is always So that, the produced torque will be maximum. As torque is given as
𝐵
The pole faces of magnet are made concave to produce radial magnetic field so
So torque will be maximum 𝐵
XI. (a) Which material would you prefer while making transformer core ; iron, solid soft iron,
laminated soft iron, aluminum? (b) What is the reason for using this material?
(a) laminated soft iron will be most suitable for making transformer core.
(b) In transformer’s core there are two main sources of power losses.
Eddy current: When the change in flux occurs through the core of transformer then emf is
induced in the core, which establishes the current in the core known as eddy currents. The eddy
currents flow orthogonal to the magnetic flux. This causes the heating effect. This can be
reduced by using laminated core.
Hysteresis loss: Energy lost in magnetizing and demagnetizing the core material is called
hysteresis loss. This can be reduced by using soft magnetic material.

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So laminated soft iron will be most suitable for making transformer core.

Additional MCQ’s Chapter 14

1. According to Faraday’s law, emf induced in a circuit depend on (2010) (2017)
(a) Maximum magnetic flux (b) rate of change of magnetic flux
(c) Change in magnetic flux (d) initial magnetic flux
2. A transformer steps down the voltage of 220V to 20Vwith the help of 20 turns on the secondary coil.
What is the number of turns on the primary? (2010)
(a) 200 (b) 220 (c) 20 (d) 22
3. When the motors is at its maximum speed, the back emf will be (2010)
(a) Maximum (b) zero (c) Intermediate values (d) no back emf
4. Eddy currents” are setup in a direction (2011) (2017)
A. Parallel to the flux B. Anti parallel to the flux
C. Perpandicular to the fulx D. At the angle of 450 parallel to the flux
5. On what principle does a transformer work (2011)
A. Electrostatic induction B. Electromagnetism
C. Ohm’s Law D. Mutual Induction
6. An inductor may store energy in its (2012)
A. Coil B. Electric field C. Magnetic field D. Both B and C
7. Componant in genrator which consumes energy is called (2012)
A. Commutator B. Split ring C. Capacitor D. Load
8. As motor speed up the value of current decreases because (2012)
A. Of friction loss B. Increases of resistance C. Energy D. All of these
9. Lenz’s law is equal to the law of conservation of (2012)
A. Momentum B. Mass C. Energy D.Charge
10. Energy stored per unit volume inside the solenoid is (2012)
𝟏
A. = B. = C. 𝑼 = D. None of these

11. Self-inductance of a long solenoid is given by (2013)

A. B. C. D. None of these
12. A coil has an inductance of 5.0 H. If current through its changes at the rate of the emf induced in the coil
will be (2014)
A. 2.5V B. 25V C. 1.0V D.
13. If turn ratio of an ideal transformer then (2014)

A. * + B. * +
𝑽 𝟏
C. *𝑽 𝟏 + D. * +
𝑷 𝑷 𝟏
14. an inductor may store energy in ` (2015)
A. Its magnetic field B. Its electric field
C. Its coil D. Battery
15. When the current in a coil changes from 0 to 10 A in 0.025s, an average emf induced in a neighboring coil is 600
V the mutual inductance for two coil is (2015)
A. 1.5 Henry B. 12.5 Henry C. 6 Henry D. 10 Henry

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16. The Lens law referes to (2015)

A. Induced current B. Induced potential C. Motional emf D. All of these
17. The turns ratio of a set-up transformer is 50. A current of 20A is passed through its primary coil at 220V. Obtain
the value voltage and current in the secondary coil assuming the transformer to be ideal one. (2015)
A. 2100 volts, 2.4 A B. 3300 Volts, 1.3 A
C. 1200 Volts, 0.6 A D. 1100 Volts, 0.4 A
18. The direction of induced of current is always so as to oppose the change which cause the current
(2016)
A. Gauss’s Law B. Ampere’s Law C. Faraday’s Law D. Lenz’s Law
19. Devices that consume electrical energy in the external circuit of generator are known as (2016)
A. Motors B. Appliances C. Loads D. Machines
20. On what principle does a transformer work (2017)
A. Electrostatic induction B. Electromagnetism C. Ohm’s Law D. Mutual Induction
21. The maximum value of emf induced in the coils of A.C genrator is (2014)
A. 𝐵 B. C 𝐵 D. 𝐵
22. The induced e.m.f. is produced due to
a) Motion of coil b) Motion of magnet c) The rate of change of flux d) None

23. Induced electric current can be explained using which law

a) Gauss’s law b) Faraday’s law c) Ohm’s law d) Ampere law

24. In the motional e.m.f. the mechanical energy consumed is converted into
a) Heat energy b) Internal energy c) Steam energy d) Electrical energy

25. Generator works on the principle of

a) Torque on rectangular coil b) Motional e.m.f. c) Question is wrong d) None

26. Lenz’s law is consistent with law of conservation of

a) Mass b) Energy c) Charge d)None

27. An inductor is a circuit element that can store energy in the form of
a) Magnetic field b) Electric flux c) Electric field d) None

28. The induced e.m.f. can also be increase by increasing

a) Current b) Voltage c) No. of turns d) None

29. The negative sign with induced e.m.f. is due to

a) Faraday’s law b) Lenz’s law c) Ampere law d) None

30. The best way to find the direction of induced e.m.f. in the circuit is
a) Faraday’s law b) Lenz’s law c) Ampere’s law d) Right hand rule

31. The relation of motional e.m.f. is

a) b) 𝐵 c) d) 𝐵

32. If we increase the resistance of coil, the induced e.m.f. will be

a) Increase b) Decrease c) Remain same d) None

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33. The self-inductance may be defined by

⁄
a) b) L = c) d)
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
34. The mutual inductance b/w two coil is
⁄
a) M = b) c) ) d) None
⁄ ⁄

35. Inductance is measured in……..

a) Coulombs b) Amperes c) Volt d) Henry

36. The self-inductance in case of D.C circuit is

a) Maximum b) Minimum c) negligible d) none

37. An over loaded motor draws

a) Max. current b) Min. current c) Half d) None

38. A current of 7 Amp/sec flows a steady rate, through a inductor of inductance 25 mH, what is the induced e.m.f?
a) 3.57mV b) 175mV c) 350mV d) None

39. Lamination of lamina core of transformer is to decrease its

a) Eddy current b) Hysteresis c) Electric resistance d) Inductance

40. The co-efficient of mutual inductance is equal to

a) ( ) b) ( ) c) d) none

41. Mutual inductance exists

a) Within coil b) Out of coil c) B/w two coils d) None

42. The coil in A.C generator rotates with rotational speed of 10rad/sec its frequency is
5
a) 2  rad/sec b) 5  rad/sec c) rad/sec d) None

43. The instantaneous value of A.C. voltage is
a) V = Vo sin 2  ft b) V = Vo sin 2 ft c) V = Vo sing 2  wt d) None

44. The induced e.m.f. in A.C. generator is

a) 𝒊 b) c) 𝐵 d) 𝐵

45. The coil used in the generators is called

a) Commutators b) Slip rings c) Armature d) None

46. The principle of transformer is

a) Amperes law b) Mutual induction c) Motional e.m.f. d) None

47. A transformer is a device which step up or stop down

a) Energy b) Power c) Voltage d) All of above

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48. In the actual transformer, the output is always

a) Equal to input b) Less then input c) More than input d) None

49. A transformer changes 12V to 1800V and there are 6000 turns in secondary coil, the no of turn on primary coil is
a) 40 b) 20 c) 10 d) 2

50. In ideal transformer when p.d. is double the current is

a) Doubled b) Tripled c) Halved d) Same

51. Power is effectively supplied to primary coil of step up transformer by

a) A.C. generator b) D.C. generator c) Battery d) Motor

52. The eddy current produce

a) Power loss b) Heating c) Both a and b d) None

53. To overcome the eddy current, the core is

a) Laminated with insulation b) With magnetic c) With plastic d) None

54. For a good transformer the hysterics loop are _______ in size.
a) Small b) Large c) Zero d) None

55. To minimize the heating effect in the transmission lines

a) High current low voltage is used b) High voltage low current is used
c) Same voltage and current is used d) None

56. Load is a device which consume

a) Mechanical energy b) Electrical energy c) Frictional energy d) None

57. When motor is at its Max. speed the back e.m.f will be
a) Maximum b) Zero c) Cannot tell d) None of these

58. Self-induction is greater in

a) AC circuits b) DC circuits c) Both in AC & DC d) None

59. In mutual induction, the mutual inductance of the two coils depends upon
a) Number of turns b) Area of cross section of coil
c) The distance between the two coils d) All of them

60. The back emf effect in motors changes due to

a) Inductance of coils b) Current c) Voltage d) None of these

61. In an ideal transformer, the following factors are used

a) Input and output power is same b) Currents are inversely proportional to voltage
c) Currents are directly proportional to voltage d) None of these

62. The application of mutual induction is a

a) Television b) Radio c) D.C. motor d) Transformer

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

63. What is the self inductance of a coil when a change of current from 0 to 2A in 0.05sec induces an emf of 40V in
it?
a) 1H b) 2H c) 3H d) 4H

64. A pair of coils has a mutual inductance of 2H. If the current in the primary changes from 10A to zero in 0.1sec,
the induced emf in the secondary will be
a) 100V b) 200V c) 300V d) 400V

65. Seismometer can be made which works on …………………. Principle.

a) Electromagnetic induction b) Newton’s 1st law` c) Both a & b d) None
66. The unit of flux linkages is……………..
a) Wb b) Tesla c) Wb m d) T m
67. At what rate would it be necessary for a single conductor to cut the flux in order that a current of 1.2 mA flows
through it when 10 ohm resistor is connected across it ends?
a) 𝟏 𝟏 𝑾𝒃 b) c) d)

Additional Short Questions

Chapter 14
1. When a magnet is pushed into the solenoid, the ammeter records a small current: (2010)
A. Explain why a current is produced.
B. State what is observed
1. When the magnet is pull out of the solenoid
2. When the magnet is stationary inside the solenoid

Ans: A. When a magnet is pushed into the solenoid, then the

magnetic flux is changed through the solenoid, which induces emf
that causes current through the solenoid.
B. 1. When the magnet is pull out of the solenoid then ammeter shows opposite deflection.
2. When the magnet is stationary inside the solenoid, then there is no change in flux, so there will be no
induced current and ammeter shows zero deflection
2. A lamp is connected to the secondary coil of the transformer by long leads which have a resistance of 2.5
Ohms. The power input to the primary coil is 40 W and the transformer is 100% efficient. Calculate the
potential drops across the resistance of the leads (2010)
Ans:

As transformer is 100 % efficient so

As ⇒

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3. Does the induced e.m.f in a circuit depend on the resistance of the circuit? Does the induced current depend
on the resistance of the circuit? (2011),(2012), (2013), (2014)

a. Ans: According to Faraday's law, , so induced emf depends on rate of change of magnetic flux ,
and it does not depends on resistance R of the circuit
b. As , so induced current depends upon resistance and is inversely proportional to resistance R.
4. When the primary of a transformer is connectd to A.C mains in it (a) is very small if the secondary circuit is
open but (b) increases when the secondary circuit is closed. Explain these fact (2011)

Ans:a. If the secondary winding is open, the output power (Vs Is) will be zero. Since output power of a
transformer is always slightly smaller than the input power, so a very small current is drawn by the transformer
from the A.C. mains, i.e. the input current (Ip) is very small.

b. When the secondary circuit is closed, the output power increases. To meet this power, transformer will draw
large current from the A.C. mains to increase its primary power (VpIp).
5. Show that ε and have the same units? (2012), (2014), (2015), (2017), (2018)

Ans: Units of ( ) ( )

Units of

( ) ( )

From eq. 1 and 2 it is proved that 𝒂 𝒅 have the same units

6. What happen to the motor when it is overloaded beyound its limit? (2012)
When the motor is just started, back emf is almost zero and hence a large current passes throough the coil. As
the motor speeds up the back emf increases and the currrent becomes smaller and smaller. However, the
current is sufficient to provide torque on the coil to derive the load and to overcome losses due to friction.
If the motor is overloaded, it slows down. Consequently the back emf decreases and allows the motor to draw
more current. If the motor is overloaded beyond its limits, the current could be so high that it may burn out the
motor.
7. Does the induced e.m.f always act to decrease the magnetic flux through a circuit? (2013), (2017)
Ans: No. According to Lenz's law induced current opposes the cause which induces it, if magnetic flux increases
then induced emf will act to decrease the magnetic flux. If magnetic flux decreases then the induced emf will act
to increase magnetic flux.

8. A metal rod of length 25cm is moving at a speed of 0.5ms -1 in a direction perpendicular to a 0.25 T magnetic
field. Find the e.m.f produced in the rod (2013)
Solution:
Speed of rod = v=
Length of rod=L=25cm=0.25m
Magnetic flux density=B=0.25T=

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Induced emf=
Using the relation,
𝐵

9. a. Can a step-up transformer increase the power level?

b. In a transformer, there is no transfer of charge from the primary to the secondary. How is then the power
transferred? (2012), (2013), (2017)

Ans: a. No, a step-up transformer can only increase the voltage level at its secondary. It cannot increase the
power level in accordance with law of conservation of energy.

b. In a transformer there is no transfer of charge from the primary to the secondary .Energy or power from
primary coil is transferred to the secondary coil due to mutual induction which is caused by change in magnetic
flux.

10. In a certain region, the earth’s magnetic field points vertically down When a plane files due north
with velocity𝑽 𝑽𝒀 , which wing of the plane is positive charged and why? (2014)
Ans: As the plane is moving along y-axis, in a region where magnetic field is along negative Z-axis. Then
according to palm rule (right hand rule) force will act along positive X axis. Therefore, positive charges in the
body of the plane move towards wingtip which is along positive X-axis, making it positively charged.

11. Why is Electric Power lost in transformers? Discuss briefly. (2015)

Ans: In a real transformer output power is not equal to input power i.e due to power loss. This
is caused due to
 Eddy current loss: when the magnetic flux is changed through the core of transformer, currents are set up in a
closed path.
This induced current set up perpendicular to the direction of magnetic flux, known as eddy current. And power
loss due to this current is called eddy current loss.
 Hysteresis loss: This is the energy loss in magnetizing and demagnetizing the core material of the transformer.
12. A suspended magnet is oscillating freely in a horizontal plane. The oscillations are strongly damped when a
metal plate is placed under the magnet. Explain why is this so? (2015)

Ans: Due to the oscillations of the magnet, the magnetic flux passing through the metallic plate changes. This
produces an induced emf in the plate and hence an induced current. The induced current produces its own
magnetic field which always opposes the motion of the bar magnet. Therefore, the oscillatory motion of the bar
magnet is damped.
13. What do you understand by the term “back emf effect in motors”? (2015)

Ans. When the coil of the motor rotates across the magnetic field by the applied potential difference V, an emf
is induced in it. The induced emf is in such a direction that opposes the applied emf (voltage), is called back emf
of the motor. The magnitude of the emf increases with the speed of motor.
If is applied voltage and is back emf, then these are related as

As speed of motor increases, which increase back emf to reduce applied voltage.
14. What do you understand by electromagnetic induction? (2016)

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Ans: Electromagnetic or magnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force (i.e., voltage) across
an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field
Electromagnetic induction has found many applications in technology, including electrical components such
as inductors and transformers, and devices such as electric motors and generators.
15. Can a D.C motor be turned into a D.C generator? What changes are required to be done (2016)

Ans: Yes a D.C. motor can be converted into a D.C. generator

. For this, the armature coil of the motor is to be coupled with some rotating body. The rotational motion of the
body is transferred to the armature coil of the motor. Due to its rotation, the magnetic flux through the coil
changes and an emf is induced at the output. The motor, therefore, becomes a generator.

16. Which factors increase the induced current when the induced EMF leads induced current in a closed circuit?
(2016)
Ans: Following factors increase the induced current when the induced EMF leads induced current in a closed
circuit.
 Using a stronger magnetic field
 Moving the loop faster
 Replacing the loop by a coil of many turns.
17. When an electric motor such as an electric drill is being used does it also act as a generator? If so what is the
consequence of this? (2016)

Ans: When a motor like drill machine is working, its armature (coil) is revolving in a uniform magnetic field by a
potential difference V. The revolving armature of the motor experiences change in flux, which produces emf,
known as back emf of the motor. Hence, a drill machine (or a motor) is also operating like a generator whose
generated emf is known as back emf.

18. A transformer steps down the voltage of 220V to 20Vwith the help of 20 turns on the secondary
coil. What is the number of turns on the primary? (2017)

turns

𝐵
=

What is the direction of the current through resistor R in Fig. Q.

15.4, when switch S is (2018)

a. Closed
b. opened

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a. When switch S is closed, magnetic flux changes in second coil and current is induced in it. According to “Lenz’s
Law” The current in second coil flows in anti-clockwise direction.
b. Now, on opening the switch, magnetic flux again changes in second coil and current is induced in it. But this
time, current flows in clockwise direction.

Comprehensive Questions Chapter 14

Alternating Generator
Definition: A device which is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy is called AC
generator.
Working principle: Its working principal is Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
Construction: It consists of following components.
 Magnet: to provide magnetic field
 Coil (Armature) : Emf is generated in coil according to Faradays law
 Slip rings: These produce AC current
 Carbon brushes: These are static and separate the coil and external circuit by providing path of current.
These are often made by graphite.
 Mechanical source (prime mover)

Working: Consider a coil CDEF as shown in fig. When this coil is

rotated anticlockwise in magnetic field then According to Faradays
law emf is induced in the coil. So current starts flow, according to
Fleming’s right hand rule in side CD current is upward and in side
EF it is downward.
After half revolution (when coil is rotated through ) then
direction of current reverses in each side of coil, i.e in side CD it is
now downward and in EF it is upward.
In this way after every half revolution the direction of emf
changes.
Graph
To explain this a graph is drawn which shows the position of coil and induced emf.

At position 1: The coil is at .The coil is moving parallel to magnetic flux so no emf is induced.
At position 2: The coil is at .The coil is moving perpendicular to magnetic flux so flux is at maximum
hence maximum emf is induced.

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At position 3: The coil is at .The coil is moving parallel to magnetic flux so no emf is induced.
At position 4: The coil is at . The coil is moving perpendicular to magnetic flux so flux is at maximum
hence maximum emf is induced but this time it is in reversed.
At position 5: The coil is at .The coil is moving parallel to magnetic flux so no emf is induced. At this
point coil has completed complete revolution.

Mathematical expression:
Suppose coil has N number of turns and area “A” is rotating with angular velocity at any time instant
“t”. Let be the angle which coil make with magnetic field B.
⃗⃗ ⃗ = 𝐵
𝐵
As
So 𝐵
According to Faradays law

( 𝐵 )

Put in equation 1
𝐵( )
𝐵
As 𝐵 is constant, so will be maximum when
𝐵
So equation 2 becomes

Or
( )

What is self-induced emf. Explain the phenomenon of self-induction. Define self -Inductance. Give its unit.

SELF INDUCED EMF:

The emf induced in a coil due to change of its magnetic flux is called self- induced emf.

Or

The emf induced in a coil due to change in current of a same coil is called self-induced emf.

When the conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is changing then the emf induced in the conductor is
called statically induced emf. If a current in a coil changes, then the magnetic flux linking the coil also changes.

Hence an emf ( ) is induced in the coil. This is known as self-induced emf.

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The direction of this emf (By Lenz’s Law) in such so, as to

oppose the case producing it, namely the change of
current (and hence magnetic field) in a coil.

The self-induced emf will persist so long as the current in

the coil is changing. So it is concluded that when current
in a coil changes, the self-induced emf opposes the
change of current in a coil which is known as a self-
inductance or inductance.

SELF-INDUCTANCE:

Self-inductance: The phenomenon in which a changing current in a coil induces an emf is called self-induction.

The property of coil that opposes any change in the amount of current flowing through it is called se lf-
inductance or inductance.

The inductance of a coil can be demonstrated by changing current in it, For example, if a steady direct current
(DC) is flowing in a circuit, there will be no inductance.

When alternating current is flowing in the same circuit, the current is continuously changing and hence the
circuit exhibits inductance.

This property (i.e inductance) is due to the self-induced emf in the coil itself by the changing current. Self-
inductance

Let be the flux passing through one loop of the coil then the total flux for N number of turns will be . Since
the flux ( 𝐵 ) is proportional to magnetic field and magnetic field is proportional to current.

So,

Or

Where is the constant of proportionality known as self-inductance. According to Faraday’s law, the induced
emf can be expressed as,

( )

Putting value of from equation 1 in 2

( )
Or

But L is constant, So

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This equation shows that induced emf is directly proportional to to the rate of change of current in the coil. The
negative sign shows that self-induced emf must oppose the change that produces it.

From equation 3, we have

Definition

Self-inductance of a coil may be defined as the ratio of induced emf produced in a coil to rate of change of
current in the same coil.

Unit

SI unit of self-Inductance is which is equal to henrey (𝐻)

Henry

The self-inductance of a coil is said to be one henry if current changes at the rate of one ampere per second
through it produces an induced emf one volt in the same coil.

SELF-INDUCED EMF AS BACK EMF

AS

The negative sign shows that the self-induced emf opposes the change which produces it. This is why self-
induced emf is also called back emf.

This is according to Lenz’s law. If the current is increased the self-induced emf tries to decrease the current and
similarly when the current is decreased the induced emf tries to increase the current.

Factor affecting inductance:

Inductors play a great role in electronics, electrical, electromechanically; wireless circuit etc. to study the
properties of inductance let us consider a coil of N turns.

When an emf is induced in a coil due to increasing current then its direction is always opposite to the
increasing current i.e direction of self-induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage. On the other hand when
emf is produced in a coil due to decreasing current then its direction is always opposite to the decreasing
current. i.e direction of self-induced emf will same as that of the applied voltage.

Thus by increasing the direction of self-induced emf, increases the self-inductance of the coil and the opposition
to the changing current. The design of the inductor also plays an important role determining the value of
inductance of coil. Hence, inductance of coil depends upon the following factors.

I. Shape and number of turns N.

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II. Relative permeability of the material (material of the coil).

III. The rate of change of flux ( ) linking the coil.
IV. Core area and length

In fact, anything that effects magnetic field also affects the inductance of the coil.

 Thus increasing the number of turn of a coil increasing its inductance.

 Similarly, by substituting an iron core increase its inductance.

Explain the phenomenon of Mutual Induction and Mutual Inductance and define its unit.

MUTUALLY INDUCED EMF:

Definition: The phenomenon in which changing of current in one coil induces an emf in another coil, is
called mutual induction.

Explanation: Let us consider two coils A and B placed adjacent to each other as shown in figure. When
the current flows in the coil A then magnetic field produced around it. A part of the magnetic flux
produced by coil A passes through or links with coil B. if
current in coil A is varied, the magnetic flux also varies
and hence emf is induced in both the coils.

The emf Induces in coil B is known as mutually induced

emf.
The mutually induced emf in coil B persists so long
as the current in coil A is changing.

If current in coil A becomes steady, the mutual flux also

becomes steady and mutually induced emf drop to
zero.

The magnitude of of mutually induced emf is given by

Faraday’s law i.e.,

Where 𝐵

And i.e flux common to both coils.

Direction: The direction of mutually induced emf ( by Lenz’s law) is always such so as to oppose the
cause producing it. The cause producing the mutually induced emf in coil B is the changing mutual
magnetic flux produced by coil A.

hence the direction of induced current (when the circuit is completed) in coil B will be such that the
magnetic flux set up by it will oppose the changing mutual flux produced by coil A.

MUTUALLY INDUCTANCE:

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When the two coils are placed near each other then, changing current in one coil induced emf in ther
coil. Figure shows two coils A and B placed near each other. If a current flows in the coil A, a flux is set
up and a part of this flux links the coil B the two coils being magnetically linked. When the current in the
coil A , changes the flux linking the coil B also changes and emf is induced in the coil B. the emf in coil B is
term as mutually induced emf.

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, induced voltage in a coil depends upon the
number of turns (N) and the rate of change of flux ⁄ linking the coil. The larger the rate of change
of current in coil A , the greater is the emf induced in coil B . in other wordas, mutually induced emf in coil
B is directly proportional to rate of change of current in coil A i.e

Mutually induced emf in coil B rate of change of current in coil A

Where is a constant called mutual inductance between the two coils

Mutual inductance is defined as the ratio of average emf induced in secondary to the time rate of
change of current in primary coil.

Factors on which mutual inductance depends upon

 No. of turns of coils

 Area of cross section of coils
 Closeness of coils
 Nature of core material
 Orientation of coils

Its SI unit is VS known as Henry(H) Henry

“If the rate of current of one ampere per second in the primary produced the emf of one volt in the
secondary then mutual inductance of pair of coils is said to be one henry”.

Putting ⁄ ( ) 𝐻

Hence mutual induction between two coils is 1 Henry if current changing at the rtio of 1 ⁄ in one coil
induces an emf of 1 volt in the other coil.

( )
Also we know that

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( )

Comparing Equation 2 and 3

OR

 Transformer:
Definition: A transformer is a device which is use to transform electrical power from one
voltage and current level to another.
Working Principle: Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction.
Construction: The transformer depends on the use of alternating current.
There are three main parts of transformer: primary coil, secondary coil and
a laminated iron core connecting them.
Working: The primary coil is connecting to the input electrical supply, which
has to be AC to work properly. An AC current through the coil
creates a changing magnetic field which is concentrated through
the iron core.
Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field.
The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of
high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of
magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary
coils. The changing magnetic flux through the primary coil gives
rise to an induced e.m.f in the secondary coil.
Turn Ratio:
The voltage induced across the secondary coil is given by Faraday’s law of induction, which
states that:

Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal
transformer, the voltage across the primary is

Taking the ratio of two equations for and gives the basic equation for stepping up or
stepping down the voltage

𝑺
𝒂 This term is called turn ratio.
𝑷

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Where

𝑻 𝒆 𝒇 𝒂 𝒇 𝒆 𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒂 𝒊 𝒇 𝒇
𝑺 𝒆 𝑻 𝒂 𝒇 𝒆 :
If and the transformer is called step-up
transformer.
𝑺 𝒆 𝒅 𝑻 𝒂 𝒇 𝒆 :
If and it is called step-down transformer.
Efficiency of transformer:
The amount of energy cannot be stepped up or down. The efficiency
of ideal transformer is 100 %. So,
Input power = output power

It follows that if the voltage is stepped up the current is stepped down and vice versa. If a high
voltage is required a step-up transformer is used, whereas if a high current is required a step-
down transformer is used.
Efficiency of Actual Transformer:

But in actual transformer, the output is always less than input due to power losses. There are two main
causes of power losses in core, namely eddy currents and magnetic hysteresis. Due to power losses, a
transformer is far from being an ideal i.e., efficiency of an actual transformer is always less than ideal
one.

