The Role Played by the Broadening of Marketing

Movement in the History of Marketing Thought

Philip Kotler

illiam L. Wilkie and Elizabeth S. Moore (2003) •Marketing can become more attractive as a discipline for study

W made a fine contribution to the understanding of the

history of marketing thought in their article “Schol-
arly Research in Marketing: Exploring the ‘4 Eras’ of
to a wider audience of young people who have little interest in
the commercial for-profit world.
As we advanced these arguments, some marketing schol-
Thought Development.” However, because the authors were ars felt distinctly uncomfortable. They believed that the
required to limit their description of the whole history of broadening movement would dilute the substance of mar-
marketing thought to 30 pages, some thought streams keting. David Luck (1969, pp. 53–55) championed the
received relatively brief treatment and therefore deserve fur- opposition, saying, “If marketing is so many things, then it
ther elaboration. One such thought stream is the is nothing.” He warned that the broadening movement
“broadening of marketing” movement, which received only would damage marketing. Levy and I then issued a rejoin-
one short paragraph in the article. I believe that broadening der (Kotler and Levy 1969b), and the matter finally came to
deserves more attention, and I offer this article as an a head when a professor mailed a survey to marketing edu-
expanded note on the role and impact of the broadening of cators on whether they believed that the broadening move-
marketing movement. ment was good or bad for marketing. The matter was settled
The broadening movement was an effort to free the mar- when an overwhelming number of marketing educators said
keting paradigm from the narrow confines of commercial that they favored the broadening movement.
marketing and to show its application to a far larger number The broadening movement subsequently introduced sev-
of contexts in which exchange and relationship activities eral new areas to the study of marketing. My own publica-
take place. Until 1970, marketing language and theory tions, several of which were written with coauthors, reflect
focused on explaining how goods and services are priced, some of the areas into which marketing moved (see the
promoted, and distributed in commercial markets by for- Appendix). On examining the list of books, it is possible to
profit firms. Transactions and payment were considered see when certain domains entered into marketing discourse.
central to the definition of markets and marketing. Other The order seems to be as follows:
domains of exchange activity, such as the efforts of muse-
ums, performing-arts groups, churches, social agencies, city 1. Social marketing,
governments, social action groups, and celebrities to attract 2. Educational marketing,
and serve visitors, members, donors, clients, fans, and oth- 3. Health marketing,
ers, were outside the purview of marketing and its concepts. 4. Celebrity marketing,
The problems that such groups faced were examined, if at 5, Cultural marketing (museums and performing arts),
all, by public relations practitioners and press agents. 6. Church marketing, and
In the late 1960s, some scholars began to believe that 7. Place marketing.
these noncommercial organizations faced “marketing-like”
problems that could be fruitfully addressed with marketing As marketing language and concepts began to enter into
language and concepts. Thus, in January 1969, Sidney Levy each of these domains, serious opposition emerged from the
and I published “Broadening the Concept of Marketing” in old guard. Consider the following two domains: First, muse-
Journal of Marketing (Kotler and Levy 1969a). ums directors and staff felt uncomfortable about introducing
We defended this broadening proposal on several marketing talk in their discourse. It smelled of commercial-
grounds: ism and might pollute the sacredness of their objects and
missions. It had so little to do with beauty and art. At best,
•Marketing helps the practitioners in noncommercial sectors they tolerated an education department and fundraising
become more successful in pursuing their goals.
(called development). Today, however, virtually every
•The marketing field can benefit by recognizing new issues and museum has a marketing person who is responsible for
developing new concepts that can be brought back to and can
offer insight into commercial marketing practice.
attracting visitors, selling memberships, building an image
in the community, helping the development department,
•By expanding its territory, marketing can gain more attention
and respect for what it can produce.
assisting the gift shop, and improving the restaurant, public
facilities, and signage. The Art Institute of Chicago has
spent the past two years developing a major study of how to
incorporate stronger marketing into its organization to fur-
Philip Kotler is S.C. Johnson & Son Distinguished Professor of Inter- ther its organizational goals.
national Marketing, Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern Second, some church leaders have been the most vocal
University (e-mail: [email protected]). opponents against the “invasion” of marketing language into

Vol. 24 (1) Spring 2005, 114–116

114 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing
 Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 115

their field. They view marketing as a pollution of their thors: Norman Shawchuck, Bruce Wrenn, and Gustave
sacred mission and goals. They prefer to overlook the prece- Rath.
dent that the historical growth of major religions has been Marketing Places: Attracting Investment, Industry and
the result of two major forces: marketing (i.e., proselytizing) Tourism to Cities, States and Nations (New York: The Free
and compulsion (i.e., the Inquisition). Today, the majority of Press, 1993). Coauthors: Donald H. Haider and Irving