There are two main causes of power loss, which are given below
i. Eddy Current
The induced currents that are set up in the core of transformer in the direction perpendicular
to the flux are known as eddy currents. It results in power dissipation and heating of the core material.
ii. Hysteresis Losses
Hysteresis losses are the energy expended to magnetizeand demagnetize the core material in each
cycle of AC.

TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY OF THE TRANSFORMER

Following step should be executed in order to improve the efficiency of transformer:

 Core should be assembled from the laminated sheet of a material whose hysteresis loop area
is verysmall.
 The insulation between lamination sheets should be perfect so as to stop the flow of eddy currents.
 The resistance of the primary and secondary coils should be kept minimum.
Power transmission over long distance using transformer:
The long thick cables of transmission lines are made of copper or aluminum because they have
a low resistance. High voltage transmission lines carry electricity long distance to a substation.

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The power line go into Grid stations, electricity in different power levels is used. Here
transformers change the very high voltage electricity back into lower voltage electricity. The
voltage is eventually reduced to 220 volts for larger appliances, like stoves and clothes dryers
and 110 volts for lights, TVs and other smaller appliances.

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CHAPTER 15
ALTERNATING CURRENT

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Exercise Mcq’s Chapter 15

i. The r.m.s value of a 100 A. its peak value is
a. (a) 70.7 A b. (b) 141.4 A c. (c) 150 A d. (d) 282.8 A
ii. A sine wave has a frequency of 50 Hz. Its angular frequency is ….. radian/second.
a. (a) 100 π b. (b) 50 π c. (c) 25 π d. (d) 5 π
iii. The power factor of purely resistive circuit is
a. (a) Zero b. (b) Unity c. (c) Lagging d. (d) Leading
iv. A capacitor is perfectly insulator for
a. (a) Direct current b. (b) AC c. (c) DC as well as AC d. (d) Induced e.m.f
v. The peak value of alternating current is 5√ A. the mean square value of current will be
a. (a) 5 A b. (b) 2.5 A c. (c) 5√ A d. (d) 52
vi. In choke coil the reactance XL and resistance R are related as
a. (a) XL = R b. (b) XL<<R c. (c) XL>>R d. (d) XL =
vii. The phase difference between the current and voltage at resonance is
a. (a) 0 b. (b) c. (c) – d. (d)
viii. In AC system we generate sine form because
a. It can be easily drawn b. It produces least disturbance in circuit
c. It is nature standard d. other waves can’t be produced easily
ix. An alternating voltage is given by 20sin 157t. the frequency of alternating voltage is
a. (a) 50 Hz b. (b) 25 Hz c. (c) 100 Hz d. (d)75 Hz
x. In LR current which one of the following statements is correct?
a. L and R oppose each other b. value of R increase with frequency
c. Inductive reactance increases with frequency d. Inductive reactance decreases with frequency
xi. An alternating quantity (voltage or current) is completely if we know it’s
a. (a) Maximum value b. (b) Frequency and phase c. (c) Effective value d. (d) Both (a) and (b)
xii. For electromagnetic waves, Maxwell generalized
a. Gauss’s law for magnetism b. Gauss’s law for electricity
c. Faradays law for magnetic induction d. Ampere’s law
xiii. An electromagnetic waves goes from air to glass which of the following does not change?
a. (a) Radio waves b. (b) X-rays c. (c) Ultraviolet radiation d. (d) Ultra sound waves
xiv. The circuit in which current and voltage are in phase, the power factor is
a. (a) zero b. (b) 1 c. (c) -1 d. (d) 2
xv. With increase in frequency of AC supply, the impedance (Z) of RLC series circuit
a. remains constant b. increases c. decreases d. capacitive reactance decreases only

Exercise Short Questions Chapter

15
1. Sketch a graph of emf induced in an inductive coil rate of change of current.
What is the significance of the gradient?

Ans: As self-induced emf is given as

Or

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This eq. shows that induced emf and rate of change of current are directly proportional, so
graph will be straight line.
Significance of gradient
Gradient of graph between gives value of self-inductance L
As gradient =
⁄

2. Current and voltage provided by an AC generator are sometimes negative and sometimes
positive. Explain why for, and AC generator connected to a resistor, power can never be
negative?

Ans: (a) When an ac source is connected with a resistor. Then expression for average power
over an ac cycle is given as

=
√ √
As shown from fig. it is clear
that power is positive in both half
cycles.

3. What determines the gradient of a graph of

inductive reactance against frequency?

Ans:

Or
So graph will be straight line
Gradient = …………….(1)
As

So eq. 1 becomes

So gradient of graph drawn between inductive reactance and frequency is equal to self-
inductance of coil.

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4. How does doubling the frequency affect the reactance of an (a) inductor (b)
capacitor?

For an inductor:

a. Inductor's reactance = XL= where ω=2πf

now we double the frequency,

( ) ( )

=2 hence it doubles.

For a capacitor:

b. Capacitor's reactance = where ω=2πf

now we double the frequency,

= ( )

= ( )

Hence it becomes half of the original value.

5. If the peak value of a sine wave is 1,000 volts, what is the effective 𝒆𝒇𝒇 value?
Ans:

6. Show that reactance is measured in ohms for both inductors and capacitors.
Reactance: The opposition offered by the capacitor and inductor to the current in AC circuit is
called reactance.
Unit of = ⇒( )

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

As farad =
Put the value of farad in eq. 1
⇒( )

⇒( )

⁄ ⁄

⇒( )
𝟏
𝒆𝒒 𝒂 𝒅 𝒊 𝒊 𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒂 the capacitive reactance 𝑿𝒄 and inductive
reactance 𝑿 have the same units equal to that of resistance “R”, i.e ohm

7. Describe the principle of ECG

Ans: The electrocardiograph or ECG is used for diagnosing heart condition. An ECG is a recording
of the small electric waves being generated during heart activity.
Our heart produces time varying voltages at it beats. These heart beats produces voltage
differences b/w points on our skin that can be measured and used to diagram the condition of
our heart.
These waves are registered by the electrodes placed on certain parts of our body, which are
printed on page in form of curve.

Additional MCQ’s Chapter 15

1. If capacitance of LC circuit is made four times, then frequency of circuit become (2010)
A. Twice B. One half C. Four times D. none of these
2. A 100 ohm resistor a 0.1μF capacitor and a 0.1 henry inductor are connected parallel to a 100V supply.
The resonant frequency is (2010)
A.1392 HZ B. 1492 HZ C. 1592 HZ D. none of these
3. The r.m.s value of current is given by (2011)
A B. √ C. √ D.
√ √
4. At what frequancy will an inductor of 1.0 H have a reactance of 500Ω (2011) (2015)
A. 50Hz B. 80Hz C. 500Hz D. 1000Hz
5. In a circuit at resonance the phase difference between current and voltage is (2012)
A. B. C. D.
6. The frequancy of A.C used in Pakistan is (2013)
A. 60 CPS B. 50 CPS C. 100 CPS D. 120 CPS
7. The peak value of A.C volatge is 2√ volts Its rms or effective value will be (2013)
A. √ B. 2 volts C. D. None of these
√
8. Which diagram is true for RC-series circuit is (2014), (2015)

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

9. The process of combing the low frequency signal with a high frequency carrier wave is called (2014)
(2017)
A. Wave transmission B. Modulation C. Resonance D. Beats
10. In which of the following A.C circuit the power dissipation is zero? (2014)
A. R.C Circuit B. R.L circuit C. Only is Resistor “R” D. Only in Capacitor “C”
11. Which phase diagram is true of RL-series circuit? (2015)

12. Calculate
the

resonance frequency with the help of the given RLC Series circuit (2015)

A. 900Hz B. 796 Hz C. Motional emf D. All of these

13. For the case of Resonance of frequency the power factor is (2015)
A. Zero B. 90 C. 1 D. 180
14. Which one of the following is NOT an advantage of using A.C? (2016)
A. Stopping up or down to required voltage B. Maximum lines losses
C. Low cost long distance Transmission D. Minimum lines losses
15. Impedance of series circuit at resonance is (2016)
A. Resistive B. Inductive and Capacitive
C. Inductive D. Capacitive
16. Reactance of a capacitor connected across an A.C source is given by (2016)
𝟏
A. B. C. 𝑿𝒄 D.
17. For RL series A.C circuit the voltage leads the current by a phase angle of (2016)
𝟏
A. ( ) B. (𝑹)
C. ( ) D. ( )
18. If L and R represent inductance and resistance respectively then the dimensions of will be (2017)
A. [ ] B. [ ]
𝟏
C. [ 𝑻 ] D. [ ]
19. The r.m.s value of current when is given by (2017)
A √ B. C. √ D. √
√
20. The A.C. e.m.f. can be represented by the wave form called
a) Sinusoidal b) Cosine wave c) Tangent wave d) None

21. The mean value of A.C. over a complete cycle in

a) Maximum b) Minimum c) Zero d) None

22. The r.m.s. value of A.C current in

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

a) 0.707 Io b) 0.707 Vo c) 0.708 Ro d) None

23. In pure resistive A.C. circuit the voltage and current are
a) In phase b) Voltage leads the current c) Current leads the voltage d) None

24. The unit used for capacitive reactance is

a) Volt b) Ampere c) Joule d) Ohm

25. If the frequency of A.C is large, the reactance of capacitor is

a) Large b) Small c) Zero d) None

26. In case of capacitor, the voltage lags- behind the current by

a) 90o b) 60o c) 30o d) 180o

27. If the capacitance of capacitor is 1µF and the frequency of A.C is 50Hz then reactance will be
a) 3184 b) 3190 c) 3140 d) 3150

28. In the pure inductor the resistance is

a) Zero b) Maximum c) Minimum d) None

29. The magnitude of back e.m.f. in the inductor is

a) b) c) d) None

30. In pure inductive circuit the voltage

a) Lead the current by 90o b) Ledge the current by 90o
c) Remain same with current d) None

31. The average power dissipated in a pure inductor is

a) Maximum b) Minimum c) Zero d) None

32. The device which is used for controlling A.C. without dissipation of energy is called
a) Inductor b) Capacitor c) Resistor d) Choke

33. By increasing the frequency of A.C. through an inductor the reactance will be
a) Increases b) Decreases c) Remain same d) None

34. In case of phasor diagram the vector rotates

a) Clockwise b) Anti clockwise c) Remain stationary d) None

35. The combine opposition of resistor capacitor and inductor is called

a) Reactance b) Resistor c) Impedance d) None

36. The S.I unit of impedance is called

a) Joule b) Weber c) Ampere d) Ohm

37. When A.C. flow through RC series circuit the magnitude of voltage is

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

a) V =  R 2  Xc 2 b) V =  R 2  X L
2
c) V = IR d) None

38. The impedance of RC – series circuit is

𝑽
a) b) 𝒁 c) d) None

39. The magnitude of voltage in case of RL – service circuit

a) V =  R 2  Xc 2 b) V =  R 2  X L
2
c) V = IR d) None

40. The average power in case of A.C. series circuit is

a) P = VI b) P = VI cos  c) P = VI sin  d) None

41. In equation P = VI cos  , the factor cos  is called

a) Cosine b) reactive factor c) Power factor d) None

42. At what frequency will a 1H inductor have reactance of 500 ohms

a) 80 Hz b) 60 Hz c) 40 Hz d) 20 Hz

43. In case of RLC series circuit the impedance of circuit is

a) Z = √ b) Z =√
c) Z =√𝑹 (𝑿 𝑿𝒄 ) d) None

44. The behavior of resistance is frequency

a) Dependent b) Independent c) No, response d) None of these

45. At resonance frequency the power factor is

a) One b) Zero c) Two d) Three

46. The frequency at which is equal to Xc in called ………..

a) Resonance b) Threshold c) Natural d) None

47. At resonance frequency, the impedance of A.C series circuit is

a) Maximum b) Minimum c) Cannot explain by give data d) None

48. In parallel resonance circuit of A.C. there will be maximum

a) Power b) Voltage c) Impedance d) None

49. The electrical oscillators are used in

a) Metal detectors b) Amplifier c) Diode d) None

50. The current which is produce due to changing electric flux is called
a) Displacement current b) Conduction current
c) Eddy current d) None

51. The fundamental requirement for the generation of electromagnetic wave is

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

a) Oscillation of electric charge b) Motion of electric charge

c) Motion of electron d) None

52. The speed of light was found by formula

𝟏
a) 𝒄 b) c)  d) None
√

53. For the reception of electromagnetic wave we use a variable

a) Resistor b) Capacitor c) Inductor d) None

54. An A.C voltmeter reads 250volts, its peak voltage is

a) 250 V b) 350.5 V c) 353.5V d) None of these

55. In A.C. parallel resonance circuit branch current may be granter then
a) Source current b) e.m.f. current c) Applied voltage d) None

56. The angular frequency of resonance circuit is

𝟏
a)
√
b) c) √ d) None
√
57. Natural or Resonant frequency of an LC circuit is
𝟏
) √ b) √ c) d) √
√

58. An A.C choke is a coil consist of thick copper wire, wound closely over a
a) Soft iron core b) Hard iron core c) Soft iron laminated core d) None

59. During each cycle A.C voltage reaches its peak value
a) One time b) Two times c) Four times d) None

60. At resonance, the value of the power factor in an LCR series is

a) Zero b) ½ c) 1 d) not defined

61. In an LCR circuit, if V is the effective value of the applied voltage, VR is the voltage across R, VL is the effective
voltage across L, VC is the effective voltage across C, then:
a) V = VR + VL + VC b) V2 = VR2 + VL2 + VC2
2 2 2
c) V = VR + (VL – VC) d) V2 = VL2 + (VR – VC)

62. At high frequency the reactance of the capacitor is

a) Low b) Large c) Very large d) None of these

63. The condition of resonance reached when

a) XC > XL b) XL < XC c) XL = XC d) None of these

64. Find the impedance of an AC circuit when the current flowing in it is 100mA and 10 volts are applied to the
circuit.
a) 500 Ω b) 100 Ω c) 23 Ω d) 20 Ω

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65. How many times per second will an incandescent lamp reach maximum brilliance when connected to a 50Hz
source?
a) 50 times b) 100 times c) 200 times d) None of these

66. The peak value of sinusoidal voltage in an AC circuit is 50V. The rms value of voltage is roughly equal to
a) 70V b) 40V c) 35V d) 45V

67. The EM waves travel in free space with the velocity

a) Equal to the velocity of sound c) Equal to the velocity of light
b) More than the velocity of light d) Less than the velocity of light

68. A changing electric flux develops in the surrounding space

a) An electric field b) A magnetic field
b) An electromotive force d) Gravitational field

69. EM waves have lower frequency range of

a) 104Hz b) 105Hz c) 106Hz d) 1012Hz

70. Relationship of electric and magnetic field is governed by physical laws, which are known as ………. Equations.

a) Kirchhoff's b) Millikan's c) Maxwell's d) Arithmetic

71. The magnetic field intensity at appoint due to rate of change of electric flux is

1  B 1  e
B B
a)
2 r t b)
2 r t
    e 1 t
B  B
c)
2 r t d) 2 r  e
72. In ECG the negative deflection means that the recorded wave has traveled ………. electrode.
a) away from b) towards c) a may be a or b d) none

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Additional Short Questions

Chapter 15
1. Show graphically the phase relationship between the current and voltage across an inductor? (2010), (2017),
(2017)
Ans: When an alternating voltage is applied across an inductor, it opposes the flow of AC which is continuously
changing. By comparing the phase pair of points (O,P), (A,Q), (B,R), (C,S) and (D,T) it os clear that voltage is
leading the current by 90o.

2. What are Electrical Oscillators? How do they play their part in metal detectors (2011)
Ans:
3. Compare F.M and A.M radio wave? (2011), (2015), (2016), (2017), (2017)
I. Ans: A.M:
 It stands for Amplitude Modulation.
 In this type of modulation amplitude of the carrier wave is increased or decreased as the amplitude of the
superposing modulating signal wave increases or decreases.
 In the A.M transmission frequency range is from 540 KHz to 1600 KHz. It is used over long range transmission.
 Sound quality of A.M. is not good.
II. F.M:
 It stands for Frequency Modulation.
 In this type of modulation frequency of the carrier wave is increased or decreased as the amplitude of the
superposing modulating signal wave increases or decreases, while amplitude of the carrier wave remains
constant.
 In F.M transmission frequency ranges from 88 MHz to 108 MHz. It is used for short range transmission
 F.M. provides high quality sound transmission.

4. What is parallel resonance circuit? Write down its propertes (2012)

Parallel resonance circuit is in which resistor, capacitor and inductor are
joined parallel to the AC voltage source.
Properties of pareallel resonant circuits are
I. Resonance frequency is
√
II. At eesonance impedence is maximum, equal to R.
III. At the resonance frequency, the current is minimum and it is in phase with the
applied voltage. So the power factor is one. The variation of current with the
frequency of source is shown in fig.
IV. At resonance, the branch currents and may each be larger than the source
current

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5. An A.C Volmeter reads 250V. What its peak and instantaneous values if the frequancy of alternating voltage is
50Hz? (2012)
Ans:
Rms value of alternating voltage
Its peak value is given by the relation

√
Or √ √
Angular frequency
𝐻 𝐻
Therefore, instantaneous value is given by

= 353.5sin (100πt)V

6. Define Choke. How it can be used? (2012), (2018)

It is a coil which consists of thick copper wire wound closely in a large number of turns over a soft iron laminated
cores. This makes the inductance L of the coil quite large, whereas its resistance R is very small. Thus it
consumes extremely small power. It is used in A.C circuit to limit current with extremely small wastage of energy
as compared to a resistance or a rheostat.
7. How is the reception of a particular radio station selected on your radio set? (2012)

Ans: Receiving antenna consists of an inductor and a variable capacitor connected in parallel, which is called L-C
circuit and its frequency is given by:

fr =
√

When frequency of radio waves matches the frequency of L-C circuit then due to resonance we will be able to
hear the radio sound properly.

8. A circuit contains an iron cored inductor a switch a D.C source arranged in series. The switch closed and after
an interval reopened. Explain why a spark jumps across the switch contacts. (2013)

Ans: When switch is closed, then current flows through the inductor and energy is stored in the magnetic field.
When the switch is reopened, energy stored in the inductor flows as a high current through the switch and a
spark jumps across the switch contacts.
9. At what frequency will an inductor of 1.0 H have a reactance of 500Ω? (2013)

𝐻 ,

𝐻
𝐻

10. A sinusoidal current has rms (effective) value of 10 A. What is the maximum or peak value? (2013), (2017),
(2018)

Ans

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

√ √

11. What will be the impedance of the 𝑹 series circuit when frequency of applied voltage is
a.𝒇 b. 𝒇 (2014)
Ans: When 𝐻
Impedance of RC series circuit is given as
√

√ ( )

√ ( ) 𝐻
( )
b. 𝒇
Impedance of RC series circuit is given as
√

√ ( )

=√ ( ( )
) 𝐻
√ ( )
𝟏
12. What is Reactance? Prove that the capacitive reactance 𝑿𝒄 and inductive reactance
𝑿 have the same units equal to that of resistance “R”, i.e ohm. (2014)
Reactance: The opposition offered by the capacitor and inductor to the current in AC circuit is called reactance.
Unit of = ⇒( )
As farad =
Put the value of farad in eq. 1
⇒( )

⇒( )

⁄ ⁄

⇒( )
𝟏
the capacitive reactance 𝑿𝒄 and inductive reactance 𝑿 have
the same units equal to that of resistance “R”, i.e ohm

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13. What do you mean by impdence of an A.C circuit? Derive the impedence formula of R-C series circuit. Also
draw the impedence diagram (2014)
The combined effect of resistance and reactance in an AC circuit is called impedence. It is denoted by Z.

The applied voltage that will send the in the circuit is obained by the resultant of the vectors and

√( ) ( )

√ ( )

Impedance √ ( )

14. What is resonance frequency of A.C circuit? Applying Resonance condition in series resonance derive its
formula (2014)
Ans: The frequency at which capacitive reactance and inductive reactnace becomes equal is
called resonance frequency.

Resonance frequency can beobtained by putting

Or or
√
Or
√
15. A 100µF capacitor is connected to an alternating voltage of 24V and frequency 50Hz. Calculate
a. The reactance of the capacitor.
b. The current in the circuit. (2013)
Ans:
(a) Reactance of the capacitor

(b) From the equation

16. How does doubling the frequency affect the reactance of (a) an inductor (b) a capacitor? (2016)

i. For an inductor:

Inductor's reactance = XL = ωL where ω=2πf

XL=2πfL

now we double the frequency,

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

X′L=2π(2f)L= 2(2πfL)

X′L =2XL XL′=2XL, hence it doubles.

ii. For a capacitor:

Capacitor's reactance = XC = where ω =2πf

XC now we double the frequency,

= ( )
= ( )

Hence it becomes half of the original value.

17. Name the devices that will (a) ermit flow of direct current but oppose the flow of A.C current (b) permit flow
of A.c current but not that of the direct current. (2017)
 Inductor permits flow of direct current but opposes the flow of alternating current.
 Capacitor permits flow of AC current but opposes the flow of DC current.

Comprehensive Questions Chapter 15

Q: Explain series RLC circuit and resonance of series RLC circuit. Show that resonance occur at frequency
𝟏
determined by𝒇
√
R-L-C SERIES A.C CIRCUIT:
Definition: a circuit containing a resistor R, capacitor C and inductor L in series with an AC source is called RLC
series AC circuit.
Explanation:
The simplest and most important AC circuit we can analyze in series RLC circuit, illustrated in figure. The
analysis of this circuit is quite easy since all the circuit element share the same current.
Impedance: phasor diagram can be drawn for the current and voltages across the inductor, capacitor and
resistor.
 The P.D across R, is in this Case is in phase with .
 The P.D across L, is in this case leads by .
 The P.D across C, is in this case where lags by .
and are thus out of phase.

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In phasor diagram, AB represents , BE represents and BD represents it may be seen that

It follows that circuit can either be effectively inductive or capacitive depending upon which voltage drop
( )
𝐵 the applied
voltage V is the phasor sum of and and represented by AC.
( )
√ ) √( ) ( )
√( ) ( )

Where
√( ) ( )
The quantity ( – ) is called the reactance
of the circuit, denoted by X.

( )
Finally we can write
√( ) ( )
√ Offered to
current flow and is called impedance of the
circuit.
Phase angle:
Circuit power factor,

√( ) ( )
Since of the circuit can be determined.

So if the current is represent by cosine function,

The source voltage leads the current by an angle and its equation is
( )
Power consumed,
Special cases:

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

We have seen that the impedance of R-L-C series circuit is given by.
√ ( )
i. Inductive circuit: when 𝑿 𝑿 is positive (i.e ) is positive and circuit will be inductive.
In other words, in such case, the circuit current will lag behind the applied voltage V by
ii. Capacitive circuit: when 𝑿 𝑿 IS negative (i.e ) 𝐻 is negative and circuit will be
capacitive. That is to say the circuit current leads the applied voltage v by ; the value of given being by
equation 15.3
iii. Resistive circuit : when ( ) The circuit is purely resistive. In other words, circuit current
and applied voltage will be in phase i.e the circuit will then have unity power factor.
If the equation for the applied voltage is V= current will be.
𝒊 ( )
𝑽 ⁄
Where 𝒁
The value of will be positive or negative or negative depending upon which reactant ((𝑿 𝑿 )
Predominates.
Figure shows the impedance triangle of the circuit for the case when whereas impedance triangle in
figure (d) is for the case when .

RESONANCE IN A.C CIRCUIT:

Definition: An AC circuit containing reactive elements (L and C) is said to be in resonance when the circuit power
factor is unity.
Explanation:
In the impedance equation along with the equations for the inductive and capacitive reactance, we see the
impedance has a rather complicated dependence on the frequency of oscillator.
√( ) ( )

 When the frequency is very small, the capacitive reactance is large and .
 When the frequency is very large, the inductive resistance is large and
 Z is minimum when , the current in the circuit is the maximum.
When this happens, the resistance provides the only impedance in the circuit, Z=R. This condition is called
resonance and electrical analog to resonance in harmonic oscillators such as a swinging pendulum or a mass on
the end of the spring.
If this condition exists in a series AC circuit, it is called series resonance. The frequency at which resonance occur
is called resonant frequency
An AC circuit containing reactive elements (L and C) is said to be in resonance when the circuit power factor is
unity.
RESONACE IN R-L-C SEIES CIRCUITS:
R-L-C series circuit is said to be in resonance when the circuit power factor is unity i.e. . The frequency
at which it occurs is called resonant frequency. The resonance i.e ( ) in R-L-C series circuit can be
achieved by changing the supply frequency because and
At series resonance,

Or

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From above equation, it is clear that on increasing either the inductance or capacitance causes the resonant
frequency to decrease.
For a given value of inductance and capacitance, there is only one resonant
frequency .
There is indefinite number of inductor in capacitor combination for any
specified resonant frequency.

Resonance curve:
The curve between current and frequency is known as resonance curve
of atypical R-L-C series circuit. Current reaches its maximum value at
resonance frequency ( ) falling of rapidly on either side at that point.
It is because if the frequency is below and the net
reactance is no longer zero.
If the frequency is above and the net reactance is again not
zero.
In both cases, the circuit impedance will be more than impedance ( ) at resonance. The result is that the
magnitude of circuit current decreases rapidly as the frequency changes from the resonant frequency.

Question : Describe the statement of Maxwell’s

equations. Use Maxwell’s theory to show that
Maxwell in 1884 formulated the basic principles of electromagnetism in terms of four equations called
Maxwell’s equations. These equations give us information about the existence and production of
electromagnetic waves.

For a changing magnetic flux density B through a certain region of space produces an induced emf in the
region. This induced emf ϵ induces a current flowing through a closed loop of wire in the region.
Applying Faraday’s law

The electric field E will be circular in direction and its magnitude is constant for the loop. If a unit
positive charge is circulated around the loop then in one cycle the work done is

Here r is the radius and 2πr is the circumference (total distance) of the loop. Since the electric force for
the electric field intensity E is Fe=qE, hence

Now the electromotive force is the work done on a positive unit charge, therefore

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Compare equations (1) and (2)

This is the first result for the induced electric field.

(2) In the same way, an electric flux gives rise to a magnetic field. Take the example of a capacitor
connected to a battery. Initially the current is rising in the circuit and then decreases to zero when the
capacitor is fully charged. Then there is an electric field between the plates of the capacitor. If Q is the
charge on the capacitor, C is its capacitance, A is the area of the plate and d their mutual separation
then

However, when the capacitor is connected to an alternating source, the current is continuously flowing
in the circuit. We observe that when the current from the alternating source changes, the electric field
between the plates also changes. The flow of current between the plates is due to the changing electric
field between them. In the outer circuit, the current flow is due to the conduction of electrons in the
wire. This was first observed by Maxwell that a change in electric field also causes a current flow.
Therefore, using the definition of current and the above equation,

Φ is the electric flux through area A.

This equation shows that a changing electric flux produces the same effect as the current. Therefore, a
changing electric flux is equivalent to the current. This is called displacement current as against the
conduction current which is due to the flow of electrons.

This is the second result required in the question.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

CHAPTER 16
PHYSICS of SOLIDS

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Exercise Mcq’s Chapter 16

i. The shear modulus of electricity G is
a. (a) b. (b) c. (c) d. (d)
ii. The temperature at which material becomes superconductor is called………. Temperature.
a. (a) Knee b. (b) Critical c. (c) Absolute d. (d) Zero
iii. Which of the following is not a ferromagnetic material?
a. (a) Iron b. (b) Nickel c. (c) Cobalt d. (d) Barium
iv. The ratio of stress to strain is
a. (a) 0 b. (b) >1 c. (c) Constant d. (d) <1
v. A wire is stretched to double of its length. Its strain is;
a. (a) 2 b. (b) 1 c. (c) 0 d. (d) 0.5
vi. Which of the modulus of elasticity is involve in compressing a rod
a. (a) Young’s modulus (b) Bulk modulus b. (c) Modulus of elasticity c. (d) Fracture
vii.A wire is stretched to double of its length. Its strain is;
a. (a) 2 b. (b) 1 c. (c) 0 d. (d) 0.5
viii.If both the length and radius of the rod are doubled, then the modulus of elasticity will
a. (a) Increase b. (b) Decrease c. (c) Remain same d. (d) Doubled
ix.curie temperature is a point where;
a. diamagnetism changes to para-magnetism b. Para-magnetism changes to diamagnetism
c. Ferromagnetism changes to para-magnetism c. Para-magnetism changes to ferromagnetism
x. A cable breaks if stretched by more than 2mm. it is cut into two equal parts. How much either part can be
stretched without breaking.
a. (a) 0.25 m b. (b) 1 mm c. (c) 2 mm d. (d) 0.5 m

Exercise Short Questions Chapter 16

1. Coercive force of steel is greater than iron. Why?
Ans: Retentivity of steel is more than the retentivity of soft iron. Soft iron is easily magnetized and
demagnetized as compared to steel. The coercivity of soft iron is less than that of the coercivity of the steel.
Energy loss in soft iron is less than energy loss in steel because of the small area of soft iron
2. Evaluate the importance of strength and stiffness in a design context.
Ans: Strength: The general ability of a material to withstand an applied force
Stiffness: The ability of a body to resist bending.
In our daily life we use different type of materials for windows, gates, girders etc, so properties of
materials like strength and stiffness are of greater concern.
3. Discuss the superconductivity of a conductor with the help of a curve.

Ans: Materials whose resistivity becomes zero at a certain temperature are known
as superconductors.

Once the resistance of a material drops to zero, no energy is dissipated and the
current once established, continues to exist indefinitely without the source of emf.

The temperature at which resistivity becomes zero is called critical temperature. For example,

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Mercury (Hg) T = 4.2 K, Aluminium (Al) T =1.18 K. Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide (YBa2Cu3O7) have been
reported to become superconductor at 163 K.

Superconductors have many applications, e.g. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), magnetic levitation
trains and computer chips.

4. Distinguish between crystalline, amorphous and polymer solids.

Ans: Crystalline solids: Crystalline solids are those in which atoms/molecules are arranged in a particular
way. They have definite shape as well melting and boiling points. i.e NaCl and ceramics etc.

Amorphous Solids: The solids which have no particular arrangement of their atoms/molecules are called
amorphous solids. They do not have definite shapes. i.e ordinary glass

Polymeric Solids: These solids consist of long chains of hydrocarbons. They have structure between order
and disorder. They don’t also have definite shape. i.e natural rubber, polyethylene, nylon etc.

5. What is difference between elastic deformation and plastic deformation?

Ans: Elastic deformation: If a solid material regains its original state after being deformed ( removal of
stress) slightly then deformation produced in it due to applied stress is called elastic deformation.
It is temporary deformation and requires smaller force.
Plastic deformation: If a solid material does not regains its original state after being deformed ( removal of
stress) slightly then deformation produced in it due to applied stress is called plastic deformation. It is
permanent change and requires larger force.
6. Differentiate between paramagnetic, diamagnetic and ferromagnetic materials with suitable example.
A. Paramagnetic: If the magnetic field due to the spin and orbital motion of electrons in an atom are
oriented in such a way that their fields support each other and the atom behaves like a tiny magnet then
the substance with such atoms are called Paramagnetic substances. e.g., Manganese, Aluminum, Platinum
etc.
B. Diamagnetic: The substances in which the magnetic field produced by orbital and spin motion of the
electrons cancel each other’s effects are called Diamagnetic substances. e.g., the atoms of water, Bismuth
(Bi), Antimony (Sb).
C. Ferromagnetic: Ferromagnetic substances are those substances in which magnetic field due to the spin
and orbital motion of electrons in an atom are oriented co-operate with each other in such a way as to
show strong magnetic effects e.g., Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni), Chromium dioxide and Alnico

7. Distinguish between soft and hard substances by drawing its curves.

Soft ferromagnetic material: The materials which can easily be
magnetized and demagnetized are called soft ferromagnetic
materials. Area of hysteresis loop for these kinds of solids is very small.
For example soft iron
Hard ferromagnetic materials: The materials which can’t be easily
magnetized and demagnetized are called hard ferromagnetic
materials. Area of hysteresis loop for these kinds of solids is large.
For example steel
8. What is difference between brittle and ductile materials?
Ductile Materials: The materials which undergo plastic deformation are called ductile materials. For
example iron, copper, nickel

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Brittle Materials: The materials which do not undergo plastic deformation are called brittle materials. They
are broken just after crossing elastic limit. For example glass, high carbon steel

9. How can the conductivity of a semiconductor be raised?

The conductivity of a semiconductor be raised by following methods.
 By heating the semiconductor
 By shining light on the semiconductor surface
 By doping

10. Is there any difference in the length of a 20 meter steel girder when standing vertically and horizontally?
Ans: Yes, there is a difference.
When steel girder is standing vertical, then due to small area of end face, a stress can cause a change in
length. But when girder is placed horizontally, due to larger area of end face stress can cause a negligible
change in length.
So when girder is in vertical position its length will be greater than in horizontal position.
11. Why would it be advantageous to use super conductor in MRI machine?
Ans: MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) machine is use to produce detailed images of different body parts.
MRI machine produce strong magnetic field which can interact magnetic field of protons / nuclei of atom
of our body tissue etc.
Protons align themselves under the strong magnetic field and during this alignment they release energy
which is used to form image on computer screen. All this require strong magnetic field which can only be
achieved by using electromagnets made up of super conductors.
These superconductor magnets are many time stronger than the best permanent magnets because they
offer no electrical resistance. Large current flows through them without dissipation of energy in the form
of heat and sound and hence produce strong magnetic field this is the reason super conductor magnets
are used in MRI machine.

Additional MCQ’s Chapter 16

1. In Ge (germanium) sample traces of Ga (Gallium) are added as impurity. The resulting sample would behave like
(2010)
A. A conductor B. A P-type semiconductor
C. An N type semiconductor D. An insulator
2. What are the subtances called which undergo plastic deformation untill they break (2011) (2017)
A. Brittile subtaces B. Ductile subtances
C. Amorphous solids D. Polymeric solids
3. Once the resistance of material drops to zero the (2012)
A.Energy is dissipated B.Current is dissipated
C. Energy and current both are dissipated D. Energy and current both are not dissipated
4. The valency of an impuirty element added to P-type semi conductor is (2012)
A. 3 B. 5 C. 4 D. 6
5. Squids (or super conducting Quatium Interference Devices) are used to detect very weak magnetic field such as
produced by the (2012)
A. Liver B. Lungs C. Brain D. Heart
6. Ceramic material exhibit super conductivity at (2013)
A. B. 273 C. 125 K D. 30 K
7. N type germanium is obtained by doping intrinsic germanium with (2013)

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A. Tetravalent impurity atom B. Trivalent impurity atom

C. Pentavalent impurity atom D. Hexavalent impurity atom
8. Which of the Energy bands may be either completely filled o partially filled but never be empty? (2014)
A. Conduction Band B. Valence Band
C. Forbidden Band D. Both A and B
9. The semiconductor are those material in which a narrow forbidden energy gap is about (2015)
A. Ten Electron volt B. One Electron Volt
C. One Mega Electron volt D. Zero Electron Volt
10. The smallest 3-dimensioinal structure of crystalline solid which repeat over and again is (2016)
A. Crystal B. Unit cell C. Polymer D. Amorphous
11. A crystalline structure yttrium barium copper oxide ( 𝐵 𝑂 ) become supper conductor at (2016)
A. 200K B. 173 C. 100K D. 163K
12. The critical temperature for leads is (2016)
A. B. C. D.
13. The substances in which magnetic fields produce by orbital and spin electron of molecule add up to zero are
called (2017)
A. Paramagnetic B. Super magnetic C. Ferromagnetic D. Diamagnetic
14. Which of the following substances possesses the highest elasticity?
a) Rubber b) Steel c) Glass d) Copper

15. What is the S.I unit of modules of elasticity of substances?

a) Nm-2 b) Jm-2 c) Nm-1 d) Being number, it has no unit

16. What are the dimensions of stress?

a) MLT-2 b) ML-2T-1 c) ML-1T-2 d) MLoT-1

17. Which one of the following physical quantities does not have the dimensions of force per unit area?
a) Stress b) Strain c) Young’s modulus d) Pressure

18. A rubber cord of cross-sectional area 2cm2 has a length of 1m. When a tensile force of 10N is applied, the length
of the cord increases by 1cm. what is the young’s modulus of rubber?
a) 2 x 108 Nm-2 b) 5 x 106 Nm-2 c) 0.5 x 10-6 Nm-2 d) 0.2x10-6 Nm-2

19. A wire of length L is stretched by a length L when a force F is applied at one end. If the elastic limit is not
exceeded, the amount of energy stored in the wire is _____________
a) FL b) ½ (FL) c) FL2/L d) ½ FL2/L

20. When a force is applied at one end an elastic wire, it produce a strain E in the wire If “y” is young’s modules of
the material of the wire, the amount of energy stored per unit volume of the wire is given by ________
a) YE b) ½ YE c) YE2 d) ½ YE2

21. A wire, suspended vertically from one end, is stretched by attaching a weight of 20N to the lower end.
The weight stretches the wire by 1mm. how much energy is gained by the wire?
a) 0.01J b) 0.02J c) 0.04J d) 1.0J

22. A certain stress applied to elastic materials produces a certain strain in it. If the elastic limit is not exceeded, the
energy gained per unit volume of the material is given by_________
a) Stress/strain b) ½ (stress × strain) c) Stress x strain d) (stress x strain)

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23. The ratio stress to strains is young’s modulus of the materials, then tension is _______
a) Directly proportional to extension b) Directly proportional to strains
c) Directly proportional square of amplitude d) inversely proportional to extension

24. Materials that undergo plastic deformation before breaking are called ___________

a) Brittle b) Ductile c) Amorphous d) Polymers

25. A wire is stretched by a force F which causes an extension 1. the energy stored in wire is ½ FL only if _

a) .The extension of the wire is proportional to the force applied.

b) The weight of the wire is negligible
c) The wire is not stretched beyond its elastic limit
d) The cross sectional area of the wire remains constant

26. Formation of large molecule by joining small molecules is __________

a) Fusion b) Polymerization c) Crystallization d) Subtraction

27. Any alteration produced in shapes, length or volume when a body is subjected to same internal force is called
__________

a) Stiffness b) Ductility c) extension d) deformation

28. The energy band occupied by the valence electrons is called ________
a) Energy state b) Valence band c) –ve energy state d) Conduction band

29. The curie temperature is that at which ______

a) Semiconductor becomes conductors b) Ferromagnetic becomes paramagnetic
c) Paramagnetic becomes diamagnetic d) Metal becomes super conductor

30. A ferromagnetic will become fully magnetized at _______

a) High voltage A.C b) Low voltage A.C
c) Alternating current at its peak value d) All

31. Coercion force is the force which opposes

a) Demagnetization b) Breakage c) Extension d) Surface cracking

32. Materials in which valence electrons are tightly bound to their atoms at low temperature are called
a) Semiconductors b). Super conductors c) Insulators d) Conductors

33. The band theory of solids explains satisfactorily the nature of

a) Electrical insulators alone b) Electrical conductors alone

c) Electrical semiconductors alone d) All of the above

34. A vacant or partially filled band is called _____

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a) Conduction band b) Valence band c) Forbidden band d) Empty band

35. A completely filled band is called _______

a) Conduction band b) Valence band c) Forbidden band d) Empty band

36. Which one has the greatest energy gap _______

a) Semi-conductors b) Conductors c) Metals d) Non-metals

37. With increase in temperature, the electrical conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductors___

a) Decreases b) Increases
c) Remain the same d) first increases, then decreases

38. Holes can exists in_________

a) Semi-conductors b) Conductors c) Metals d) Non-metals

39. In a semiconductors, the charge carriers are __________

a) Holes only b) Electrons only c) Electrons and holes both d) All of these

40. Energy needed to magnetic and demagnetize is represented by

a) Hysterics curve b) Hysterics loop area c) Hysterics loop d) Straight line

41. The area under stress – strain graph is

a) Power b) Energy c) Momentum d) Impulse

42. Polymers are usually

a) Organic compounds b) Inorganic compounds c) Acidic d) Alkaline

43. The resistance against any distortion by solid is

a) Toughness b) Ductility c) Stiffness d) None

44. The temperature at which conductors lose its resistivity is called

a) Supper temperature b) Kelvin temperature c) Critical temperature d. None

45. The first supper conductor was discovered by

a) Fermi b) Kmaerling c) Weinberg d) None

46. Examples of brittle substances are

a) Glass b) Copper c) Lead d) None

47. Crystalline solids are also

a) Metals b) Ionic compounds c) Ceramics d. All of them

48. The valence energy band can never be

a) Filled b) Partially filled c) Empty d) None

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49. The examples of diamagnetic are

a) Water b) Copper c) Antimony d) All of them

50. Strain is dimensionless and has

a) Units b) No units c) S.I units d) None

51. The ability of a material to be hammered, pressed, bent, rolled, cut, stretched into useful shape is

a) Toughness b) Ductility c) Stiffness d) None

52. The Young modulus of elasticity is Y. If the forces is increased such that the extension produced becomes double
of its initial value then Young Modulus is

a) Double b) Halved c) Unchanged d) None

53. With the rise of temperature the amplitude of atoms

a) Slow down b) Fixed c) Increases d) None of these

54. Crystal lattice is a repetition of

a) Atoms b) Molecules c) Unit cell d) All of them

55. If the stress increased on a material is beyond the yield strength of the material is called

a) Plasticity b) Elasticity c) Still in elasticity d) None of these

56. The technological uses of super conductors are

a) MRI b) Magnetic levitation trains c) Faster computer chips d) All of them

57. The magnetism produced by electrons within an atom is due to

a) Spin motion b) Orbital motion c) Spin & orbital motion d) None

58. A current which demagnetize the material completely is called

a) Applied current b) Coercive current c) Maximum current d) None

59. The energy need to magnetize and demagnetize the specimen during the each cycle of magnetizing current is
a) Value of current b) Value of demagnetizing current
c) Value of magnetic flux density d) Area of the hysteresis loop

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Additional Short Questions

Chapter 16
1. Explain the effect of temperature on magnetic domains in Ferromagnetic material (2012)
Ans: Thermal vibrations tend to disturb the orderliness of the domains. Ferromagnetic materials preserve the
orderliness at ordinary temperatures.
When heated (i.e temperature is increased) they begin to lose their orderliness due to the increaserd thermal
motion. i.e they start loosing their ferromagnetic behavior.
This process begins to occur at a particular temperature ( different for different materials) called Curie
temperature.
Above the Curie temperature iron is paramagnetic but not ferromagnetic. The Cuire temperature for iron is
about 750 oC.
2. Define eleastic limit. Also write SI unit. (2010), (2017)
Ans: Maximum pressure (stress) that a piece of material can withstand without being permanently deformed. i.e
when stress is removed, material regain its original shape.
Its unit is

3. What is meant by Hysteriess loss? How is it used in construction of transformer? (2011), (2013),
(2017)
Ans: The area of hysteresis loop is the measure of energy required to magnetize and demagnetize a substance.
This energy is dissipated in the form of heat, which is called hysteresis loss.
The materials, for which hysteresis loss is small, are used to form the core of transformers

4. Write a short note on Super conductor. (2013), (2015), (2016)

Ans: Materials whose resistivity becomes zero at a certain temperature are known as superconductors.

Once the resistance of a material drops to zero, no energy is dissipated and the current once established,
continues to exist indefinitely without the source of emf.

The temperature at which resistivity becomes zero is called critical temperature. For example, (Hg) T = 4.2 K,
Aluminium (Al) T =1.18 K. Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide (YBa2Cu3O7) have been reported to become
superconductor at 163 K.

Superconductors have many applications, e.g. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), magnetic levitation trains
and computer chips.
5. Distingiush between Conductor,Insulator and Semi conductor on base of Energy Band theory of solid? (2012)
a. Conductors:
 In conductors, valence and conduction bands largely overlap each other.
 There is no physical distinction between the two bands which ensures the availability of a large number of free
electrons due to overlapping of conduction and valence energy bands.
b. Insulators have:
 An empty conduction band
 Full valence band
 Large forbidden energy gap
c. Semi-conductors have:

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 Partially filled conduction band

 Partially filled valence band
 Narrow forbidden energy gap
6. Define modulus of Elasticity Show that the unit of moduls of elasticity and stress are the same. (2012), (2015)

Ans: Modulus of Elasticity (E) is defined as the ratio of the stress on a body to the strain produced. It has 3
types.

 Young's modulus is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain.

 Bulk modulus is the ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain.
 Shear modulus is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain of a body.

The unit of Modulus of elasticity is the same as stress since strain has no units, i.e.
= Nm-2 ( ) = Nm-2
7. Distingusih between Intrinsic and Extrinsic semi-conductor. How would you obtain n-type and p-type material
from pure silicon (2014), (2016)

Ans: Intrinsic semi-conductor is also known as a pure semi-conductor, i.e. without any other element's atoms
mixed/doped in it. It has same number of electrons and holes.

Extrinsic semi-conductors are impure semi-conductors, i.e. doped/mixed with certain impurities (atoms of other
elements). Its conductivity increases, considerably depend on the type and concentration of the impurity.

P-type materials are obtained by doping semi-conductor with atoms of a trivalent impurity such as Boron. It
creates a vacancy of an electron called a hole.

N-type materials are obtained by doping semi-conductor with atoms of a penta-valent impurity such as
Phosphorous. It leaves a free electron.

8. Define Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic substances. (2015)

Paramagnetic: If the magnetic field due to the spin and orbital motion of electrons in an atom are oriented in
such a way that their fields support each other and the atom behaves like a tiny magnet then the substance with
such atoms are called Paramagnetic substances. e.g., Manganese, Aluminum, Platinum etc.

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Diamagnetic: The substances in which the magnetic field produced by orbital and spin motion of the electrons
cancel each other’s effects are called Diamagnetic substances. e.g, the atoms of water, Bismuth (Bi), Antimony
(Sb).

Ferromagnetic: Ferromagnetic substances are those substances in which magnetic field due to the spin and
orbital motion of electrons in an atom are oriented to co-operate with each other in such a way to show strong
magnetic effects e.g., Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni), Chromium dioxide and Alnico.

9. A wire of 2.5 meter long and cross section area 𝟏 is stretched 1.5mm by a force of 100 N in the elastic
region. Calculate. (2015)
a. The Strain b. Young’s Modulus c. The energy stored in the wire
L = 2.5m

=1.5 mm = 1.5 m
F = 100N
(i) Strain =?
(ii) Young’s Modulus =?
(iii) Energy stored in wire =?
(i) Strain =
Strain =
(ii) Young’s Modulus = Y = = ⁄
Y=
Y= =
( )
(iii) Energy stored in wire E=Y
( )( )( )
Energy stored
Energy stored

10. Discuss the mechanism of electrical conduction by holes and electrons in a pure semiconductor (2016)
In a pure (or intrinsic) semi-conductor, the number of holes and free electrons is equal and both contribute to
the flow of current through it.
When voltage is applied across the semi-conductor, an electric field is produced. Due to this electric field,
electrons get a drift velocity opposite to the electric field and holes in the direction of the electric field.
Therefore, a flow of current is established in the semi-conductor.

11. What is meant by strain energy? How can it be determined from the force-extension graph? (2018)

“The amount of P.E. stored in a material due to displacing of its molecule from their mean position is called
strain energy”.

In a force-extension graph, strain energy can be calculated

by the formula:

Work done = Area of 𝑂 𝐵

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= 𝑂 𝑂𝐵 =

This is amount of energy stored in the wire.

Comprehensive Questions Chapter 16

Classifiction of Solids
Crystalline solids: Crystalline solids are those in which atoms/molecules are arranged in a particular
way. They have definite shape as well melting and boiling points. i.e NaCl and ceramics etc.

Amorphous Solids: The solids which have no particular arrangement of their atoms/molecules are called
amorphous solids. They do not have definite shapes. i.e ordinary glass

Polymeric Solids: These solids consist of long chains of hydrocarbons. They have structure between
order and disorder. They don’t also have definite shape. i.e natural rubber, polyethylene, nylon etc.

Crystal Lattice: A crystalline solid consists of three dimensional patterns that repeat it over and over
again.

The smallest three dimensional basic structures is called unit cell.

The whole structure obtained by repetition of unit cell is known as crystal lattice.

 Deformation in solids
Stress: It is defined as the force applied on unit area to produce any change in shape, volume, or length
of a body. Mathematically, if F is the force applied on area A, then stress can be expressed as:

Stress = Force/Area = F/A

Unit of stress is Nm (newton meter) or P (pascal).

Tensile Stress: When a stress changes length it is called tensile stress.

Compressive Stress: The stress which causes change in volume of the body is called
compressive stress.

Shear Stress: The stress tending to produce an angular deformation or change in the shape is
called shear stress.

Strain: It is defined as the fractional change in length, volume or shape of a body when stress is applied
on it. It has no unit.

Tensile Strain: It is defined as the fractional change in length on applying stress.

Compressive Strain: This is the strain produced as a result of compressive stress.

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Shear Strain: This is the strain caused by angular deformation. It is caused by shear stress.

Elastic Modulus: Ratio of stress to strain is called elastic modulus.

Types: Young’s Modulus: Ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain is called Young’s modulus.

⁄
⁄

Bulk Modulus: Ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain is called Young’s modulus.

⁄
⁄

Shear Modulus: Ratio of shear stress to shear strain is called Young’s modulus.

 Elastic limit and yield strength

Stress Strain Curve Explanation

Stress strain curve is the plot of stress and strain of a material or metal on the graph. In this the stress is
plotted on y axis and its corresponding strain on the x axis. After plotting the stress and its
corresponding strain on the graph, we get a curve, and this curve is called stress strain curve or stress
strain diagram.

The stress strain curve for different material is different. It

may vary due to the temperature and loading condition of

the material.

From the diagram one can see the different mark points
on the curve. It is because, when a ductile material like
mild steel is subjected to tensile test, then it passes
various stages before fracture.

These stages are;

1. Proportional Limit
2. Elastic Limit

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3. Yield Point
4. Ultimate Stress Point
5. Breaking Point
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT

Proportional limit is point on the curve up to which the value of stress and strain remains proportional.
From the diagram point A is the called the proportional limit. The stress up to this point can be also
being known as proportional limit stress.

Hook’s law of stress strain is followed up to point A.

ELASTIC LIMIT

Elastic limit is the limiting value of stress up to which the material is perfectly elastic. From the curve,
point B is the elastic limit point. Material will return back to its original position (shape).

Generally people confuse a lot between proportional and elastic limit. Up to proportional limit material
returns to its original shape (so in graph it is linear )but in elastic limit up on removal of load material
returns to its original shape with little deformation (so in graph it is nonlinear).

YIELD STRESS POINT

Yield stress is defined as the stress after which material extension takes place more quickly with no or
little increase in load. Point Y is the yield point on the graph and stress associated with this point is
known as yield stress.

ULTIMATE STRESS POINT

Ultimate stress point is the maximum strength that material has to bear stress before breaking. It can
also be defined as the ultimate stress corresponding to the peak point on the stress strain graph. On the
graph point U is the ultimate stress point. After point U material have very minute or zero strength to
face further stress.

Fracture STRESS (POINT OF fracture)

Breaking point or breaking stress is point where strength of material breaks. The stress associates with
this point known as breaking strength or rupture strength. On the stress strain curve, point B is the
breaking stress point.

 Mechanical Properties of solids

Strength: The general ability of a material to withstand an applied force.
Hardness: Hardness is a measure of how easily a material can be stretched or indented.
Brittleness: A material that has a tendency to break suddenly without any extension first. Such as cast
iron, concrete, high carbon steel
Toughness: A material that absorbs impact such as sudden forces or shocks in a well manner is called
tough.
Plasticity: The material which deforms permanently when small forces are applied show plasticity.

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Elasticity: The ability of a material to return to its original shape after removal of external force is
called elasticity. i.e rubber, nylon
Stiffness: The ability to resist bending.
Ductility: The ability of a material to be deformed into other shapes like thin wires or threads. i.e
copper, wrought iron, low carbon steel,
 Energy Band Theory
Electrons of an isolated atom are bound to the nucleus and can have distinct energy levels. However
when a large number of atoms, say N, are brought close to one another to form a solid, each energy
level of the isolated atom splits into N sub-levels, called states, under the action of the forces exerted by
other atoms in the solid. These permissible energy states are discrete but so closely spaced that they
appear to form a continuous energy band. In between two permissible energy bands, there is range of
energy states which cannot be occupied by electrons. These are called forbidden energy states and its
range is said to be forbidden energy gap.

i. Conductors:

 In conductors, valence and conduction bands

largely overlap each other.
 There is no physical distinction between the
two bands which ensures the availability of a
large number of free electrons due to
overlapping of conduction and valence energy
bands.

ii. Insulators have:

 An empty conduction band

 Full valence band
 Large forbidden energy gap

iii. Semi-conductors have:

 Partially filled conduction band

 Partially filled valence band
 Narrow forbidden energy gap

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 Super Conductors
Materials whose resistivity becomes zero at a certain temperature are known as
superconductors.

Once the resistance of a material drops to zero, no energy is dissipated and the
current once established, continues to exist indefinitely without the source of
emf.

The temperature at which resistivity becomes zero is called critical temperature.

For example, Mercury (Hg) T = 4.2 K, Aluminium (Al) T =1.18 K. Yttrium Barium Copper
Oxide (YBa2Cu3O7) have been reported to become superconductor at 163 K.

Superconductors have many applications, e.g. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), magnetic levitation
trains and computer chips.

 Magnetic properties of Solids

The magnetism produced by electrons within an atom can arise from two motions.

 Orbital motion (Around the nucleus)

 Spin motion (around there own axis)

Paramagnetic Materials: If the magnetic field due to the spin and orbital motion of electrons
in an atom are oriented in such a way that their fields support each other and the atom
behaves like a tiny magnet then the substance with such atoms are called Paramagnetic
substances. e.g., Manganese, Aluminum, Platinum etc.

Diamagnetic Materials: The substances in which the magnetic field produced by orbital and
spin motion of the electrons cancel each other’s effects are called Diamagnetic substances.
e.g., the atoms of water, Bismuth (Bi), Antimony (Sb).

Ferromagnetic Materials: Ferromagnetic substances are those substances in which magnetic

field due to the spin and orbital motion of electrons in an atom are oriented co-operate with
each other in such a way as to show strong magnetic effects e.g., Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel
(Ni), Chromium dioxide and Alnico.

Domain: It is group of atoms in ferromagnetic materials, which consists of no. of atoms having
parallel magnetic field due to spinning electrons. A domain consists of almost no
of atoms. It is indicated by an arrow.

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Hard Ferromagnetic Materials: Those ferromagnetic materials, which are difficult to be

magnetized and demagnetized.

Soft Ferromagnetic Materials: Those ferromagnetic materials, which are easily magnetized
and demagnetized.

Effect of temperature on Ferromagnetic material

Thermal vibrations tend to disturb the orderliness of the domains. Ferromagnetic materials
preserve the alignement at ordinary temperatures.
When heated (i.e temperature is increased) they begin to lose their alignment due to the
increaserd thermal motion. i.e they start loosing their ferromagnetic behavior.
This process begins to occur at a particular temperature ( different for different materials) called
Curie temperature

The tempertaure at which ferromagnetic materilas are converted to paramagnetic materials, is

called curie temperature.

The Cuire temperature for iron is about 750 oC

 Hysteresis Loop:
To investigate a ferromagnetic material, a bar of that material such as iron is
placed in an a hennaing current solenoid, when the alternating current is at its positive
speak value, it fully magnetizes the specimen in one direction and when the current is at it
negative pack it fully magnetizes it in opposite direction.

Its main features are as follows:

Hysteresis:
The portion of OA of the curve is obtained when the magnetizing current I is
increased and AR is the portion when the current is decreased. The value of flux density
for any value of current is always greater when the current is decreasing then when it is
increasing; magnetism lags behind the magnetizing current. This phenomenon is known
as hysteresis.

Saturation:
The magnetic flux density increases from Zero and reaches a maximum

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value. At this stage the material is said to be magnetically saturated.

Remanence or Retentivity:
When the current is reeducate zero, the material still remains strongly magnetized
represented by point R on the curve .It is due to the tendency of domains to stay partly n line, once they have
been aligned.
Coercivity:
To demagnetize the material, the magnetizing current is reversed and increases to reduce the
magnetizing to zero. This is known as coercive current. The magnetizing force which must be applied to to null
the residual flux density is called a “coercive force”.
The coercivity of steel is more than that of iron as more current is needed to
demagnetize it.
Area of the Loop:
The area of loop is a measure of the energy needed to magnetize and
demagnetize the specimen during each cycle of the magnetizing current.
This is the energy required to do work against internal friction of the domains. This
work, like all work that is done against friction is dissipated as heat it is called hysteresis
loop. Hared magnetic material like steel cannot be easily magnetized or demagnetized.
So they have large loop area as compared to soft magnetic material such as iron which
can easily be magnetized. The energy dissipated per cycle, thus, for iron is less than for
steel.

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CHAPTER 17
ELECTRONICS

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Exercise Mcq’s Chapter 17

i. In an N-type silicon, which of the following statement is true,
a. Electrons are majority charge carrier and trivalent atoms are dopant
b. Electrons are minority charge carrier and pentavalent atoms
c. Holes are minority charge carrier and pentavalent atoms are dopant
d. Holes are majority charge carrier and trivalent atoms are dopant
ii. The barrier potential of silicon diode at room temperature is;
a. (a) 0.3 V b. (b) 0.7 V c. (c) 0.9 V d. (d) 1.0 V
iii. The width of depletion region of a junction
a. Increase under forward bias b. is independent of applied voltage
c. increases under reverse bias c. remains same
iv. For common emitter configuration of NPN transistor, current gain is given by
a. (a) IC / IB b. (b) IC / IE c. (c) IE / IB d. (d) IB / IE
v. The reverse saturation current in PN junction diode is only due to
a. (a) Majority carriers b. (b) Minority carriers c. (c) Acceptor ions d. (d) Donor ions
vi. PN junction when reverse bias act as:
a. (a) Capacitor b. (b) ON switch c. (c) Inductor d. (d) OFF switch
vii. Improper biasing of a transistor circuit produces
a. Heavy loading of emitter current b. distortion in utput signal
c. Excess heat at collector terminal d. Faulty location of load line
viii. When transistor are used in digital circuits they usually operate in the:
a. Active region b. Breakdown region c. Saturation and cutoff regions d. linear region
ix. Most of the electrons in the base of an NPN transistor flow:
a. out of the base lead b. into the collector
c. into the emitter d. into the base supply
x. In a transistor, collector current is controlled by:
a. collector voltage b. base current c. collector resistance d. all of these
xi. The minimum number of diode required for full wave rectification are:
a. (a) 3 b. (b) 4 c. (c) 2 d. (d) 1
xii. In a transistor both collector-base and base-emitter junctions are reversed biased then it is:
a. active region b. cutoff region c. saturation region d. Q-point

Exercise Short Questions Chapter 17

1. Explain why in a transistor (a) the base is lightly doped and (b) the collector is larger in size.

Ans: The central region of transistor is called base which is controlling element of a transistor. It is
lightly doped so that depletion region is thin and input resistance is small. As charge carriers flow from
emitter to base very few of them recombine with charge carriers of the base region and over 99%
charge carriers will flow to collector.

The main function of collector is to collect the charge carriers in the collector region. Due to interaction
of charge carriers, collector region heats up and this heat is dissipated, leading transistor to burn out.

So, in order to save the transistor from overheating and burning the width of depletion region is always
greater than emitter and base.

2. Explain why base current is weak as compared to collector current?

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Ans: The base region is very thin and is lightly doped as compared to the emitter and collector. This
means that it has very a few numbers of holes or electrons in it. Due to reverse biasing of collector-base
junction, almost all the electrons enter into the collector. A few charge carriers pass through the base
circuit and a negligible current flow through it.

3. Why the emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased?

Ans: Transistor consists of two junction emitter- base and collector-base junction.

The emitter base junction is forward biased, so width of depletion region decreases, which will lessens
the forward resistance. So charge carriers will move from emitter to base region.

Collector base junction is reverse biased, so reverse voltage will be able to move charges from base
region to collector region.

4. Draw the diagram of NPN and PNP transistors and explain how it works?

Ans: NPN transistor

In NPN transistor, a p-type region is sandwiched between two N-type regions. Forward biased
voltage at emitter-base junction 𝑽 will move the free electrons from emitter to base region
which are swept towards collector region due to reverse biased voltage 𝑽 connected at
collector-base junction.

PNP transistor

In NPN transistor, a N-type region is sandwiched between two P-type regions. Forward biased
voltage at emitter-base junction 𝑽 will move the free holes from emitter to base region which are
swept towards collector region due to reverse biased voltage 𝑽 connected at collector-base junction.

5. Distinguish between P-type and N-type semiconductors.

N-type semiconductors: These are formed by doping of pentavalent

(atoms belong to V-A group) impurity such as arsenic, antimony or
bismuth to intrinsic semiconductors.

In these materials electrons are majority charge carriers and holes

are minority charge carriers. Here impurity atom is donor atom.

P-type semiconductors: These are formed by doping of trivalent

(atoms belong to III-A group) impurity such as aluminum, boron
or gallium to intrinsic semiconductors.

In these materials holes are majority charge carriers and

electrons are minority charge carriers. Here impurity atom is
acceptor atom.

6. A p-type semiconductor has large number of holes but still it is

electrically neutral. Why?

P-type semiconductors are formed by doping of trivalent (atoms

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

belong to III-A group) impurity such as aluminum, boron or gallium to intrinsic semiconductors.

Net charge on p-type substances is zero, because while doping, neutral impurity is added to a
neutral semi-conductor. So overall, numbers of electrons and protons are same after doping.
Hence there will be no charge on n-type and p-type substances.

7. Explain why CE configuration is widely used in amplifier circuits?

 The CE configuration provides the maximum voltage and current gain. The other
configurations (Common Base and Common Collector) provide either high current gain
or voltage gain but not the both.
 It has maximum power gain.
 It has high input impedance and low output impedance.

So choice of CE configuration becomes obvious. For this purpose emitter-base junction is

forward biased to reduce input resistance while collector base junction is reverse biased.

8. Why transistor is called current amplification device?

Transistor is called current amplification device. Normally we use CE configuration for amplification.

The signal which is to be amplified is provided between base and emitter, it will cause to change the
input voltage. Due to this input current will also change. As current gain is given as

So it will leads large change in collector (output) current. Hence transistor is basically current
amplification device

9. A doped semiconductor has 𝟏 𝟏 silicon atoms and 10 trivalent atoms. If the temperature is , how
many free electrons and holes are there inside the semiconductor.
Ans: We know that trivalent impurity atom contributes one hole to pure semiconductor Si or Ge. When 10
trivalent atoms are doped with silicon atoms, then 10 holes will be generated due to this doping no
free electrons will be generated.
At C some electrons may bereak their covalent bonds due to thermal effect and produce electron-hole
pairs. It is calculated that charge carrier concentration at 300 K C is

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Additional MCQ’s Chapter 17

1. The colour of light emitted by a LED depend on (2010) (2017)
A. It forward bias B. It reverse bias
C. The amount of forward current D. the type of semiconductor material used
2. The output of a two inputs OR Gate is 0 only when its (2010)
A. Both inputs are 0 B. either input is 1 C. Both inputs are 1 D. either input is 0
3. The common emitter current amplification factor β is given by (2011)
A. Ic / IE B. Ic / IB C. IE / IB D. IB / IE
4. In which type of logic of logic gate the output is one when both input are zero (2017) (2011)
A. OR gate B. AND gate C. NOR gate D. NOT gate
5. The circuit which changes input signal at output with phase difference of is called (2012)
A. Amplifier B. Invertor C. Non-invertor D.None of these
6. Minimum number of semi conductor required for full reflection is (2012)
A. 5 B. 2 C. 4 D. 1
7. If = 10kΩ and 100kΩ then the gain of the inverting amplifier is (2012)
A. 1000kΩ B. 10kΩ C. 10 D. -10
8. Which of the following is NOT basic opreation of Boolean variables? (2013)
A. YES opreation B. NOT opreation C. AND opreation D.OR opration
9. The mathematical relation for Nor opreation is (2014)
A. ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐵 B. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ C. ̅ D. ̅
10. The voltage gain of an inverting OP-Amplifier is (2014)
A. B. C. D. None of these
11. Which pair of transistor is repectively represented by the given symbols (2014)
A. NPN and PNP B. PNP and NPN

C. Both NPN D. Both PNP

12. The boolean expression X= A.B represents (2014)
A. XNOR gate B. OR gate C. NAND gate D. AND
gate
13. The voltage gain of non-inverting OP-Amplifier is (2014)
𝑹
A. 𝟏 𝑹 B. C. D.
𝟏
14. The truth table of logic function (2015)
A. Summarizes its output values B. Tabulates its all inpts condition only
C. Display all its input/output possibillites D. Is not based on logic gates
15. In a common base amplifier the phase difference between the input singnal voltage and output signal voltage is
(2015)
A. B. π C. 0 D.
16. The output will be LOW for any case when one or more inputs are zero in a(n) (2015)
A. AND gate B. NAND gate C. NOT gate D. OR gate
17. Photo diode is NOT used in (2016)
A. Logic circuits B. Photo voltaic cell C. Detection of light D. Automatic switching
18. The gain of the inverting amplifier of external resistance is (2016)
A. B. C. D.
19. The current gain of transistor given by the relation is (2016)

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII
𝒄
A. B. C. D.
20. The open loop gain of the operational amplifier is of order. (2016)
A. B. 𝟏 C. D.
21. A semi – conductor can be used as a rectifier because
a) It has low resistance to the current flow when forward biased
b) It has high resistance to the current flow when reversed biased
c) Both a and b are true
d) None of the above

22. In half wave rectification, the output DC voltage is obtained across the load for
a) The positive half cycle of input AC b) The positive and negative half cycles of input AC
c) The negative half cycle of input AC d) either positive or negative half cycle of input AC

23. A bridge rectifier is preferable to an ordinary two diodes full ware rectifies because
a) It uses four diodes b) Its transforms has no counter tap
c) It needs much smaller transformer d) it has higher safety factor

24. The color of light emitted by LED depends on

a) Its forward biased b) Its reversed biased
c) The amount of forward current d) the type of semiconductor material used

25. A PN junction photodiode is

a) Operated in forward direction b) Operated in reversed direction
c) A very fast photo detector d) Dependent on thermally generated minority carriers

26. The emitter of a transistor is generally doped the heaviest because it

a) Has to dissipate maximum power b) Has to supply the charge carriers
c) Is the first region of transistor d) must possess law resistance

27. For proper working of a transistor in normal circuits

a) Emitter base junction is reversed biased, collector base junction is forward biased
b) Emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is forward biased
c) C-B junction is reversed biased; E-B junction is forward biased
d) C-B junction is reversed biased and E-B junction is reversed biased

28. In a properly biased NPN transistor most of the electrons from the emitter
a) Recombine with holes in the base b) Recombine in the emitter itself
c) Pass through the base to the collector d) are stopped by the junction barrio

29. When the E-B junction of a transistor is reversed – biased, collector current
a) Is reversed b) Increased c) Decreased d) Stops

30. A junction between P and N materials forms

a) A rectifier b) An amplifier c) A semi conduction d) An oscillator

31. The forward current through a semiconductor diode circuit is due to

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

a) Minority carriers b) Majority carriers c) Holes d) Electrons

32. The device used for conversion of AC into DC is

a) An oscillator b) A detector c) An amplifier d) A rectifier

33. Specially designed semiconductor diodes used as fast counters in electronic circuits are
a)Photo diodes b) LED c) Solar cell d) Photo voltaic cell

34. The specially designed semiconductor diodes used as indicator lamp in electronic circuit are
a)Photo diodes b) LED c) Solar cell d) Photo voltaic cell

35. The term transistor stands for

a) Transfer of current b) Transfer of voltage c) Transfer of resistance d) Transfer of charge

36. The thickness of depletion region is of the order of

a) 10-7 cm b) 10-6 cm c) 10-5 cm d) 10-4 cm

37. A junction diode when forward biased behaves as a device of

a) Zero resistance b) Infinite resistance c) Low resistance d) High resistance

38. The P.d across the depletion region of silicon is

a) 0.3 V b) 0.67V c) 0.7V d) 0.8V

39. A Transformer used in rectification acts as

a) Step-up b) Step-down c) Center trapped d) None

40. The ratio β shows the

a) Voltage gain b) current gain c) input resistance d) None

41. Photo – voltaic cell have

a) Battery input b) No external bias c) No internal bias d) None

42. Transistor can be used as

a) Oscillators b) Switches c) Memory unit d) All of them

43. A transistor is a circuit basically acts as

a) Voltage amplifier b) Current amplifier c) Power amplifier d) None

44. Transistor is a device which has ________ terminals.

a) One b) Two c) Three d) Four

45. A diode cannot be used as

a) Rectifier b) Detector c) Oscillator d) Amplifier

46. The width of depletion region of a diode

a) Increases under forward bias b) Is independent of applied voltage

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c) Increases under reverse bias d) None of these

47. A LED emits lights only when ……..

a) Forward biased b) Reverse Biased c) Un biased d) None

48. In a pn junction, the barrier potential offers opposition to only

a) Majority carriers in both regions b) Minority carriers in both regions
c) Electrons in n – region d) Holes in P – region

49. In the use of a transistor as an amplifier

a) The emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased
b) The emitter-base junction is reverse biased and the collector-base junction is forward biased
c) Both the junctions are forward biased
d) Any of the two junctions may be forward biased

50. The reverse or leakage current of the diode is of the order of

a) Microampere b) Milli-ampere c) Both d) None

51. How many diodes are used for the full wave rectification is
a) Two b) Three c) Four d) None

52. A diode characteristic curve is a plot between

a) Current and time b) Voltage and time
c) Voltage and current d) Forward voltage and reverse voltage

53. In a half-wave rectifier the diode conducts during

a) Both halves of the input cycle b) A portion of the positive half of the input cycle
c) A portion of the negative half of the input cycle d) One half of the input cycle

54. The net charge on N-type material is ________

a) Positive b) Negative c) Both a & b d) Neutral

55. Temperature, pressure etc. are converted into electronic information by devices called
a) LEDs b) Sensors c) Vacuum tubes d) None

56. Pentavalent impurities are called

a) Donor impurities b) Acceptor impurities c) both a and b d) None

57. Minority carriers in N-type materials are

a) Electrons b) Protons c) Neutrons d) Holes

58. When semiconductor is doped by trivalent, it has

a) More electrons b) More holes c) + ive charge d) – ive charge
59.
60. When the conductivity of a semiconductor is only due to breaking of the covalent bonds, the semiconductor is
called
a) Donor b) Acceptor c) Intrinsic d) Extrinsic

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Additional Conceptual Questions

Chapter 17
1. Why ordinary silicon diodes do not emit light (2010), (2017)

Ans: In case of ordinary silicon diode the energy difference between conduction band and valence band is less
and does not lie in the visible spectrum of electromagnetic radiations. Moreover silicon is opaque to light so it
does not emit light when forward biased. The most of the energy is released in the form of heat.
2. Why are charges carries not present in the depletion region? (2012), (2016)
Ans: When a p-n junction is formed, some of the electrons of n-type region diffuse into p-type region because of
their random motion. This creates a charge less region around the junction, called depletion region. The
depletion region resists the further flow of electrons. This is also known as potential barrier.

3. Why is the base current in a transistor very small? (2012), (2013)

Ans: The base region is very thin and is lightly doped as compared to the emitter and collector. This means that
it has very a few numbers of holes or electrons in it. Due to reverse biasing of collector-base junction, almost all
the electrons enter into the collector. A few charge carriers pass through the base circuit and a negligible current
flow through it.

4. What is a transistor? How is an NPN transistor drawn in common-Emitter configuration? (2012)

Ans: Transistor is a device which is made by joining back to back two PN junctions.
It has three parts.
 Base
 Emitter
 Collector
It is used in common –emitter configuration as shown in fig. When
tansistor is used as an amplifier.
5. In a certain circuit the transistor has a collector current of 10mA and a base current of 40µA. What is the
current gain of the transistor? (2013)

6. What is effect of forward and reverse basing of a diode on the width of depletion region? (2012) (2013),
(2014), (2017)
Ans: Forward biasing will reduce the width of depletion region which allows more current toflow across
junction.
Reverse biasing will increase the width of the depletion region which forbids the passage of current due to
majority charge carriers.

7. What is photodoide? Why is it opreated in reverse biased state? (2011), (2016), (2017)

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Ans: Photodiodes are used for detection of light. When no light falls on the reverse biased junction of the
photodiode, almost no current flows. When light falls on it, electron hole pairs are generated and the diode
starts conducting. The reverse current increases with the intensity of light, and hence, presence of light can be
detected
8. The anode of a diode is 0.2 V positive with respect to its cathode. Is it forward based? (2013), (2018)

Ans: When electric potential of anode (p-type) is greater with respect to electric potential of cathode (n-type),
then such a p-n junction is called forward biased. In the given situation anode is positive with respect to cathode
so diode will be forward biased, although current will not flow because at 0.2 V potential barrier still exists to
oppose the motion of charges.
9. What do you mean by rectification? (2016)
Ans: The process of converting AC signal into Pulsating DC signal is called rectification. This is done by the help of
rectifier (diode).
Rectification is of two types
 Half wave rectification: In this type of rectification half of the input AC
signal is rectified.

 Full wave rectification: In this type of rectification complete input AC

signal is rectified.

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Comprehensive Questions Chapter

17
RECTIFICATION:
Requirement of DC supply:
Some electronic devices like electronically tune radio and TV receivers require DC for their operation. The DC
supplies like cells, batteries etc. are expensive, low power, and short lived. Therefore generally a DC supply is
generated using an A.C. supply by method of rectification.
DEFINITION:
“The conversion of AC(Alternation current) into DC(Direct current) is called rectification”.
RECTIFIER:
“Device used for conversion of AC (Alternation current) into DC(Direct current) is called the rectifier”.
DIODE AS A RECTIFIER:
Diodes provide compact, inexpensive means of rectification therefore it can be used as a rectifier.
As we have seen, when diode is forward biased it allows the current to pass and in reverse bias it (almost) stops
the current. Thus it can be used as unidirectional device (or rectifier).
TYPES OF RECTIFIER:

For most power applications, half wave rectification is insufficient for task. If we need to rectify AC power to
obtain full use of both half-cycles of sine wave, different rectifier circuit configuration must be used. Such circuit
is called full wave rectifier.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

“A half wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows one half-cycle of an AC voltage waveform
to pass, blocking the other half-cycle”.
➔
It is the simplest kind of rectifier.
Construction: The half wave rectifier is made up of
 an AC source
 transformer (step-down),
 diode
 Resistor (load).
The diode is placed between the transformer and
resistor (load).In its circuit fig transformer is use to couple the ac input voltage from the source to the rectifier.
ADVANTAGE OF TRANSFORMER COUPLING:
Transformer coupling provides two advantages:
1- It allows the source voltage to be stepped up or stepped down as
needed. Applying a large AC voltage without using transformer will
permanently destroy the diode. So we use step-down transformer in
half wave rectifier.
2-The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier
WORKING OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:
The voltage across the secondary of the transformer, i.e. between A

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and B is represented as and graphically it is shown in fig(b) V is the instantaneous voltage and
is the peak value of the alternating voltage
POSITIVE HALF CYCLE OF AC:
During the positive half cycle of AC, the point A becomes positive with respect to B. The diode is forward biased
and the current flows through the load resistor RL and we get an output voltage, as shown in Fig.
NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE OF AC:
For negative half cycle, point A becomes negative with respect to B and the diode is reverse biased. Practically,
no current flows through the load.
Thus, only half wave is rectified and it is called half wave rectifier. During the negative half cycle of AC, diode is
reversed biased and the total voltage appears across the diode.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER USING CENTER TAP TRANSFORMER:
A full wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current through the load during the entire cycle of the input
cycle, whereas a half wave rectifier allows current through the load only during one half of the cycle.
Construction:
The full wave rectifier is made up of
 an AC source
 center tapped transformer
 two diodes
 Resistor (load
The center tapped transformer also increases or reduces the AC voltage. The secondary winding of the center
tapped transformer divides the input AC current or AC signal (VP)
into two parts.
The upper part of the secondary winding produces a positive
voltage and the lower part of the secondary winding produces a
negative voltage.
The diodes operate in alternate switching mode.
WORKING OF FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:
-POSITIVE HALF CYCLE OF AC:
For the first half cycle, point A becomes positive with
respect to B and B becomes positive with respect to C.
Thus, is forward biased ON and is reverse biased
OFF. The current through load is only due to while
current due to is zero.
-NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE OF AC:
For the second half cycle, point C becomes positive with
respect to B and B becomes positive with respect to A.
Now is forward biased ON and is reverse biased
OFF. The current flows through the load is due to
while current due to is zero.
For the first half cycle, the current is due to 𝟏 and for
the second half cycle, the current is due to . Thus full wave is rectified.
DISADVANTGE:

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One disadvantage of this full-wave rectifier design is necessity of transformer with center tapped secondary
winding. The center tapped transformers are expensive, complex and occupy a large space.
USE OF FILTER:
The rectified voltage is in the form of pulses of the shape of half sinusoids. Though it is unidirectional it does not
have a steady value. To get steady dc output from the pulsating voltage normally a capacitor is connected across
the output terminals (parallel to the load ). Since these additional circuits appear to filter out the ac ripple and
give a pure dc voltage, so they are called filters.

TRANSISTOR:
A transistor consists of three regions of doped semiconductors in which the current flowing is
modulated by the voltage (FET-voltage controlled device) or current (BJT- current controlled device)
applied to one or more electrodes.
TYPES OF MODERN TRANSISTORS:
Modern transistors are of two types:
1- Bipolar.
2- Unipolar.
BIPOLAR:
Those transistors, whose function depends upon (majority and minority) charge carriers.
Sometimes these are called bipolar junction transistor (BJTs).
UNIPOLAR:
Those transistors, whose function depends upon majority charge carriers (either holes or electrons), e.g.
field effect transistors (FETs).
A transistor has three doped regions forming two p-n junctions between them.
There are two types of transistors (BJT)
(i) NPN TRANSISTOR: Here two segments of n-type semiconductor
(emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of p-type
semiconductor (base).
-In NPN electrons are the majority charge carriers.
(ii) PNP TRANSISTOR: Here two segments of p-type semiconductor
(termed as emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of n-
type semiconductor (termed as base).
-In PNP holes are the majority charge carriers.
The schematic representations of an NPN and a PNP configuration
are shown in Fig.
All the three segments of a transistor have different thickness and
their doping levels are also different. In the schematic symbols used
for representing PNP and NPN transistors as shown in fig. The
arrowhead shows the direction of conventional current in the
transistor.
SEGMENTS OF TRANSISTOR:
1-Emitter: This is the segment on one side of the transistor shown in Fig. (a). It is of moderate size and
heavily doped. It supplies a large number of majority carriers for the current flow through the transistor.
2-Base: This is the central segment. It is very thin and lightly doped.

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3-Collector: This segment collects a major portion of the majority carriers supplied by the emitter. The
collector side is moderately doped and larger in size as compared to the emitter.
JUNCTIONS IN TRANSISTOR:
From fig(a) we see that there are two junctions, one is emitter base junction and other is base collector
junction.
BIASING OF TRANSISTOR:
The charge carriers move across different regions of the transistor when proper voltages are applied
across its terminals.
First we shall see what gives the transistor its amplifying capabilities. The
transistor works as an amplifier, with its emitter-base junction forward
biased and the base-collector junction reverse biased.
This situation is shown in Fig, where 𝑽 and 𝑽 are used for creating
the respective biasing.
We represent the voltage between emitter and base as 𝑽 and that
between the collector and the base as𝑽 .
In Fig., base is a common terminal for the two power supplies whose
other terminals are connected to emitter and collector, respectively. So
the two power supplies are represented as 𝑽 , and 𝑽 , respectively.
In circuits, where emitter is the common terminal, the power supply
between the base and the emitter is represented as 𝑽 and that
between collector and emitter as𝑽 .
CURRENT FLOW IN TRANSISTOR:
Let us see now the paths of current carriers in the transistor with emitter-base junction forward biased,
so it offers low resistance and base-collector junction reverse biased.
The heavily doped emitter has a high concentration of majority carriers, which will be holes in a p-n-p
transistor and electrons in an n-p-n transistor. These majority carriers enter the base region in large
numbers.
In a p-n-p transistor the majority carriers in the base are electrons since base is of n-type
semiconductor.
The large number of holes entering the base from the emitter joins the small number of electrons
there.
The holes in the base could move either towards the base terminal to combine with the electrons
entering from outside or cross the junction to enter into the collector and reach the collector terminal.
A major part of goes to collector instead of coming out of the base terminal. The base current is thus a small
fraction of the emitter current.
The current entering into the emitter from outside is equal to the emitter current . Similarly the
current emerging from the base terminal is and that from collector terminal is . It is obvious from
the above description and also from a straight forward application of Kirchhoff’s law that the emitter
current is the sum of collector current and base current:

We also see that ≈ .

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Our description of the direction of motion of the holes is identical with the direction of the conventional
current. But the direction of motion of electrons is just opposite to that of the current. From the above
description we can conclude that in the active state of the transistor the emitter-base junction acts as a
low resistance while the base collector acts as a high resistance.
WHY WE PREFER NPN TRANSISTOR:
In most of the cases NPN, transistors are preferred because mobility of electrons is three times more
than that of holes and therefore the operation is faster.

COMMON EMITTER
➔
CONFIGURATION:
When a transistor is used in CE configuration, the input is between the base and the emitter and the output is
between the collector and the emitter.
INPUT CHARACTERISTIC:
The variation in base current IB with change in base-
emitter voltage (VBE) at constant collector-emitter
voltage (VCE) are called the input characteristics.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC:
The variation of the collector current IC with change in
collector-emitter voltage VCE at constant base current (IB)
is called the output characteristic.
Output characteristics are controlled by the input
characteristics. This implies that the collector current
changes with the base current.
EXPLANATION OF INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
To study the input characteristics of the transistor in CE
configuration, a curve is plotted between the base
current IB against the base-emitter voltage VBE. The
collector-emitter voltage VCE is kept fixed while studying
the dependence of IB on VBE. We are interested to obtain the input characteristic when the transistor is in active
state. So the collector-emitter voltage VCE is kept large enough to make the base collector junction reverse
biased.
The input characteristics of a transistor are as shown in Fig. (a).
EXPLANATION OF OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
The output characteristic is obtained by observing the variation of IC as VCE is varied keeping IB constant. It is
obvious that if VBE is increased by a small amount, both hole current from the emitter region and the electron
current from the base region will increase. As a consequence both IB and IC will increase proportionately. This
shows that when IB increases IC also increases. The plot of IC versus VCE for different fixed values of IB gives one
output characteristic. So there will be different output characteristics corresponding to different values of IB as
shown in Fig.(b).
BASE CURRENT AMPLIFICATION FACTOR (BETA FACTOR):
“The ratio of collector current IC and base current IB is called as beta factor”.
for DC =

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for AC
=
Usually value of current gain is in hundreds.

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CHAPTER 18
DAWN of MODERN PHYSICS

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Exercise Mcq’s Chapter 18

i. Triplets A and B board spaceships and head away from earth in opposite directions, each traveling the same
distance at the same speed before returning to earth. Triplet C remains in earth. Which expression describes the
triplet’s relative ages once they are reunited on earth?
a. (a) A < B < C b. (b) B.A = B > C c. (c) A = B < C d. (d) A = B = C
ii. If a spaceship travels from earth to a planet in the Alpha Centauri star system, which observer measures the
proper time for the trip?
a. an observer on earth b. An observer on the planet in the alpha centauri star system
c. An observer on the spaceship d. An observer deep in the space far from the planet and earth
iii. When you compress a spring between your finger, it’s mass
a. (a) Increase b. (b) Decrease c. (c) Stay the same d. (d) Turns negative
iv. By doubling the absolute temperature of a black-body, the total energy radiated will change by a factor of;
a. (a) 0.5 b. (b) 2 c. (c) 4 d. (d) 16
v. According to Einstein, increasing the brightness of a beam of light without changing its color will increase:
a. The number of photons b. The energy of each photon
b. The speed of photon d. The frequency of photon
vi. Sources of red, blue and yellow light each emit light with a power 50 . The source emit more photons is:
a. Red b. blue c. yellow d. They all emit same number per second
vii. Of the following energies for photons, which is the least energy that could result in photoelectron production if
the work function is ?
a. ( ) ( ) b. (c) 𝒆𝑽 c. (d)
viii. In a Compton scattering experiment at which angle the electron carry maximum energy? (Assume that initially
the target electron is at rest).
a. (a) 0 b. (b) 90 c. (c) 135 d. (d) 180
ix. If X-rays are scattered from protons instead of electrons, the change of its wavelength for a given angle of
scattering.
a. (a) Increases b. (b) Decreases c. (c) Is unchanged d. (d) Is one radian
x. Pair production can’t take place in vacuum because………………. Is not conserved
a. (a) Mass b. (b) Momentum c. (c) Energy d. (d) Charge
xi. According to de-Broglie equation, which one has the smallest wavelength associated with it.
a. (a) Proton b. (b) Neutron c. (c) -particle d. (d) electron
xii. An electron and a proton have the same De-Broglie wavelength. Then the kinetic energy of the electron is
a. zero b. Equal to K.E of proton
b. Infinity d. Greater than K.E of proton
xiii. In electron microscope, light source is replaced by a beam of very fast moving
a. (a) electron b. (b) Neutron c. (c) Proton d. (d) Photon
xiv. According to Heisenberg, as the uncertainty in the measurement of a particle’s momentum is reduced by a
factor of 2, by what factor is the uncertainty in that same particle’s positions changed?
a. (a) ½ b. (b) 1 c. (c) 2 d. (d) 4

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Exercise Short Questions Chapter 18

1. Imagine a world in which𝒄 . How would the everyday events appear to us?
If speed of light becomes c=50 m/s. Then the factor √ will be increased.
As
√

This will cause to effect the mass, length and time. Everything moving would look length contracted, time
dilation and much increase in mass.

2. Some stars are observed to be reddish, and some are blue. Which stars have the higher surface
temperature? Explain.
Ans: Stars that appear blue will have more surface temperature.
The color of stars depends upon their surface temperature. As from Wien’s displacement law

According to above relation when wavelength is smaller, temperature will be higher. As the blue color has
lower wavelength as compared to red light.
So surface temperature of the star emitting the blue light will be higher than the star emitting the red light.
3. If the photo electric effect is observed for one metal, can you conclude that the effect will also be
observed for another metal under the same conditions?
Ans: No, It is not possible.
Work function is given as

As work function is different for every metal, so that is not necessary to observe photoelectric effect for one
metal and then for the other under same conditions.
It might be possible for metals having work function less than energy of photon then photoelectric effect
will occur.
It will not cause emission of electron from metals having work function greater than energy of photon.
4. Does a light bulb at a temperature 2500 K produce as white light as the sun at 6000 K? Explain.
Ans: No, this is not possible for a light bulb at temperature 2500 K to produce as white light as sun at
6000 K. This is because the brightness of light depends upon the intensity of light and sun light at 6000 K
has greater intensity than the light bulb at 2500 K.

Explanation: From Steffen-Boltzmann law the energy radiated per second per unit area of a hot body is
directly proportional to the 4th power of the absolute temperature of the body. Mathematically,

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As the temperature rises, the intensity of the emitted light also increases. Therefore, the sun produces
more white light (brightness) at 6000 K as compared to the bulb at 2500 K.

5. A beam of red light and a beam of blue light have exactly the same energy. Which light contains the
greater number of photons?
Ans: The energy of the photon, according to Planck's Quantum theory is given by E = hf, where h is
the Planck's constant and f is the frequency of light.

Let n1 be the number of photons of red light having frequency f 1 and n2 be the number of
photons of blue light having frequency f2. The respective energies of red and blue light are
given by:

 E1 = n1hf1
 E2 = n2hf2
 Both have same level of energy, E1 = E2
 n1hf1 = n2hf2
 f1/f2 = n1/n2
 As, f1 < f2
 Hence, n2 < n1

Therefore, the number of photons of red light (n1) are more than the number of photons of
blue light (n2).
6. Why must the rest mass of a photon be zero? Explain.
Ans: When a material object of actual mass moves with high speed, then its apparent mass according to
theory of relativity
will increase.
√

As we know that photon moves with speed of light, so if is replaced by c then

7. Why we don’t observe Compton Effect with visible light?

Ans: For Compton Effect, we need energy between 0.5 MeV to 1.02 MeV. The energy of visible light
is much less than 0.5 MeV, therefore, the energy of visible light is not enough for Compton Effect to
take place.
X-rays photon cause Compton’s effect by transferring energy to electrons and scatter.
8. If an electron and proton have same de Broglie wavelength, which particle has greater speed?

Ans: As, de-Broglie wavelength is given as

Given condition

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Electron's de Broglie wavelength = Proton's de Broglie wavelength

As,

So,
Therefore, the electron has greater speed
9. An electron and a proton are accelerated from rest thorough the same potential difference. Which
particle has the longer wavelength? Explain.
Ans: The de Broglie wavelength associated with material particle is given by = …………… (1)
When the charge particle is accelerated through P.D , its K.E is given by
KE =e∆V
2
=
v2 =

v=√ putting in equation (1)

= =
√
√

if h,e and
√

√
As mass of electron is less than mass of proton so it will have larger wavelength.
10. Why the ultraviolet radiation is harmful to your skin while visible light is not?
Ans: As energy of photon is given as
Where .
So
As

Hence ultraviolet radiations have high energy photons which are harmful to skin as compared to visible light
as it can cause ionization.

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Additional MCQ’s Chapter 18

1. In Compton scattering, the change in wave length is maximum if (2010) (2015) (2017)
A. Angle of scattering is 900 B. Angle of scattering is 600
C. Angle of scattering is 1800 D. Angle of scattering is zero
2. At what speed would the mass of an electron become double of its rest mass (2011)
A. 0.5c B. 0.707c C.0.866c D. 0.99c
3. Dimensional representation of Planck’s constant is the same as (2012), (2017)
A. Gravitational Constant B. Torque
C. Momentum D. Angular momentum
4. Planck’s constant has dimension of (2012)
A. [ 𝑻 𝟏] B. [ C. [ ] D. [ ]
5. In the subatomic world few thing can be predicated with_______ precision (2012)
A. 90 % B. 60% C. 75 % D. 100 %
6. Which of the following electromagnetic wave have the highest frequency and shortest wave length
(2013)
A. X-rays B. Ultraviolet rays
C. γ- rays D. Cosmic rays
7. Relativistic velocity is of the order of (2014)
A. 1/15th of the velocity of light B. 1/20th of the velocity of light
C.1/10th or more of the velocity of light D. All of these
8. The compton shift in wave length is given by (2013)
𝒉
A. 𝒄 𝒄
(𝟏 𝒄 ) B. ( )
C. ( ) D. None of these
9. The Comptom shift “ is equal to the compton wavelength if the scattered X-rays is observed at and angle
for (2014)
A. B. C. D. None of these
10. Which phenomenon proves the particle nature of electromagnetic wave? (2014)
A. Diffraction B. Polarization
C. Interfence D. Photoelectric effect
11. Photon ‘A; has twice the energy to that of photon ‘B’ The ratio momentum ‘A’ to that B’ (2014)
𝑷
A. B. C. 𝑷 D.
12. Eiststein explained photoelectric effect by applying (2014)
A. Plank’s Theory B. Bohr’stheory
C. de. Broglie’s Theory D. Speacial theory of relativity
13. The rest mass of photon is (2015) (2017)
A. Infinity B. Zero C. 1 D.
14. The absorption power of a perfect black body is alwys (2015)
A. Zero B. -1 C. 1 D. 100
15. In Compton scattering the change in wavelength is zero if (2015)
A. B. C. D.
16. The Stefen-Baltzman law which relates rate of radiation for a black body to its surface temperature ‘T’ has the
form (2016)
A. B. C. 𝑻 D.
17. The value of Stefan’s constant is given by…….. (2016)
A. 𝟏 B.

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C. D.
18. In Compton effect, the value of the factor is about……. (2016)
𝟏
A. 𝟏 B.
C. D.
19. If an object moves with a velocity of light, its mass becomes (2017)
A. Some extent large B. Infinity C. Zero D. Very small
20. The existence of positron was discovered in the (2017)
A. Electromagnetic radiatioin B. Non-electromagnetic radiation
C. Thermal radiation D. Cosmic radiation
21. An observer shoots parallel to a meter stick at very high speed (relativistic) and finds that the length of meter
stick is __________
a) Greater than one meter b) Less than one meter
c) One meter d) none of these

22. Which of the following radiations has the greatest energy photon
a) TV waves b) Microwaves c) X-rays d) γ - rays

23. Linear momentum of a photon is

a) Zero b) hf/c2 c) hf/c d) c2/hf

24. The linear momentum of an x-ray photon of wavelength 0.1Ao is

a) 6.625 x 10-23 NS b) 66.25 x 1023 NS c) 662.5 x 1023 NS d) Data is insufficient

25. Stopping potential for a metal surface in case of photo electric emission depends on
a) The threshold frequency for the metal surface b) The intensity of incident light
c) The frequency of incident d) none of these

26. Select an alternative form of uncertainty principle from the following

a) h/mc b) E. t  h c) mc2 = hf d) any one a, b, c

27. As the temperature of black body is raised, the wavelength corresponding to maximum intensity
a) Shifts towards longer wavelength b) Shifts towards shorter wavelength
c) Remains the same d) Shifts towards shorter as well as longer wavelength

28. Rest mass of photon is

a) Infinite b) Zero c) Very small d) Very large

29. The name of photon for quantum of light was proposed by

a) Ampere b) Planck’s c) Thomson d) Einstein

30. In a photo electric effect, monochromatic light, is incident on a metal surface. If the incident light is of twice the
intensity but the same wave length, the kinetic energy of the emitted electron
a) Becomes double b) Remains same
c) Becomes half d) First increase then decreases of because curvilinear
graph.

31. If a photon is reflected from the mirror, then the change in momentum of each photon is…..

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𝒉
a) Zero b) 2 c) d)
32. If n numbers of photon are striking on a metal surface, then the total momentum exerted is….
𝒉
a) b) c)Zero d)

33. A photon of wave length 900mm behaves like a particle of mass ________
a) 5.53 x 10-36 kg b) 0 Kg c) 2.46 x 10-42 kg d) 1.84 x 10-44 kg

34. The velocity of particle of mass m of de-Broglie wave length  is ________

𝒉
a) b) c) d)

35. In Davison – Germer experiment, the diffracted proton from crystal shows ____________
a) Particle property b) Wave property c) Light property d) Quantum property

36. If a diffracted grating is placed in the path of a light beam, it reveals ______property.
a) Wave b) Particle c) Energy particle d) Electromagnetic wave

37. In electron microscope, electric and magnetic field are used as _______
a) Electromagnetic gun b) Source of electromagnetic waves
c) Deflected charged particle d) Converging source of electrons

38. For confinement of electron in a box of radius 10-14 m. the electron speed should be ____
a) 107m/sec b) Should be greater than speed of light
c) Be zero d) none

39. The energy radiated is directly proportional to fourth power of Kelvin’s temperature is _____
a) Karl-Wien’s laws b) Raleigh jeans law c) Stephens law d) Planck’s law

40. Compton effect proves the _______

a) Photon theory of light b) Deal nature of light
c) Wave nature of light d) uncertain nature of light

41. The mass of an object will be doubled at speed

a) 1.6 × 108 m/sec b) 2.6 × 108 m/sec c) 2.6 × 107 m/sec d) None

42. The anti-particle of electron is

a) Proton b) Positron c) Meson d) Neutron

43. The reverse process of pair-production is

a) Annihilation b) Materialization c) Fission d) Fusion

44. All the motion in this universe are

a) Absolute b) Uniform c) Variable d) Relative

45. On a hot day white clothes are cold because they are
a) Reflective b) Absorbers c) Radiators d) None

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46. The radiation emitted by human body lies in the range of

a) Infrared region b) U.V region c) Visible region d) None

47. Wien’s displacement law holds well for

a) Short wavelength b) Large wavelength c) All wavelength d) None

48. Plank’s theory is hold good for

a) Short wavelength b) Large wavelength c) All wavelength d) None

49. Pair production cannot possible in

a) Air b) Water c) Glass d) Vacuum

50. The wavelength of photon with energy of 16 × 10 -19 J is

a) 12.4oA b) 1.24oA c) 1240oA d) None

51. The minimum energy required for pair production is

a) 10.2 Mev b) 1.02 Mev c) 102 Mev d) None

52. Sound tracks of movies can be controlled by

a) Diode b) Rectifier c) Amplifier d) Photo – cell

53. The relation  MaxT  Contt . is

a) Wien’s Law b) Plank’s Law c) Stephen Law d) None

54. The life time of an electron in an excited state is 10 -6 sec. What is uncertainly in energy for this time?
a) 2.35 × 10-20J b) 1.09 × 10-20J c) 1.05 × 10-26J d) None

55. The photograph taken by electron-microscope is called

a) Photograph b) Electron micrograph c) Chronograph d) None

56. At stopping potential current passing through circuit is

a) Mini b) Very low c) Zero d) None

57. The value of Wien’s Constant is

a) 2.9 × 10-3 m .k b) 1.38 × 10-3 m.k c) 3.51 × 10-3 m.k d) None

58. The reverse process of Photo-electric effect is

a) Compton Effect b) Pair-production c) Annihilation d) None

59. If work function is 4.14ev, the threshold frequency of incident light is

a) 1012Hz b) 1013Hz c) 1014Hz d) 1015Hz

60. Each quantum is associated with radiation of

a) Intensity b) Energy c) Frequency d) None

61. The threshold frequency of metals is 2 × 10-4Hz. The work function of metal is
a) 13.26 × 10-38ev b) 13.26 × 10-38J c) 13.26 d) None

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62. The wavelength associated with electron moving with speed 5.6 × 106 m/s is
a) 12nm b) 0.12nm c) 1.2nm d) 120nm

63. The uncertainty in position of electron is 6.63Ao. The uncertainty in momentum of electron is
a) 10-24N-S b) 10-48N-S c) 10-16N-S d) 10-20N-S

64. The concept of position is purely

a) Specific b) Relative c) Ordinary d) None

65. A quantity is always √

a) Greater than one b) Less than one c) equal to one d) None

66. At higher temperature, the body emits long wavelength in the region
a) Infra-red b) Ultraviolet c) Far-infra red d) None

67. The Stefan-Boltzmann has the value

a) 5.67 × 10-5Wm-2K-4 b) 5.67 × 10-6Wm-1K-4 c) 5.67 × 10-6Wm-2K-4 d) 5.67 × 10-8Wm-2K-4

68. The stopping potential when frequency is kept constant is

a) Same b) Different c) Both a & b d) None

69. The idea of quantization of energy was proposed by

a) Einstein b) Max Planck c) Compton d) None

70. Application of photoelectric effect is

a) Photo diode b) Photo transistor c) Photocell d) None

71. In Compton Effect, the law/laws are conserved

a) Energy b) Momentum c) Both d) None

72. The equations of pair production is

a) hf = 2moc2 – KE(e-) + K.E (e+) b) hf = 2moc2 + KE(e-) + K.E (e+)
c) hf = 2mo2c2 + KE(e-) + K.E (e+) d) hf = 2mo2c + KE(e-) + K.E (e+)

73. In Compton Effect is always

a) Less than b) Greater than c) Equal to d) None

74. pair production can’t take place in vacuum because of conservation of

a) Energy b) Momentum c) Momentum & Energy d) None

75. Which of the following has the same dimension as h/moc?

a) Length b) Time c) Mass d) None

76. Photon ‘A’ has twice the energy of photon ‘B’. What is the ratio of the momentum of ‘A’ to that of ‘B’?
a) 4 : 1 b) 2 : 1 c) 1 : 2 d) None

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Additional Conceptual Questions

Chapter 18
1. What is photon? (2010), (2017)
Defination: A photon is the smallest discrete amount or quantum of electromagnetic radiation. It is the basic
unit of all light.
Properties of photons:

 They have zero rest mass and rest energy. They only exist as moving particles.
 They are elementary particles despite lacking rest mass.
 They have no electric charge.
 They are stable.

2. How have the result of speacial theroy of relativity been applied to NAVSTAR navigation system? (2011),
(2016), (2017)
Ans: The result of special theory of relativity are put to partical use even in everyday life by a modern syste of
nevigation satellites called NAVASTAR. The location and speed anywhere on Earth can now be determined to an
accuracy of about 2cms-1.
However, if relativity effects are not taken into account, speed could not be determined any claoser than about
20cms-1. Using these result the locatioin of an aircraft after an hour’s flight can be predicted to about 50 m as
compared to about 760 m determined by without using relativistic effect.
3. Photon A has twice the energy of photon B. What is the ratio of the momentum of A to that of B? (2011),
(2016), (2017)

Ans: As,

( )

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

( )

So ratio of momentum of A to B is 2.
4. Why do not we observe compton effect with visible light? (2012)
Ans: For Compton effect, we need energy between . The energy of visible light is much
less than , therefore, the energy of visible light is not enough for Compton effect to take place.
5. If the speed of light were infinite what would the equation of special theory of Reletivity reudced to? (2012),
(2014)

Ans: If speed of light (c) approaches infinity, then energy (E) becomes infinity according to the formula

 E = mc2 = m( )2 =

Other Equations of special theory of relativity would become when c=

= = =
√ √ √

= = =
√ √ √

√ = √ = √ =
6. Find the mass m off a moving object with speed 0.8 c, if rest mass is 1 kg? (2012), (2018)

Solution:

Using
√

√ ( ) √ ( )

or
7. An object can not be accelerated to the speed of light. Why? (2012), (2016)
Ans: Relativistic mass of a body is given as

√
If a body moves with speed of light then its mass becomes infinite. To move the infinite mass infinite force is
required. As infinite force can not be provided to any body, so we can say that an object can’t be accelerated to
the speed of light.

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8. A beam of red light and a beam of blue light have exactly the same energy. Which beam contains the greater
number of photons? (2013), (2015)

Ans: The energy of the photon, according to Planck's Quantum theory is given by E = hf, where h is the Planck's
constant and f is the frequency of light.

Let n1 be the number of photons of red light having frequency f1 and n2 be the number of photons of blue light
having frequency f2. The respective energies of red and blue light are given by:



 Both have same level of energy
 =
 =
 As,
 Hence, <

Therefore, the number of photons of red light ( ) are more than the number of photons of blue light .
9. What happens to total radiations from a blackbody if the absolute temperature is doubled? (2013), (2017)

Ans: According to Boltzmann law, if the absolute temperature is doubled, then total radiation from a blackbody
becomes 16 times greater:

E = σT4

When T = 2T

E' = 16(σT4)

E' = 16E

So energy of total radiations becomes 16 times if temperature is doubled.

10. Will higher frequency light eject greater number of electrons then low frequency light?. (2013)

Ans: The number of photoelectrons emitted from the metal surface is directly proportional to the intensity of
the incident light and not on its frequency. The higher frequency light will eject high-energy electrons, while
lower frequency light will eject low-energy electrons. Therefore, light of higher and lower frequency of same
intensity, both will eject same number of electrons.
11. What is de.Broglie’s wavelength? Find the wavelength of an electron when it is accelerated through a
𝟏
potential difference of 50 volt ( 𝒆 𝟏𝑿𝟏 𝒈 𝒆 𝟏 𝑿𝟏 𝟏 ) (2014)
Ans:

As
√

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12. What is photoelectric Effect? What type of effect accurs of photoelectrons if (2014) a. Frequency of
incident radiation increases b. Intensity if incident radiation
increases
Ans: a. When frequency of incident radiation increases then
stopping potential of photoelectrons is enhanced , amount
of currennt remains constant.

b. When intensity of incident radiation increases then

photoelectric current is enhanced but stopping potential is
constant.

13. Describe briefly the function of Photodoid by circuit diagram (2014)

A photocell is based on photoelectric effect. A simple photocell is shown in Fig. It consists of an evacuated glass
bulb with a thin anode rod and a cathode of an appropriate metal surface. The material of the cathode is
selected to suit the frequency range of incident radiatoin over which
the cell is opreated.
For example sodium or potassium cathode emits electron for visible
light, cessium coated oxidized silver emits electron for infarred light
and some other metas respond to ultraviolet radiation.When photo-
emissive surface is exposed to appropriate light electron are emitted
and a current flows in the external circuit which increases with the
increases in light intensity.
14. If measurement show a precise position for an Electron can those
measurement show precise momentum also? Explain (2015),
(2017)
Ans: No. If measurements show a precise position of an electron then precise momentum can't be measured
because the Uncertainty principle states that both position and momentum of a particle can't be measured
simultaneously with perfect accuracy. This is known as Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
15. What is the energy of a photon in a beam of infrared radiation of wavelength of 1240nm? (2015)
As energy is given as

So

16. Find the velocity at which the relativistic length “ ” of a body reduce to half of its rest length “ ” (2016)
√

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17. Which proton red, green or blue carries the most energy and momentum? (2017)

As E = hf, p = and f = .T

therefore,

 E=
 p=

As blue light has smaller wavelength than that of green and red, so photons of blue light carry the most energy
and momentum.
18. If an electron and proton have the same de Broglie wavelength which particle has greater speed? (2012),
(2013), (2014), (2017), (2017)

Electron's de Broglie wavelength = Proton's de Broglie wavelength

Therefore, the electron has greater speed

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Comprehensive Questions Chapter

18
Q: What are the main features of thermal radiations from the black body?

THERMAL RADIATIONS:

The electromagnetic radiations emitted by an object because of its temperature are known as thermal
radiations

Black body radiations:

Definition: Black body is an ideal system that absorbs all radiations incident on it. When such a body is
heated then it emits radiation of different wavelengths at different temperature.

Black body radiation curve:

 The total radiation emitted (area under the curve)

increases with increasing temperature.
 The radiated energy varies with wavelength and
temperature. At the temperature of the black body
increases, the total amount of energy it emits also
increases.

Wein’s Displacement Law:

With increasing temperature, the peak of the distribution shifts

to shorter wavelengths. This shift was found to obey the
following relationship, called Wein’s displacement law:

which the curve peak and is the absolute temperature of the object
emitting radiation.

 The area under each curve represents total energy E radiated per second per square meter over
all wavelengths at a particular temperature.

Stefan’s Boltzmann Law:

It is found that area is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature T. thus

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is called Stefan,s constant. Its value is 5.67 relation is

known as Stefan’s Boltzmann Law.

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒆 for explanation of black body radiation curves:

A series of attempts were made to explain the black body spectrum as described below.

Raleigh-jean’s Theory:

Raleigh-jean’s advanced a Theory that could predict the long wavelength region but failed
completely at short wavelengths.

Wien’s theory:

Wien’s presented a theory, which agrees with experimental curve in the

short wavelength region but fails in long wavelength region.

Quantum theory of radiations (Planck’s Theory)

1. The vibrating molecules of the black body cavity which emitted these
radiations where having only discrete amount of energy given by

Where n is positive integer, called quantum number, f is

frequency of oscillations of molecules and h is is Planck’s constant.
It means that atom or molecules cannot emit or absorb radiation in all possible ways but an
oscillating atom or molecule can absorb or emit energy only in discrete bundles. This discrete
unit of energy is called quanta or photon.
2. Atom or molecules emit or absorb radiation when they jump from one quantum state to
another hence the energy of one quantum (that is the difference between two adjacent energy
levels) is

Atom or molecules will emit or absorb energy only when it change states if it remain in one
quantum states no energy is emitted or absorbed

Q: what are the main features of photoelectric effect? Discuss the failure of classical physics and
success of photon conceptin explaining this effect?

Definition: When light of suitable frequency falls on certain metal surface then emission of electrons
take place from the metal surface. This phenomenon is called
photoelectric effect.

The emitted electrons are called photo electrons because they are
liberated by means of light.

Current due to these electrons are called photoelectric current.

Note: the first discovery of this phenomenon is made by Herts, who was
also the first to produse the electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell.

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Experimental arrangement: figure is a schematic diagram of an apparatus in which photoelectric

effect can occur.

 An evacuated glass tube contains a metal plate c, connected to a

negative terminal of battery and is called cathode.
 Another metal plate A, is maintained at appositive potential by a
battery and is called anode.
 When a tube is kept in dark, the galvanometer, G reads zero,
indicating that there is no current in the circuit.
 However, when monochromatic light of a appropriate wavelength
shine on plate, C, a current is detected by galvanometer, indicating
a flow of charges across a gap between C and A. the current
associated with this process arises from electrons emitted from the
negative plate and connected at a positive plate.

Variation of photo electric current with potential difference:

A plot of the photoelectric effect current versus the potential, V,

between A and C is shown in figure (a) for three light intensities

 For large value of V, the current reaches a maximum value,

corresponding to the case where all photoelectrons are connected
at A.
 The current increases as the incident light intensity increases at constant frequency.
Max. K.E of electrons
When V is negative, that is, when the battery in the circuit is reversed to make Cathode positive
and Anode negative, the photoelectron are repelled by negative plate A known as collector.
 Only those electrons having a K.E greater than eV will reach Anode, where e is the charge on
electron.
 Furthermore, if V is greater than or equal to , called the stopping potential, because at this
potential motion of electrons stops so no electron will reach collector and the current will be
zero.
 The stopping potential is independent of the radiation intensity.
 The maximum K.E of the photoelectrons is related to the stopping potential through the
relation.

Effect of intensity of incident radiation on photoelectric current:

 keeping the frequency of incident radiation and the

potential difference between cathode and the anode at
constant values, the intensity of incident radiation is
varied. The corresponding photoelectric current is
measured in micro-ammeter.
 It is found that photo of electric current increases linearly
with the intensity of incident radiation figure (b). since
the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the

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number of photoelectrons emitted per second, it implies that the number of photoelectrons
emitted per second is proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.

Experimental Results:

This experiment yield the following interesting results.

 Dependence of intensity of light:

Brighter light causes an increase in current (more electrons ejected) but does not cause the
individual electrons to gain higher energies.
In other words, The maximum K.E of the electrons is independent of the
intensity of light.
Classically more intense light has larger amplitude and thus deliver more
energy. That should not only enable a larger number of electrons to escape
from the metal; it should also enable the electrons emitted to have more K. E.
 Meeting the condition of f greater than or equal to f0, photoelectrons are
instantly emitted. If f<f0, no photoelectron is emitted even after long time of
shining the metal surface.
 Maximum K.E of photoelectron depends upon the frequency of incident
light. K.E of photoelectron is independent of the intensity of the incident of
the electromagnetic radiation.

Failure of classical Electromagnetic Theory

 Classical wave theory suggests that the phenomenon of the photoelectric effect can occur at all
frequencies of the incident light. The experimental fact is that photoelectric effect occurs only
when the frequency of the incident light is greater than or equal to the threshold frequency of
that metal.
 Classical wave theory suggests that the K.E of the photoelectron depends upon the intensity of
the incident radiation. The experimental fact is the K.E of the photoelectron depends upon the
frequency of the incident light and not the intensity.
 Classical wave theory suggests that the emission of photoelectron should take long time to
occur. The experimental fact is the emission of photoelectron occurs instantly when the light of
proper frequency falls on the metal.

Therefore, we can conclude that the classical theory cannot explain the photoelectric effect

Photon concept and success of explaining photoelectric effect (Einstein explanation of photo electric
effect)

Einstein extended Planck’s theory of quantization to electromagnetic waves and successfully explained
the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.

Energy possessed by each photon is … (1)

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Here h is the Planck’s constant and f is the frequency of light. When this photon falls on the surface of
the metal, it collides with an inner electron. It transfers the energy to the electron and itself disappears.
Now part of this energy is used to eject the electron from the surface of the metal and part as the K.E of
the electron. The energy required to eject the electron from the metal is called work function of the
metal, φ.

Here f0 is the threshold frequency for the metal surface. Therefore, we conclude that

In addition, we know that

So equating the RHS of the above equations

Einstein was awarded noble prize in 1921 for this explanation of photoelectric effect.

Clearly, if energy of the photon is less than the work function of the metal, no electron is emitted. If the
energy of the photon is equal to the work function of the metal, electron is ejected but it has no kinetic
energy.

COMPTONS’S EFFECT

Definition: whenever a high energy photon strikes with a free electron at rest then its wavelengths
increase. This phenomenon is known as Compton’s effect.

Explanation:

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Arthur H. Compton in 1923 in his experiment directed a beam of x-rays of wavelength toward a
block of graphite. He found that scattered x-rays had a
slightly longer wavelength, then the incident x-rays, and
hence the energies of the scattered rays were lower. The
amount of energy reduction depends on the angle at
which the x-rays were scattered. In order to explain this
effect, Compton assumed that if a photon behaves like
particle, its collision with other particles is similar to that
between two billiard balls. Hence, both energy and
momentum must be conserved. If the incident photon
collides with an electron initially at rest, as in figure, the
photon transfers some of its energy and momentum to the
electron. Consequently, the energy and frequency of the
scattered photon are lowered and its wavelength
increases.

Compton Shift:

The change in wavelength, , between a scattered x-ray and an

incident x-rays is called the Compton shift.

Law of conservation of energy:

Applying relativistic energy conservation to collision described in

figure, we have

The initial energy and final energy of photon is and

respectively. According to Einstein the initial (rest mass energy) and final energy for electron is
and .

As electron is at rest so it’s initial K.E is considered as zero.

𝒂 𝒇 Conservation of momentum:

of momentum requires.

⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗

According to classical electromagnetic theory, EM/ waves carry momentum of magnitude ⁄ ,

where E is the energy of waves and c is the speed of light. In the

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photon picture , each photon carries a little bit of that momentum in proportion to the amount of
energy it carries.

Photon’s direction as the x-axis, we can separate this into two components
equations.

𝒂 𝒈 𝒂 𝒊 ;

Or

𝒂 𝒈 𝒂 𝒊 ;

From equation 1, 2 and 3compton derived this relationship.

(( )

As

( )

𝒉
The quantity 𝒄
is known as the Compton wavelength having value In term of
frequency (equation 5) can be written as

Special cases:

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1. If

( )

( )

( )

Hence Compton shift in wavelength is zero.

2. If

( )

( )

( )

Hence Compton shift is equal to Compton wavelength .

3. If

( )

( )

( ( ))

Hence Compton shift in wavelength is maximum.

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CHAPTER 19
ATOMIC SPECTRA

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EXERCISE MCQ’s Chapter 19

i. Which of the following series of hydrogen spectra lies in the visible region of the spectrum:
a. (a) Layman b. (b) Balmer c. (c) Paschen d. (d) Brackett
ii. The longest wavelength in Ballmer’s series with wavelength is 656.2 nm corresponds to:
a. (a) n = 3 b. (b) n = 4 c. (c) n = 5 d. (d) n = ∞
iii. if 13.6 energy is required to ionize the hydrogen atom, then the required energy to remove an electron from
n = 2 is
a. ( ) b. (b) c. (c) d. ( )
iv. If an atom is exist in an excited state n = 5 the maximum number of transitions that take place is
a. (a) 3 b. (b) 5 c. (c) 10 d. (d) 25
v. The energy of electron in an excited state n = 4 in hydrogen atom is
a. ( ) b. ( ) c. ( ) d. ( )
vi. The radius of the third Bohr orbit is greater than the radius of first Bohr orbit by factor of:
a. (a) 3 b. (b) 6 c. (c) 9 d. (d) 16
vii. The reverse process of X-ray production can be related to:
a. (a) Compton Effect b. (b) Photoelectric effect c. (c) Pair production d. (d) Pair Annihilation

viii. The duration of metastable state is approximately:

a. (a) 10-3 s b. (b) 10-6 s c. (c) 10-8 s d. (d) 10-10 s
ix. Helium-Neon Laser beam emitted from a discharge tube has a color
a. (a) Blue b. (b) Green c. (c) Red d. (d) White
x. In He-Ne LASER, the discharge tube is filled with
a. (a) 50% He & 50% Ne b. (b) 15% He & 85% Ne c. (c) 85% He & 15% Ne d. (d) 99% He & 1% Ne
xi. In Neon, the level can undergo lasing action to the 80.70 level. What is the energy of the resulting
photons?
a. (a) b. ( ) c. ( ) d. (d) 𝟏
xii. In connection with inner shell transition the symbol Lβ refers to X-ray emission associated with an electron going
from
a. (a) n = 3 to n = 1 b. (b) n = 4 to n = 1 c. (c) n = 4 to n = 2 d. (d) n = 5 to n = 3
xiii. in Laser the pumping is performed to:
a. produce meta stable states b. Produce stimulated emission
c. Achieve population Inversion d. Achieve coherency in photons
xiv. Linear momentum of an electron in Bohr orbit of H-atom (principle quantum number n) is proportional to
a. (a) N b. (b) 1 / n c. (c) n2 d. (d) 1 / n2

Exercise Short Questions Chapter 19

Q 1: Why does the spectrum of hydrogen consist of many lines even through a hydrogen atom has
only a single electron?

Ans: The hydrogen atom contains only one electron. When the energy is supplied to the atom of
hydrogen, it gets excited then its single electron will jump from its ground state to some higher energy
level.

Now during de-excitation from higher level to ground level by several jumps, spectral lines of different
wavelengths are emitted. That is why the spectrum of hydrogen contains many lines.

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Q 2: Why do solid give rise to continuous spectrum while hot gases give rises to line spectrum?

Ans: Continuous spectrum in solids.

 In solid the atoms and molecules are so close to one another, that their outer orbit of the atoms
becomes overlapped. The electrons in the outer orbits influence one another and the value of their
energy becomes indefinite.
Hence when atoms in solids de-excite, they produce continuous spectrum.

Line spectrum in gases.

 The atom of gases at low pressures how line spectrum. In hot gases the atoms are at much distance
from each other, so that their mutual interaction can be ignored.
When the atoms of gases de-excited, emits photons of the same frequency which produces line
spectrum.

Q 3 : Can the electron in the ground state of hydrogen absorb a photon of energy?

(a) Less than 13.6eV (b) greater than 13.6eV. Explain

Ans: (a) If the photon possess energy less than 13.6eV (i.e 10.20 eV) than such photon when absorb by
the atom, will excite it by raising the electron to higher energy state. But on de-excitation to the ground
state will emit a photon of the same energy.

(b) A photon having energy greater than 13.6 eV can be absorbs by the hydrogen atom. In this absorption
of photon by atom extra energy will be converted as the kinetic energy of electron.

Thus, the photon of energy 13.6 eV or greater than 13.6 eV can he absorbs to ionization in hydrogen atom.

Q.4 Why do spectral lines in hydrogen atom become closer together farther away from the nucleus?

Ans: In hydrogen atom energy of any orbit can be found using

Where and “n” is shell number. Energy difference between any two orbits can be found as:

 Energy difference between 1st and 2nd orbit —( )

 nd
Energy difference between 2 and 3rd orbit —( )
 Energy difference between 3 rd th
and 4 orbit —( )
 Energy difference between 4th and 5th orbit —( )

As it is clear form above calculations that energy difference between two orbits close to nucleus is greater
than the energy difference farther orbits.

So that’s why spectral lines in hydrogen atom become closer together farther away from the nucleus.

Q.5 Why it was necessary to quantize angular momentum in Bohr’s model of the atom?

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Ans: According to Bohr’s atomic model, the angular momentum of electron orbiting the nucleus is
quantized. And only those orbits are possible whose angular momentum is integral multiple of

or ( )

This quantization helps him to find the energies of electrons in different orbits of atoms. He also explained
spectrum of hydrogen atom.

Bohr could not explain this quantization and it was later explained by Louis de Broglie.

Q 6: Why X-rays have different properties from light even through both originate from orbit
transition of electrons in excited atoms?

Ans: The X-rays and light both originate from the orbital transition of electrons.

But the difference between the light and X-rays is that light is the result of transitions of outer shell
electrons which are loosely bound to the nucleus and require a small amount of energy for excitation.
On de-excitation of these outer shell electrons produces light.

But X-rays is the result of transition of inner shell electrons which are close to the nucleus and hence are
tightly bound to the nucleus. In order displace these inner shell electrons from the atom, a large amount
of energy is required. The transitions of electrons from higher shell to inner shell cause the production of
X-rays.

The X-rays are more energetic having frequency and shorter wavelength. While the visible light is less
energetic having low frequency and longer wavelength. Hence the X-rays have different properties from
visible light.

Q.7 If the potential difference in an x-ray tube is increased,

how does this affect the wavelength of (a) bremsstrahlung x
rays and (b) Characteristic x-rays?

Ans: X-rays are produced by interactions of accelerated

electrons with electrons of tungsten atom with in the anode
tube. There are two types of x-rays

(a) bremsstrahlung x rays: Wavelength of x-rays depends on

accelerating potential .This is also known as continuous x-rays. This does depend upon target atom.
Wavelength is given as

From above equation it is clear that with increase in potential,

wavelength will be decreased.

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(b) Characteristic X-rays:

The wavelength of these x-rays depends on energy difference between two orbits from where electron is
jumping. It is independent of accelerating potential but depends upon target atom

Q.8 Crystal lattice can be examined with x-rays but not UV. Why?

Ans: Wavelength of X-rays ( ) is comparable with the inter planer spacing ( )of crystals, so it can be
used to study the crystalline arrangements of the atoms by using Bragg’s equation where
“d” is inter planar spacing of crystal.

Wavelength of UV ( ) is much greater than the inter planer spacing ( ) of crystals, so it can’t be
used to study the crystalline arrangements of the atoms.

Additional MCQ’s Chapter 19

1. As per Bohr’s atomic model, a minimum energy (in ev) required to remove an electron from the ground state of
doubly ionized Li atom is (2010)
A. 1.51 ev B. 13.6 ev C. 40.8 ev D. 122.4 ev
2. In which region of electromagnetic spectrum of hydrogen, the balmer series lies (2011) (2015) (2017)
A. Infrared B. Visible C. Ultraviolet D. Farultraviolet
3. Radius of 3rd Bohr orbit in hydrogen atom is greater than radius of 1st orbit by (2012)
A.2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 9
4. The residing time of atoms meta stable state in case of laser action is (2012)
A. sec B. sec C. 𝟏 sec D. sec
5. When X rays are passed through successive aluminum sheet their hardness (2013)
A. Decreases B. Increases C. Remains the same D. None of these
6. If the ionization energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV its ionization potential will be (2013)
A. 13.6 V B. 136.0 V C. 3.4 V D. None of these
7. which of the following statements is INCORRECT? (2013)
A. X-rays can damge the living tissues B. X-
rays can casue ionization of atosms through photo ionization C. X-rays can be driffacted by
crystal lattice. D. X-rays cannot cause photoelectric effect
8. if number of atom in metastable state ( ) is and in ground state ( ) is the population inversion
means (2014)
A. B. C. 𝟏 D.
9. A series of spectral lines emitted by the H-Atom according to the (2014)
formula * + represents
A. Bracket Series B. Pfund series C. Balmer series D. Paschen series
10. Laser process involves (2014)
𝒅 𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒊 𝒂 𝒅
A. [ ] B. * +
𝑺 𝒊 𝒂 𝒆𝒅 𝒊 𝒊
C. [ ] D. * +

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11. The value of Rydberg’s constant is (2015) (2016)

𝟏
A. B. 𝟏 𝟏
C. D.
12. Molecular Spectra are example of ……… spectra (2016)
A. Line B. Solar C. Continuous D. Band
13. Photon of high frequency will be absorbed when transition takes place from _________
a) 1st to 5th orbit b) 2nd to 5th orbit c) 3rd to 5th orbit d) 4th to 5th orbit

14. In Hydrogen spectrum, which one of the following series lies in the ultraviolet region?
a) Balmer series b) Pfund series c) Lyman series d) Bracket series
15. When we excite some atoms by heat collision or electrical discharge, they will ______
a) Radiate electromagnetic energy with a continues distribution of wavelength
b) Absorb particular wavelengths when white light is incident on them
c) Radiate electromagnetic energy of discrete characteristic wavelength
d) Emit either invisible or visible light
16. Which one of following postulate is in accordance with the Rutherford’s model?
a) Continues spectra for atoms b) Discrete spectra for atoms
c) Either continues for atoms d) No spectrum
17. X-rays are ___________
a) Unknown nature b) High energy electrons c) High energy photon d) Radioisotopes
th
18. Ground state energy of the 4 orbit in a H-atom is ________
a) -13.60eV b) -3.40eV c)- 0.85eV d) -1.51eV
19. Total number of series in hydrogen spectrum is _____________
a) Three b) Four c) Five d) Six
20. The radiations emitted from hydrogen filled discharge tube show _________spectrum
a) Bound b) Line c) Continuous d) Absorption
21. Radiation with wavelength longer than red light________
a) Ultraviolet rays b) X-rays c) Infrared radiation d) Visible radiations
22. Bracket series is obtained when all transition of electron terminate on _____
a) 4th orbit b) 5th orbit c) 3rd orbit d) 2nd orbit
23. In an electronic transition, atom cannot emit _________
a) - rays b) Infrared radiation c) Visible light d) Ultraviolet rays

24. Reverse process of photo electric effect is __________

a) Pair production b) Compton effect c) Animation of matter d) X-rays production
25. X - rays are similar in nature to _______
a) Cathode rays b) Positive rays c) γ - rays d) α - rays
26. The penetrating power of X-ray depends on their ____________
a) Applied voltage b) Frequency c) Source d) All
27. When X-rays are passed through successive aluminum sheets, what happens to their thickness?
a) In increases b) It decreases c) Remains same d) None
28. The penetrating power of X-rays is comparable with that of __________
a) α - rays b) β - rays c) γ - rays d) All
29. Quality of X-rays depends upon _______
a) Filament current b) Accelerating voltage c) Target material d) b and c
30. The characteristic X-rays spectrum is due to ____
a) The illumination of the target metal by ultraviolet radiation
b) The bombardment of the target by proton

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c) The bombardment of target by electron

d) The absorption of Y-radiation by the target metal
31. The minimum wavelength of X-rays produced by the bombardment of electron on the screen of T.V. set where
the accelerating potential is 2.0 will be ________meter
a) 6.2 x 10-10 b) 9.1 x 10-18 c) 3.11 x 10-10 d) 4 x 10-10
32. Maximum frequency in the spectrum from x-rays tube is directly proportional to the _________
a) Number of electron i.e. filament current b) The kinetic energy of incident electron
c) The soft target which can easily emit electron d) All the above are correct
33. UV radiation can be produced by __________
a) Heating the filament b) Ionization of atoms
c) Electron excitation in the gas d) All the above
34. What is the velocity of a particle of mass m and de-Broglie Wavelength?
a) 𝒉 b) c) d) ( )
35. Wave like characteristic of electron is demonstrated by _________
a) Line spectrum of atoms b) Production of X-rays
c) Diffraction by crystalline solids d) Photo electric effect
36. Electron cannot exist in the nucleus; it is confirmed by observing that __________
a) It does emit Y-radiation
b) Its size as compare to proton and neutron is very small
c) No antiparticle of electron is present
d) The velocity of electron must by very high according to uncertainly principle
37. In laser production, the state in which more atoms are in the upper state than in the lower one is called
a) Metal stable state b) Normal state c) Inverted population d) All
38. The meta stable state for an atom in laser light is _____________
a) 10-4 sec b) 10-5 sec c) 10-3 sec d) 10-8 sec
39. In He – Ne laser, the lazing action is produced by __________
a) Ne only b) He – Ne both c) Electrons of He d) Electrons of Ne
40. Reflecting mirrors in laser is used to ________
a) Further stimulation b) Lasing more
c) For production more energetic laser d) All the above
41. The velocity of laser light is __________
a) Less than ordinary light b) More than ordinary light
c) Equal to ordinary light d) Different for different colors or frequency
42. Laser beam can be used to generate
a) One dimensional images b) Two dimensional images
c) Three dimensional images d) none of these
43. X – rays is also known as
a) Photon b) γ – rays c) braking radiation d) none
44. The shortest wave length radiation in Bracket series has wavelength
𝟏
a)𝑹 b) c) d) None
45. Bohr’s theory is failed to explain
a) H – spectrum b) He – spectrum c) Complex atoms spectrum d) None
46. The ionization energy of H – atom is
a) – 13.6ev b) 13.6ev c) ±13.6ev d) none
47. Which one of the following is more coherent?
a) X – rays b) Normal light c) Laser d) –
48. Sunlight spectrum is

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a) Discrete b) Line spectrum c) Continuous spectrum d) none

49. Optical pumping exist in
a) X – rays b) Laser c) Spectrum d) None
50. A common He – Ne gas laser contain, He – Ne ration
a) 85 – 15 % b) 80 – 20% c) 70 – 30% d) None
51. The total energy of electron in an orbit around the nucleus is
a) + ive b) – ive c) zero d) None
52. According to Bohr’s theory the outer orbit Electron has ________ energy than inner orbits.
a) Greater b) Smaller c) Equal d) None
53. Laser is a device which can produce
a) An intense beam of light b) Coherent light c) Monochromatic light d) All
54. The total energy of electron in state is
a) + ive b) – ive c) zero d) None
55. When magnetic field is applied in the path X – rays , they will be moving in
a) Straight line b) Circular path c) Parabolic path d) None
56. With the help of laser beam we can produce
a) Fusion reaction b) Fragment of kidney stone c) Holograms d) All
57. Continuous spectra is an example of
a) Atomic b) Black body radiation c) Molecular d) None
58. Line spectra is an example of
a) Atomic b) Black body radiation c) Molecular d) None
59. The quantized energy of first Bohr orbit of hydrogen atom is
a) b) – 𝟏 𝒆𝑽 c) d)
60. Bremsstrahlung are those in which radiations are produced of
a) Long wavelength b) Short wavelength
c) Wavelength in X-rays region d) None of these
61. In LASER principle, a photon produces another photon by the process of
a) Excitation b) De-excite c) Ionization d) None
62. Characteristic X – rays are the X – rays which have
a) High energy photons b) Specific wavelengths c) Specific frequencies d) All
63. X – rays can cause cancer in living cells due to radiation exposure which is
a) Small b) Large c) Excessive d) None
64. In Laser a Meta-stable state is
a) An excite state b) In which an electron is usually stable
c) In which an electron reside 10-3 sec d) none of these
65. The Meta-stable state of Helium and Neon is
a) Different b) Identical c) Nearly identical d) none
66. Laser beam can be used for
a) Wilding of detached retinas b) Destroy tissues in a localized area
c) Sealed off capillaries for prevention of disease d) All of them
67. In Balmer series the shortest wavelength radiations have wavelength equal to …….. m
a) b) 𝑹 c) d)
68. The longest wavelength radiations in Bracket series have wavelength equal to
a) b) c) d) None

69. The wavelength of X – rays produced due to declaration of electrons is

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𝒉𝒄
a) b) 𝑽 𝒆
c) d)

Additional Conceptual Questions

Chapter 19
1. How can the spectrum of hydrogen conatins so many lines when hydrogen contains one electrons? (2011),
(2012), (2015) ,(2016), (2017)
Ans. When the energy is supplied to the atom of hydrogen, it will be excited, and then its single electron will
jump from its ground state to some higher energy level.
Now when it de-excites from higher level to ground level by several jumps, spectral lines of different wavelength
are emitted. That is why the spectrum of hydrogen contains many lines
2. Find the speed of the electron in the first Bohr orbit. (2013)
Ans: velocity for nth orbit is given as

For 1st orbit n=1

( )

3. A tungsten target is struck by electrons that have been accelerated from rest through 40KV potential
difference. Find the shortest wavelength of the bremsstrahlung radiation emitted? (2013)
Ans:

4. Is energy conserved when an atom emits a photon of light? (2012), (2013), (2017)
Ans: Yes, energy is conserved when an atom emits a photon of light
When an atom is excited, then energy is supplied to the electron by some external source. The same energy is
emitted in the form of light photons when it returns back to its ground. It means that the energy absorbed by
the atom during excitation is exactly equal to the energy emitted during its de-excitation. Thus, in this whole
process energy is conserved i.e. total energy remains the same.
5. What are three advantages of laser over ordinary light ? (2013), (2016), (2018)
Ans: The laser light over ordinary light has the following advantages.
 Laser light is monochromatic i.e. consists of single wavelength, while the ordinary light has a number of
wavelengths.
 Laser light is coherent i.e. laser waves are in same phase, while light wave has no phase coherence.
 Laser light moves in the same direction, while ordinary light spreads in all directions.

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 Laser light is much more intense than ordinary light, while the ordinary light is less intense.

6. Differentiate between Spontaneous emission and Stimulated emission with the help of energy level diagram,
(2014)
Ans: Spontaneous emission: The process in which initially atom is
in excited state E2 and it is dropped to lower energy state E1 by
emitting a photon of energy spontaneously is called
spontaneous emission.
Stimulated emission: The process in which initially atom is in
excited state E2 and it is dropped to lower energy state E1 by
emitting a photon of energy by striking another photon is
called stimulated emission.

7. An electron is to be confined in a box of the size of nucleus 𝟏 𝑿 𝟏 𝟏 What would be the speed of the
electron if it were so confined (2014), (2015)
Ans: The speed of electron inside the nucleus can be found by using the nuclear diameter as the uncertainty in
the position.

This means that the velocity of the electron inside the nucleus is even much greater than the velocity of light. As
electron is material particle which cannot exceed the speed of
light hence we can conclude that electron cannot reside inside
the nucleus.
8. Why Laser action could not occur without population inversion
between atomic levels? (2015)
Ans: Population inversion is the process in which atoms are
lifted from ground state to a highly
excited(Meta stable) state by absorbing high energy photons
called "exciting photons".
Since laser action is a de-excitation process, for which excitation
of atom is required, i.e number of atoms in metastable state should be greater than in ground state. So it
cannot take place without population inversion.
9. Write the uses of Laser in medicine and industry. (2015)

 Laser beams are used as surgical tool “welding” detached retains.

 The narrow intense beam of laser can be used to destroy tissue , pre-cancerous cell.
 The intense heat produced in small area by a laser beam is also used for welding, machining metals and drilling
tiny holes in hard materials.
 The precise straightness of a laser beam is also useful to surveyors for lining up equipment especially in
inaccessible locations.
10. Can X-ray be refracted diffracted and polarized just like any other wane? Briefly Justify (2015), (2016)
Ans. Yes, X-rays be reflected refracted, diffracted and polarized.

As X-rays are similar in nature to ordinary light (both are electromagnetic radiations/waves), so X-rays can be
reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized like any other wave.

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Example: X-ray can be diffracted by crystals.

11. Calculate the longest wavelength of radiation for the Paschen series (2015)
Ans: Paschen series is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
, -

{ }

{ }

{ }

, -

12. Prove that the shortest wavelength photon emitted in Balmer series is 364.6nm (2016)
Ans:
( )

( )

( )

13. Explain the difference between laser light and light from an incandescent lamp.

Laser Light Incandescent Light

(i) Laser light is monochromatic i.e consists of single (i) The ordinary light from Incandescent body has a
wave length. number of wave lengths.
(ii) Laser light is coherent i.e light waves are in same (ii) Ordinary light has no phase coherent i.e. waves are
phase. out of phase.
(iii) The Laser light moves in the same direction. (iii) This light is emitted in all direction.
(iv) Laser light is produced due to stimulated emission (iv) This light is produced due to spontaneous emission
of radiation. of light.
(v) Laser light is more intense than ordinary light. (v) Its intensity is less.

14. What is phenomenon of fluorescence? (2016)

“Fluorescence is the property of absorbing radiant energy of high frequency and re-emitting energy of low
frequency in visible region of electromagnetic spectrum.”

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Comprehensive Questions chapter 19

Question : What are Bohr’s postulates about Hydrogen atom? Hence derive expressions for (i) radii of
electron orbit (ii) energy of the electron.

Neil Bohr proposed a theory of the Hydrogen atom based on the ideas from classical Physics, Plank’s
Quantum theory and Einstein Photon theory of light. His model consists of the following postulates.

(1) Electron revolves around the nucleus under the influence of the electrostatic force between the
electron and nucleus.

(2) Electron cannot revolve the around the nucleus in any arbitrary orbits. Only those orbits are allowed
for which the orbital angular momentum is an integral multiple of (h/2π). Therefore,

For n = 1, 2, 3…

(3) The electron in the stable orbits (allowed orbits) does not radiate any energy as in the classical
theory. Its energy remains the same as far as it is in the specific orbit.

(4) When an electron jumps from higher energy orbit to a lower energy orbit an electromagnetic
radiation of frequency f is emitted.

Radii of electron orbit

The electrostatic force F between electron and proton, both having the same charge e is,

This force provides the necessary centripetal force for the electron to revolve around the nucleus.

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From Bohr’s second postulate

Put this value of vn in equation (2).

We can solve this equation for rn by putting the values. It is found that rn = n2.0.53 A0. Therefore, when
n =1, the radius of the first orbit = 0.53 A0. Similarly, for n=2, r2=4*0.53 = 4r1, for n=3, r3=9*0.53 =
9r1 and so on.

Energy of the electron

Total energy of the electron in a certain orbit n is the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy.
Therefore,

To calculate the K.E of the electron, apply Bohr’s postulate that the electrostatic force between the
electron and nucleus is equal to centripetal force.

Put this value in (A)

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For n = 1

Then in light of equation (B) the energy of electron in any orbit n is,

And can be calculated by substituting the value of E0. Numerically, E0 = 13.6 therefore, En = (-13.6/n2)
ev. The negative sign shows the electron is bound to the nucleus and cannot escape.

Frequency Calculations

We know that En = hfn OR fn = En/h.

Put the value of En from equation (C)

Q: Explain the inner shell transitions. What are x-rays? Give an

account of of the properties and uses of x-rays.

INNERSHELL TRANSITION AND CHHARACTERISTICS OF X-RAYS:

The transitions of electron in hydrogen atom results in a emission

of spectral series in the infrared, visible of ultraviolet region of
electromagnetic spectrum so small energy difference in the
transition levels. In heavy atoms, the electrons are assumed to be
arranges in concentric labeled as K,L,M,N,O,ETC.

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The K shell being closest to the nucleus, next and so on. The inner shell electron are tightly bound and
large amount energy is required for their displacement from their normal energy levels. When a heavy
target material is bombarded with a beam of electrons, that has been accelerated by several keV

. Some of these electrons will collide with inner-shell electron of the target and knock them out of their
respected atoms.

Let a K-shell electron is knocked out from an atom creating a vacancy in K-shell then an electron from
either L,M or N –shell will quickly characteristic jump down to fill the vacancy in K-shell emitting the
excess energy as x-rays photon.

These x-rays consist of series of specific wavelengths or frequencies and hence are called characteristics
x-rays. An x-rays photon due to transition from L- shell to the vacancy in the K-shell is called x-rays.
The transition from M and N-shell gives rise to characteristic x-rays respectively.

The study of characteristic x-rays spectra has played a very important role in the study of atomic
structure and periodic table of the elements.

Continuous x-rays

Another process that can rise the emission of x-rays, is illustrated in following diagram. Consider an
electron toward a target nucleus in the x-ray tube. The incident
electron has coulomb interaction with orbital electrons as well
as the positive nucleus.

Because of the concentrated positive charge, the interaction

with the nucleus is very strong. The force of attraction
accelerates the electrons. According to classical theory of
electromagnetism, an accelerated charge emits radiation called
Bremsstrahlung, a German word meaning backing radiation.
This Bremsstrahlung is called continuous x-rays.

According to quantum theory, this radiation must appears in the form of photon. Since the
radiated photon caries energy, the electron must loss kinetic energy because of its encounter with the
target nucleus. Let us consider an extreme example in which the electron losses all of its energy in a
single collision.

In this case, the initial energy of the electron (eV) is transformed completely into the energy of the
photon in the equation form we have.

Where eV is the energy of the electron after it has been

accelerated through a potential difference of V volt and e is the
charge on electron.

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All the radiation produced does not have the wavelength given in above equation because many of
electrons are not stopped in single collision. This result in the production of continuous spectrum of
wavelengths.

Production of X-rays

The following diagram explain the production of x-rays. It consist of filaments F, heated by the current
supplied from a battery, emits electrons. It serves as heated cathode. The anode is made of solid copper
bar “c”. a high melting point metal like platinum or tungsten is embedded at end of the copper rod and
it serve as a target T.

The cathode and anode are enclosed inside an evacuated glass chamber and a high DC voltage of the
order of 50,000V is maintained between them. The electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated
by the high potential difference. The energetic electrons strike the target T and X-rays are produced.

It may be mentioned that a small [art of kinetic energy of incident electron is converted into x-rays, the
rest is converted into heat. The target T become very hot and must, before, have a high melting point.
The heat generated in target T is dissipated through a copper rod. sometime the anode is cooled by
water flowing behind the anode.

When such highly energetic electrons are suddenly stopped by target T, an intense beam of x-rays
produced. These x-rays have high penetrating capacities and are called as hard x-rays, while those with
small penetrating capacities are called soft x-rays.

Properties of X-rays

Preliminary experimental investigation revealed that X-rays have the following properties.

1. They are not refracted as they pass from one medium into another.
2. They casts shadow of obstacles placed in their path.
3. They can be diffracted.

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4. They cause fluorescence in many substances

5. They effect photographic plates.
6. They penetrate solid substances which are opaque to ordinary visible light.
7. When they pass through a solid, liquid or gas, they ionize the atoms.

Applications of x-rays

The important practical application of x-rays can be categorized as

1) Scientific
2) Industrial
3) Medical

Scientific Applications

The diffraction of x-rays at crystal gave birth to x-ray crystallography. The laue diffraction pattern can be
used to determine the internal structure of the crystals. The spacing and disposition of the atom of a
crystals can be precisely determined.

Industrial Applications

Since x-rays penetrate the material on which they are incident, they are used in industry to detect
defects in metallic structure in big machines, railways track and bridges.

x-rays are used to analyzed the compositions of alloys such as bronze steel and artificial pearls. The
structure of rubber and plastic can be analyzed and controlled by x-rays studies.

Medical Applications

Almost immediately after the discovery by Roentgen. X-rays were used in hospitals in Vienna for surgical
operations. Since bone is more opaque to x-rays then flesh, if x-rays are allowed to pass through human
body, the bones casts their shadow on the photographic plate. The x-rays photographs reveals fractures
of bone or the presence of foreign bodies. X-rays can also be used for curing malignant tissues of the the
body. X-rays therapy has also been used for treatment of cancer.

C T Scanner

A normal x-ray gives only limited information because it is rather like shadow picture – fine detail
within an image may be invisible especially if ne organ lies in front of the region of the body being
studied. To give a high quality images CT Scans are used to identify internal structures of various parts of
human body. CT Scans, Machines in 3D machine with compute model.

In CT Scanner there is one x-ray source bur a large number of detectors.

The source and the detectors are mounted in the large ring-shaped machine and the patient is placed
inside this on a couch.. each detector records an image and the source and the detectors are then
rotating around the patient to give views from variety of direction. The image is called tomogram. The
couch and patient are then moved along the axis of machine and another set of image is taken.

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This lare large number of images (many hundreds) in then combined by a computer to give a
composite detailed 3D image of the organ under investigation. The development of the CT Scanner has
been of enormous help in study of tumors in cancer patients where image of high quality are essential.

Q.9 What is a Laser? Explain the principle and operation of a laser.

LASER:

The term laser is an abbreviation of “Light Amplification by stimulated Emission of Radiation”.

Laser is a remarkable devise that produces an intense and high parallel beam of coherent light.

Here light means not only visible light but any kind of electromagnetic radiation. So laser operating at
microwaves and radio frequency is called Maser.

To understand the working of the laser, terms such as spontaneous emission, stimulated emission and
population inversion must be understood.

Stimulated or induced Absorption

When atom is excited from lower energy state to higher energy state by
absorbing a photon of energy is called stimulated or induced absorption.

The excitation energy is the difference between the two possible energy states of
an atom.

Spontaneous Emission

The de-excitation of atom from higher energy state to lower energy state by
releasing a photon of energy is called spontaneous emission.

The excitation energy is the difference between the two possible energy states of
an atom.

Stimulated or induced Emission

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The de-excitation of atom from higher energy state to lower energy

state by striking a photon and then releasing a photon of same energy
is called spontaneous emission.

The excitation energy is the difference between the two possible

energy states of an atom.

The photon can stimulate the excited electron to fall to the lowest energy state, instead of the excited
electron waiting for s for its spontaneous transition. This transition can then take place much
sooner then s. In this process a photon of energy is emitted and we already have the photon
of same energy because, now it is not absorbed. The emitted photon travel in exactly the same direction
as the stimulated photon and are exactly in phase.

Population Inversion
Let us consider a simple case of a material whose atoms can reside in three different states. State
which is ground state, the excited state , in which the atoms can reside only for and the
metastable State in which the atom can reside for s, much longer than s.
A metastable is an excited state in which electron in unusually stable and from which the electron
spontaneously falls to lower state only after relatively longer time.
The transition from or to this state are difficult as compare to other excited state. Hence, instead of
direct excitation of this state, the electrons are excited to higher level to spontaneous fall to metastable
state.

Also let us assume that the incident photon energy hf= raise the atom from ground state
To the excited state , but the excited atom does not decay back to thus the only alternative for the
atom in an excited state this eventually leads to the situation that the state contain more atoms
then state, this situation is known as population inversion. Once the population inversion has been
reached, the lasing action of the laser is simple to achieve.

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The atom in the metastable state are bombarded by photon of energy hf=
resulting in an induced emission, giving an intense, coherent beam in a direction of incident photon.
Laser action:
The emitted photon must be confined in the assembly long enough to stimulate further emission
from other excited atoms. This is achieved by using mirrors at two ends of the assembly. One end is
made totally reflecting, and the other end is partially transparent to allow the laser beam to escape.

As a photon move back and forth between the reflecting mirrors they continue to stimulate other
excited atom to emit photons. As a process continuous the number of photons multiply, and the
resulting radiation is, therefore much more intense and coherent than light from ordinary sources.
He-Ne laser

It is the most common type of gas laser. A tube with

partially reflecting mirrors is filled with 85% helium and
15% neon gas. The neon is the lasing or active medium in
this tube.
Helium and neon have identical meta stable states of
almost 20.61 eV and 20,66 eV respectively.
The high electric discharge excites the electrons in some
of helium atoms to 20.61 eV meta stable state.
These excited helium atoms collide with neon atoms.
During the collision helium atoms de-excite to ground
state by giving excitation energy of 20.61 eV and some
0.05 eV energy due to its kinetic energy to excite the
neon atoms to 20.66 eV meta stable state.
Thus population inversion is achieved in neon in state
relative to as shown in fig.
Stimulated emission will cause the electrons to drop from 20.66 eV to 18.70 eV corresponding energy
gap of 1.96 eV. The wavelength of the emitted photon can be calculated as

As

This wavelength corresponds to red light in electromagnetic spectrum.

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CHAPTER 20
NUCLEAR PHYSICS

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Exercise Mcq’s Chapter 20

i. One unified mass scale (1u) is equal to:
a. (a) 1.660 × 10-27 kg b. (b) 1.4924 × 10-10 J c. (c) 931.5 MeV d. (d) All of these
ii. The number of neutrons in 7Li are
a. (a) 7 b. (b) 4 c. (c) 3 d. (d) 2
iii. Sum of the masses of constituent nucleons as compared to the mass of the resultant nucleus is
a. (a) Smaller b. (b) Greater c. (c) Same d. (d) Infinite
iv. Which one of the following nuclear radiation is similar to electrons
a. ( ) b. (b) + c. ( ) - d. (d)
v. one curie is equal to
a. (a) 3.70 × 10-10 b. (b) 1 c. (c) 1 × 1010 d. (d) 3.70 × 1010
vi. Half-life of the iodine-131 (131I) is 8.02 days and its weight is 20 mg. After 4 half-lives, the amount left un-
decayed will be:
a. (a) 5 mg b. (b) 2.5 mg c. (c) 1.25 mg d. (d) 0.625 mg
vii. The unit of decay constant ‘ʎ’ is:
a. (a) M b. (b) m-1 c. (c) s d. (d) s-1
235
viii. in fission of U, neutrons used have energies of about
a. (a) b. (b) c. (c) d. (d)
ix. The nucleus that results from the reaction 0n1 + 8O16 ? + 1H2 is
15
a. 7N b. 8O17 c. 8O14 d. 7N14
x. The nucleus that results from the reaction 0n1 + 56Ba137 ? + is
138
a. 56Ba b. 55Cs138 c. 57La138 d. 56Ba136
xi. The quantity of 235U in naturally occurring uranium is about:
a. (a) 0.7% b. (b) 30% c. (c) 70% d. (d) 99.3%
xii. In liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR), the types of uranium used is
234
a. U b. 235U c. 238U d. 239U
xiii. Nuclear force exist between
a. (a) Proton-Proton b. (b) Proton-Neutron c. (c) Neutron-Neutron d. (d) All of these
xiv. Which of the following is a boson
a. (a) Proton b. (b) Neutrino c. (c) Photon d. (d) Pion
xv. The hadrons formed by combination of quark and anti-quark pair are called:
(a) Baryons a. (b) Mesons b. (c) Meuons c. (d) neutrinos
xvi. All free particles have a color charge of
a. (a) 0 b. (b) 2 / 3 c. (c) 1 / 3 d. (d) 1
e.

Exercise Conceptual Questions Chapter 20

1. Why do heavier elements require more neutrons in order to maintain stability?
Ans: Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons which are collectively known as nucleons. In nucleus
there are two types of forces.
 Strong electrostatic force (between protons)
 Strong nuclear force (between protons and neutrons)
In heavy elements when no. of protons increases, the electrostatic force also increases. For the
stability of nucleus the nuclear strong force must increase by increasing no. of neutrons.
Hence for the stability of nucleus the heavy element must contain more neutrons.

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2. Radium has half-life of about 1600 years if the universe was formed five billion or more years ago
why is there any radium left now?
Ans: Radium has half-life of about 1600 years.
According to radioactive decay law
𝒆
From above relation it is clear that the complete decay of radioactive element require an infinite
time. As 5 billion years is not infinite time. That’s why radium still exists on earth.
3. If we focus our attention on a specific nucleus in a radioactive sample, can we know exactly how
long that nucleus will live before it decays?
Ans: Radioactive decay is random, and measured half-lives are based on the most probable rate. We
know that a nucleus will decay at some point; we just cannot predict when. It could be anywhere
between instantaneous and the total age of the universe. Although scientists have defined half-lives
for different elements, the exact rate is completely random.
4. Why are neutrons such good projectiles for producing nuclear reactions?
Neutrons are found in an atom's nucleus. Neutrons are the particles that carry no charge. Both the
electrical and magnetic fields do not affect them and even a heavy nucleus is readily penetrated
without nucleus and electrons repelling or attracting it. They have a strong energy of penetration and
are considered as the best projectiles for producing nuclear reaction are neutrons.
5. Explain why neutron activated nuclides to decay rather than ?
Ans: In neutrons activated nuclides the number of nuclides increases. Then to attain the stability this
neutron is converted into proton by . And atomic number of the element is increased by 1.
This takes place in the elements having large number of neutrons.
.
6. Why are small and large nuclei unstable?
Ans: The heavy and small nuclei have very small value of their binding energy per nucleon as
compared to intermediate nuclei. This low binding energy is due to Coulomb’s repulsion force
between the protons in the nuclei.
Furthermore in heavy nuclei which have too many neutrons relative to protons, the strong nuclear
force falls of rapidly causes the heavy nuclei unstable.
So they are unstable, and less energy required splitting heavy nuclei.
7. Why does a conventional fission nuclear reactor not able to explode as a bomb?
Fortunately, the reactor cannot explode.
A nuclear explosion cannot occur because the fuel is not compact enough to allow an uncontrolled chain
reaction. The reactor has a lot of water and core structural materials that slow the neutrons down before they
reach other fissile atoms.
Even an uncontrolled reaction would happen too slowly to cause an explosion. A thermal explosion cannot
occur because our reactor is designed to want to shut down on its own as temperature increases (i.e., it has
a negative temperature coefficient).
8. Why does fusion of light nuclei into heavier nuclei release energy?
Ans: In a fusion reaction, two light nuclei merge to form a single heavier nucleus.
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻

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The process releases energy because the total mass of the resulting single nucleus is less than the
mass of the two original nuclei which is called mass defect. The leftover mass becomes energy.
According to Einstein’s equation (E=mc2)
9. Which factors make fusion reaction difficult to achieve?
Ans: For the fusion of two light nuclei, work has to be done against the repulsive force between them..
For this purpose the nuclei are moved towards each other with very high velocity.
This can be done by increasing their temperature up to 20 million degree Celsius. At this temperature
the nuclei get sufficient thermal K.E to overcome electrostatic repulsion. But such a high temperature
is difficult to achieve.
.

Additional MCQ’s Chapter 20

1. An electric force can deflect (2010)
A. Neutrons B. Y-rays C. Both A and B D. None of these
2. As mass number increases which of the following does not change? (2010) (2017)
A. Mass B. volume C. Density D. binding energy
3. 1amu = _____Mev (2011), (2013), (2014)
A. 1.6 X 10 -19 B. 3.36 C. 1.66 X 10 -27 D. 931
91
4. The half life of 38Sr is 9.70 hours. What its decay constant (2011), (2012)
A. 1.98 X 10 -5 s -1 B. 1.6 X 10 -4 s -1
-5 -1
C. 2.5 X 10 s D. None of these
5. Leptons are particles that do not experience (2011) (2017)
A. Weak nuclear force B. Strong nuclear force
C. Electric force D. Magnetic force
6. Solid state detector is basically (2012)
A. NPN Transistor B. PNP Transistor C. PN Junction D. LED
7. The particle equal in mass or greater than protons are called (2012)
A. Mesons B. Baryons C. Muons D. Electrons
8. Cobalt 60 emits γ-rays of energy (2013)
A. 117 MeV B. 11.7 MeV C. 1.17 MeV D. 0.931 MeV
9. Which of the following statement is CORRECT? (2013)
A. Moderators slow down the neutrons B. Moderators
bring the neutrons to rest C. Moderators absorb the
neutrons. D. Moderators reflect theh neutrons
10. The half life of radioactive element is (2013) (2017)
A. 𝑻𝟏 B. C. D. None of these

11. The atom bomb is an example of (2013) (2017)

A. Controlled nuclear fission B. Controlled nuclear fusion
C. Uncontrolled nuclear fission D. Uncontrolled nuclear fusion
12. rays can cause the photoelectric emission when theier energy is (2013) (2017)
A. Less than 0.1 Mev B. Greater than 0.1 Mev
C. Equal to 0 Mev D.None of these
13. The Half life of Argon-40 is (2013)

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 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

A. 13 million years B. 13 billion years

C. 1.3 billion years D. 13.3 million years
14. The emmison of particle frim result into the formation of new element in a reaction [
] where stand for (2014)
A. B.
C. 𝒀 D.
15. When Beta Particle ( ) is emitted by the new element is formed in a reaction
where represents (2014)
A. 𝟏𝒀 B.
C. D.
16. A mutually occuring disintegration involving the emission of high energy electrons is called (2015)
A. Positrion Decay B. Beta Decay
C. Gamma Decay D. Alpha Decay
17. If is decayed twice by α-emission then the resulting isotpes is (2015) (2015)
A. B.
C. D. 𝒀
18. The binding energy of helium is (2016)
A. B. 𝒆 C. D.
19. The half-life of radium -226 is (2016)
A. B. 𝟏 C. D.
20. An particle has a charge of (2016)
A. +2e B. -2e C. +e D. –e
21. Thyroid cancer is cured by (2016)
A. Cobalt B. Carbon C. Iodine 𝟏 𝟏 D. Nickel
22. Which of the following particle is NOT Lepton? (2016)
A. Electrons B. Muons C. Neutrinos D. Mesons
13. One is equal to _________
a) 1.66 x 10-27 kg b) 1.66 x 10-25 kg c) 1.66 x 10-20 kg d) All

14. Neutron and proton are commonly known as ____________

a) Nucleons b) Meson c) Boson d) Quartz

15. Half-life of Radium is 1590 years. In how many years shall the earth loss all his radium due to radioactive decay?
a) 1590 x 106 years b) 1590 x 1012 years c) 1590 x 1025 years d) Never

16. Which one of the following radiation possesses maximum penetrating power?
a) - Rays b) β - rays c) - rays d) All have equal
penetrating power

17. Radioactivity is a ______________

a) Spontaneous activity b) Chemical property
c) Self disintegration property d) both a and c

18. Energy liberated when one atom of U-235 undergoes fission reaction is ______
a) 200 Mev b) 40 Mev c) 30 Mev d) 20 Mev

19. Nuclear force exist between

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a) Proton – proton b) Proton – Neutron c) Neutron – Neutron d) All of the above

20. Tick the correct statement

a) Moderator slow down the neutron b) Moderator bring the neutrons to rest
c) Moderator absorb the neutron d) Moderator reflect the neutron

21. The bombardment of nitrogen with α - particles will produce ________

a) Neutron b) Proton c) Electron d) Positron

22. Average energy required to remove one nucleon from the nucleus is called _____
a) Energy of decay b) Binding energy per nucleon c) Destruction energy d) All

23. Fission chain reaction in a nuclear reactor can be controlled by introducing ________
a) Iron rod b) Graphite rods c) Cadmium rods d) Platinum rods

24. Which one of the following possesses maximum velocity?

a) α - rays b) β - rays c) γ - rays d) All have same speed

25. Charge on neutron is _____________

a) +1.6 x 10-19C b) -1.6 x 10-19C c) Zero d) No definite charge

26. A particle having the mass of an electron and the charge of a proton is called
a) Antiproton b) Positron c) Gamma rays d) Photon

27. Mass of neutron is ____________

a) 1.67 x 10-13 Kg b) 1.67 x 10-27 Kg c) 9.1 x 10-31 Kg d) 1.67 x 10-19 Kg

28. Nuclei having the same mass number but different atomic number are ______
a) Isotopes b) Isobars c) Isotones d) Isomers

29. A mass spectrograph sorts out _______

a) Molecules b) Ions c) Elements d) Isotopes

30. Sum of the masses of constituent nucleons as compared to the mass of the resultant nucleus is _______
a) Smaller b) Greater c) Same d) none

31. An α - particle is emitted from 88Ra226, what is the mass and atomic number of the daughter nucleus?
Mass Number Atomic Number
a) 224 84
b) 220 80
c) 222 86
d) 226 87

32. During fission process, a large amount of _____________

a) Heat energy is released b) Nuclear energy is released
c) Chemical energy is released d) Light energy is released

33. In liquid metal fast breeder reactor, the type of uranium used is _______

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a) 92U235 b) 92U238 c) 92U234 d) 92U239

34. Radioactive materials can be identified by measuring their_______

a) Hardness b) Density c) Mass d) Half life

35. If one or more of the neutrons emitted during fission can be used to build up further fission then the reaction is
self-sustained and is known as ________
a) Fission reaction b) Fusion reaction c) Chain reaction d) Chemical reaction

36. During an encounter with an atom, α - particle knocks out _______

a) Protons b) Electrons c) Neutrons d) Nothing

37. Charge on α - particle is _________

a) +1 b) +2 c) -2 d) -1

38. -particle ionizes an atom ________

a) Through direct collision b) Through electrostatic attraction
c) Through electrostatic repulsion d) All of above

39. T.V. sets and microwave oven emit ______

a) X - rays b) α - rays c) β - rays d) γ - rays

40. The penetration power of β - particle as compared to -particle is_______

a) 10 times more b) 100 times more c) 100 times less d) 10 times less

41. Geiger counter is suitable for ______

a) Fast counting b) Extremely fast counting c) Slow counting d) All situations

42. A α - particle can produce fluorescence in ___________

a) Zns b) Barium Palatino cyanide c) Calcium tungstate d) All of above

43. Average distance covered by α - particle in air before its ionizing power ceases is called its __________
a) Trajectory b) Range c) Firing level d) Limit

44. Which one of the following possesses greater penetrating power?

a) α - rays b) β – rays c) X-rays d) Neutron

45. γ - rays are electromagnetic waves like ____________

a) Normal light b) Heat waves c) Micro waves d) X - rays

46. Charge on -particle is __________

a) +1 b) -1 c) +2 d) -2

47. -particles possess greater penetration power then that of a-particle due to its ____________
a) Smaller ionization power b) Energy is not conserved
c) Same ionization power d) Neither greater nor smaller
ionization power

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48. A device for producing high velocity nuclei is ___________

a) Cloud chamber b) Linear acceleration c) A mass spectrograph d) Wilson cloud

49. Strong nuclear force

a) Increase with magnitude of increasing charge b) Is independent of charge
c) Decreases with magnitude of increasing charge d) None

Z X A  X      .......  Q
50. Complete the reaction Z 1

a) Neutrino b) Antineutrino c)  - particle d) None

51. The half of uranium – 238 is

a) 1.67 × 108 years b) 3.3 × 109 years c) 4.5 × 108 years d) 4.5 × 109 years

52. Neutron produce ionization by knocking out proton which is

a) Direct ionization b) Indirect ionization c) Both d) None of these
235
53. The breakage of U produces the fragments as
92
a) Kr and Ba b) Sn and Mo c) Xe and Sr d) All of them

54. The fuel / fuels used in the reactor are nowadays

a) Plutonium – 239 b) Uranium – 233 c) Uranium – 235 d) All of these

55. Plutonium can be fissioned by

a) Slow neutron b) Fast neutron c) Very slow neutron d) None of these

56. Radio isotopes can be made easily by bombardment with

a) Electrons b) Protons c) Neutrons d) None of these

57. Subatomic particles are divided into

a) Photons b) Leptons c) Hadrons d) All of these

58. Hadrons are the particle included

a) Protons b) Neutrons c) Mesons d) All of these

59. Lepton’s particles which experience no strong nuclear force are

a) Electrons b) Muons c) Neutrinos d) All of these

60. The charges on the quarks are

a) One unit b) Half unit c) Fraction d) None of these

61. Meson is made from

a) A pair of quarks b) A pair of anti-quarks

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c) A pair of quarks and anti-quarks d) None of these

62. Fission nuclear reaction leads to_____ stability than fusion reactions.
a) Lesser b) Greater c) Medium d) None

63. If a radioactive isotope of silver have a half-life of about 7.5 days. After 15 days the remaining isotope of its
original is
a) 25% b) 50% c) 7.5% d) 15%

64. A nuclide 86 R 220 decays to a new nuclide by two  -emissions, the nuclide S is

a) 84 S 212 b) 82 S 212 c) 80 S 220 d) None

65. In nucleus of uranium the number of neutrons will be ___________

a) 92 b) 235 c) 143 d) Different for different isotopes

66. During fusion of hydrogen into helium _______

a) Energy is absorbed b) Mass is reduced due to energy absorption
c) Mass is increased due to energy absorption d) Energy is released

67. Antimatter consists of _____________

a) Antiproton b) Antineutron c) Positron d) All of above
68. If a C-14 has a half-life of 5730 years, then how long will it take for the quantity of C-14 in a sample to drop to
1/8 of initial quantity?
a) 2.58 × 104 years b) 1.44 × 104 years c) 1.72 × 104 years d) 2.58×
4
10 years
69. What fraction of the original sample will be after 22 years, if the Cobalt-50 is a radioactive element with half-life
of 4.3 years?
a) 1⁄32 b) 1⁄16 c) 1⁄8 d) 1⁄4
70. When an alpha particle is emitted from an unstable nucleus, the atomic mass number of the nucleus
a) Increased by 2 b) decreases by 2 c) increases by 4 d)
decreases by 4
71. SI unit of radioactivity is……………
a) Bq b) Ci c) Dc d) Mc

72. 1 Bq is equal to………….. decay per second

a) 1 b) c) 2 d) 3

73. 1 Ci is equal to………….. decay per second

a) 𝟏 𝟏 b) c) 2 d) 1

74. Alpha particle is about …………… times more massive than electron.
a) 1000 b) 7000 c) 100 d) 10000

75. Fluorescence can be produced by………….

a) b) d) d) All can

76. Fission reaction can be controlled by absorbing neutrons by…………….

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a) Cadmium b) boron d) Hafnium d) All

77. The  - particle ionizes the particles in its way and adopt the path which is
a) Curved b) Straight c) Zig – Zag d) None

78. Radiations are used for the treatment of skin of a patient is __________
a) α - rays b) β - rays c) X - rays d) γ –
rays

79. Why γ - rays are used to kill bacteria, to sterilize surgical equipments etc?

a) Chargless b) Massless c) Highly penetrating d) All of above

80. The most useful tracer is ________

a) Sr -90 b) I -131 c) Ca -41 d) C -14

81. Various types of cancer are treated by ___________

a) Cobalt 60 b) Strontium – 90 c) Carbon 14 d) Nickel – 63

82. The path of B-particle is_________

a) Rectilinear b) Curved c) Zigzag d) Elliptical

Additional Conceptual Questions

Chapter 20
1. The effect of radiation on the human body depends on the properties of the radiation. Explain why a source
emitting α-particles inside the body is more dangerous than a source of same activity emitting γ-rays inside
the body. (2010)
Ans. α-particles will be more dangerous.
Reason:
It is because that the ionizing power of α-particle is greater than -particle. So α-particle can cause damage to
our body.
2. What do you understand by “Background radiation” ? State two sources of this radiation (2011)
Ans: Radiation present around us is known as background radiation. The term background radiations refers to
the ionizing radiation that we are constantly exposed to
Sources of background radiation:
 Cosmic rays which comes to us from outer space.
 Radioactive materials present in earth crust.
 Nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents.
3. Why do we meant by the term Critical mass? (2012), (2013), (2017)
Ans: The critical mass is defined as the minimum mass of a material that can sustain a nuclear chain reaction. It
is the quantity of such mass, which is enough to absorb most of neutrons produced in fission chain reaction and
to produce a large amount of energy.
4. What factor make a fussion reaction diffiuclt to achieve? (2011), (2012), (2017)

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Ans: For the fusion of two light nuclei, work has to be done against the repulsive force between them. For this
purpose the nuclei are moved towards each other with very high velocity. This can be done by increasing their
temperature up to 20 million degree Celsius. At this temperature the nuclei get sufficient thermal K.E to
overcome electrostatic repulsion.
But such a high temperature is difficult to achieve
5. Why are heavy Nuclie unstabel? (2012), (2013)
Ans: The heavy nuclei have very small value of their binding energy per nucleon. So they are unstable, and less
energy is required to split heavy nuclei.
In heavy nuclei which have too many neutrons relative to protons, the strong nuclear force falls of rapidly causes
the heavy nuclei unstable.
6. What is the radioactive tracer? Describe one application each in medicine and industry. (2012)

Ans: A Radioactive tracer is a radioactive isotope used to trace the path or position of an element through a
biological, chemical, or mechanical system.

 Medicine: In addition to imaging, radio therapy can be used to treat conditions such as hyperthyroidism, thyroid
cancer, and blood disorders. For this type of therapy, Yttrium-90 and Iodine-131 are the most commonly used
isotopes.
 Industry: Labeled radioactive Carbon-14, mixed with certain compounds, provides a simple test of leaks in pipes
and the flow rates of liquid without affecting the actual flow.
7. The radioactive element has a half-life of 1.6x𝟏 years. Since the Earth is about 5 billion years old.
How can you explain why we still can find this element in nature? (2013), (2014), (2015)
Ans: The half-life of is but its total life is equal to infinity. This is common property of all
radioactive elements i.e.; they fully decay in infinite time. This decay process continues until the element
becomes stable, thus no substance completely decays. That’s why still found on earth.
8. Which radiation does would deposit more energy to the body (2013), (2017)
a. 10mGy to the hand
b. 1mGy does the entire body
Ans:

D = absorbed dose =
Energy = D x mass
Mass of body is much greater than hand so in second case more energy will be absorbed.
9. If mass of proton 𝟏 𝑿𝟏 𝒈 and mass of neutron 𝟏 𝑿𝟏 𝒈 kg the
experimental mass of deuteron 𝑿𝟏 𝒈 find the Binding energy of deuteron nucleus.
(2014)

Solution:
By the following equation we get the mass defect of deuteron as

The B.E of deuteron is

𝐵 ( )
𝐵

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10. What is Mass Defect and binding Energy of a nucleus? Write down their mathematical expressions (2014)
The observed atomic mass is slightly less than the sum of the masses of the protons, neutrons,
and electrons that make up the atom. The difference, called the mass defect
( )
The missing mass is converted to energy in the formation of the nucleus. This energy is found from Einstein’s
mass energy relation. Where Z is no of protons and ( A-Z) is no of neutrons
( )
And is called the binding energy (B.E) of the nucleus,
Given as
𝐵 ( ) ( )
11. What is fast nuclear reactor? Write down Nuclear Reaction in which 𝑼 is transmuted into 𝑷 ? (2014)

Fast reactors are designed to make use of U-238, which is aboout 99% content of natural uranium. Each U-238
nucleus absorbs a fast neutron and changes to plutonium-239

Plutonium can be fissiond by fast neuteron, hence moderator is not neended in fast reactors. The core of fast
reactors consists of a mixture of plutonium and uranium dioxide surrounded by a blanket of uranium-238
Neutron that escape from the core interact with uranium-238 in the blanket, producing thereby plutonium-239.
Thus more plutonium fuel is bred in this way and natural uranium is used more effectively.
12. Write the names and define three district ways of interaction of radiation with matter. Also give their
energy range (2014)

 At low energy, less than 0.5 MeV, γ-rays interact with matter and produce photoelectric effect.
 At intermediate energy, between 0.5-1.0 MeV, γ-rays produce Compton scattering.
 At energy higher than 1.02 MeV, the dominant process is pair production.

13. How much energy is absorbed by a man of mass 80 kg who receives a lethal whole body equivalent dose of
400 rem in the form of low energy neutrons, for which RBE factor is 10? (2015)
RBE factor = 10
Equivalent dose = , D =?
Using eq.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
14. Discuss the Nuclear fission Reaction 𝑼 𝒂 𝑸 (2015)

Fission reaction of can be represented by the equation

𝐵
Here Q is the energy given out in this reaction. By comparing the total energy on the left side of the equation
with total energy on the right side, we find that in the fission of one uranium nucleus about 200 MeV energy is
given out. It may be kept in mind that there is no difference between the sum of the mass and the charge
number on both sides of the equation.
15. What is mass spectrograph? (2016)

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A device with the help of which not only the isotopes of an element can be separated but their masses can also
be determined quite accurately is called mass spectrograph.

16. How many protons neutrons and electrons are there in the nucleus of 𝑹 ? (2016)
contains

86 protons
136 neutrons
17. Name the groups in which sub-atomic particles are divided? (2016)
Ans: Subatomic particles are divided into three groups.
i. Photons
ii. Leptons
iii. Hadrons
Elementary particles are basic building blocks of matter. All photons and leptons are elementary particles.
Hadrons are not elementary particles but are composed of elementary particles called quarks.
18. A particle which produces more ionization is less penetrating. Why? (2018)

Ans. The kinetic energy of the particles which produce more ionization is used up quickly in the process;
therefore, they have less penetration power. On the other hand, the particles with low ionizing power can travel
greater distances in a medium because they have more kinetic energy left.

19. What is radioactivity?

Ans:

Comprehensive Questions Chapter

20
Question : Explain the principle, construction, working and necessary mathematical theory of mass
spectrograph.

It is a device with the help of which we separate different isotopes of an element and measure their
masses.

Principle

A mass spectrometer is making use of an electric and magnetic field. The electric field accelerates the
ions and the magnetic field deflects them according their masses. Masses of various isotopes are
determined by the extent they are deflected in the magnetic field.

Construction

It consists of the following parts.

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Source of ions: Atoms or molecules of the element under investigation are ionized in an ion source, S.
Positive ions then enter the electric field

Electric Field: An electric field is provided between two plates. Ions are accelerated in this region.

Magnetic field and vacuum chamber: Ions are deflected in the magnetic field according to their masses
as they enter the magnetic field with some velocity gained in the electric field.

Chart recorder: The deflected ions hit the photographic plate and their position is detected on chart
recorder.

Working and necessary mathematics:

Positive ions from the ion source are allowed to enter the electric field through slit S1, where they are
accelerated towards slit S2. If V is the potential difference and q is the charge on the particle (ion), then

The ions pass through slit S2 with this velocity and enter a vacuum chamber. A magnetic field is normally
provided in this area which deflects the ions. The magnetic force experienced by the ion having charge q
is 𝐵, where B is the strength of the magnetic field. The ion is deflected under the action of this
force and it is equal to the centripetal force on the ion to make it move in the circular path. Hence,

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We know that different isotopes of an element have different masses. So if the ions in the experiment
have different masses (or the element under investigation has different isotopes), they will deflect
differently. Ions with higher masses would have larger radii and ions with smaller masses would smaller
radii. Equivalently, ions with lighter masses would deflect more than the ions with larger masses.

Value of r (which gives the extent of deflection) is determined by measuring the distance between slit
S2 and the image produced on the photographic plate. As ions deflected with different angles will hit on
different places, therefore, different values of r are determined.

From equations (3)

Since q, r, B and V are all known, masses of different isotopes present in the element under investigation
can be determined by putting the respective value of r.

Write a note on nuclear fission?

Definition: Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the nucleus of
an atom splits into smaller, lighter nuclei.

EXPLANATION:

Knowing the fact that the emission of increases the atomic number by one Fermi
and co-workers (1934) attempted to produce the elements beyond uranium (Z=92) which at that
time was the last element in the with different half-lives were emitted. Therefore, they
concluded that the elements with Z> 92, i.e the elements heavier than uranium, had been formed.

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Hahn and Stresemann made similar experiments in 1939. After the chemical analysis of the
products they concluded that of the product nuclei is barium and not a heavier element as predicted
earlier. They concluded that the neutron bombardment can cause a uranium nucleus to break apart,
producing two or more fragments of moderate and comparable size. This process was called nuclear
fission. Further they found that reaction is much more pronounced with thermal neutron. Only
undergoes this process of fission- through naturally occurring uranium has 99.3% of
of .

we shall see that in this process there is a decrease in the mass of the system and hence energy is
released. Since this process can be
1 235 236
0n + 92U 92U*

Where 92U*236 is the intermediate excited state that lasts only for about before splitting
into nuclei X and Y which are called fission
fragments.

There may be many combinations of X and Y

nuclei that satisfy the conservation of mass,
energy, charge and nucleon number as shown
in fig.

Started automatically, it can be controlled and the

energy liberated provides a good source of energy.

It was observed that when one thermal neutron

strikes uranium nuclei, three neutrons are emitted.

In the reaction observed by Hahn that the product nuclei 56 Ba 141 and 36 Kr92, therefore, the reaction
can be written as
1 235 236 92
0n +92U 92U* 36Kr +56Ba141+30n1+Q... ……………..20.12
Where Q is the energy of reaction which can be calculated from the value of rest masses of different
nuclei. The calculation is given below.

Initial mass final mass

+235.0439u 𝐵
1
0n =1.0087u +

236.0526u 235.8373

The decrease in mass = 236.0526u 235.8373

Therefore when one atom of undergoes fission 200 MeV of energy is released. If 1g of naturally
occurring, which has about atoms of undergoes fission the total energy released would be

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200× MeV= as much energy as the

combustion about 3000 tons of coal.

Fission chain reaction

Definition: A fission chain reaction in which neutrons released in fission produce an additional fission in
at least one further nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces neutrons, and the process repeats.

Explanation:

As mentioned before when one uranium atom undergoes fission it releases 3 neutrons. If more than one
of these neutrons is able cause fission in the other nuclei, the number neutrons will increase
rapidly. Thus, a chain reaction can be set up. The fission would produce at an ever increasing and a very
short time the whole of would be transformed with release of large amount of energy. This chain
reaction grows with time when more than one neutron is available per reaction. It is found that energy
obtained from 1 kg of uranium is equal to energy obtained from 3000 tons of coal.

If such a chain reaction is not controlled, the larger energy can cause a violent explosion and destroy
everything that comes in its way.

If such a chain reaction is not controlled, the larger energy can cause a violent explosion and destroy
everything that comes in its way. This is the principle of the atom bomb.

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Critical mass: if the amount of uranium is too small, the chain reaction can stop before it release the
amount of energy required for explosion therefore, if the chain reaction is to start, it is necessary that
the a mass of the uranium must be greater than some minimum mass called the critical mass or critical
size.

Mass less than critical mass is called sub-critical mass and greater than critical mass is known as super-
critical mass.

Fission may take place in any nucleus after capture of neutron, but slow (low energy) neutrons only
cause fission in . As natural uranium contains only of So we use
enriched uranium which contains greater than

Q: What is nuclear reactor? Give the principle, construction, working and uses of
a typical nuclear reactor?
NUCLEAR REACTORS:
Definition:
Nuclear reactor is an apparatus or structure or device in which fissile material can be made to undergo
a controlled, self-sustaining nuclear reaction with the consequent release of energy.
Working of nuclear reactor:
In reactors, small pieces of uranium are spread throughout a material, called moderator, capable of
slowing down the neutrons to thermal energies, so that they can cause fission in other in other nuclei.
When a thermal neutrons strikes a uranium atom, it starts the fission process which result in splitting of
the uranium atom and the production of more fast neutrons. These fast neutrons strike the materials
and lose their K.E in repeated collision with the nuclei of material and get thermalized. These
thermalized neutron is setup. Whenever this chain reaction is to be stopped, some material which is a
strong absorber of neutron is inserted in the uranium container so that the neutrons are absorbed and
the rate of reaction is slowed down. Figure shows the schematic diagram of nuclear reactor.

The large amount of energy released in nuclear fission can be used for many useful purposes if the
reaction is carried out under controlled conditions. A nuclear reactor is a device in which the fission
chain reaction is controlled one and the energy released can be used for any of the several purposes to
produce power, to supply neutrons to prepare radio isotopes, etc. the first reactor was installed and
operated by Femi and his co-workers in 1942 in the USA.
Basically, it consists of five parts:
 A core of nuclear fuel
 A moderator for slowing down neutrons
 Control rods
 Coolant or heat exchanger for removing heat in
the core
 Radiation shielding
CORE:
Core contain nuclear fuel in which fission is achieved by
thermal neutrons.
Nuclear fuel is a material that can be fissioned by
thermal neutrons. It can be either one or all of following
isotopes.
that when natural uranium is used,
plutonium is produced in a fission process when thermal neutrons strike the nuclear fuel.

Written by: ABDUL JABBAR 03368653108 Page 207

 Versatile Notes PHYSICS XII

Moderator:
The materials that slow down the neutrons is called moderator.
The fast neutrons may have energy greater than , so they have many collisions with material
and come out with thermal energies to strike another fuel can.
The material of moderator (i) should be light, and (ii) should not absorb neutrons. Usually, graphite and
heavy water (water containing deuterium instead of hydrogen) are as moderator.
Control Rods:
Sometimes, the chain reaction, once started can liberate an enormous amount of energy and can go out
of hand and this can even blow up the reactor.
To avoid such an accident, and to regulate the power level of reactor, control rods are used. These
control rods can be inserted into or drawn out of reactor fuel core and consists of a material that absorb
neutrons, e.g. cadmium boron or hafnium usually, cadmium control rods are used. If these rods are
drawn out, the activity of neutrons increases and if they inserted into fuel core, the activity of neutrons
decreases because the neutrons are absorbed by the rods.
Uses of coolant:
The coolant, or heat exchanger, is used to cool the fuel rods and the moderator, and is capable of
carrying away large amount of heat generated in the fission process. If the moderator, fuel rods, etc, are
not cooled, the heat generated can melt them. The heat carried by coolant produce steam that can run
a turbine, which in turn can run an electric generator as shown in figure.
Shielding:
The last part of the nuclear reactor is shielding. Since the neutrons and the fragments in the reactor
undergo radioactive decay and produce radiations which are harmful to life, there must be some
shielding device to absorb those radiations. For this purpose a concrete wall which in a few feet thick is
used.

Written by: ABDUL JABBAR 03368653108 Page 208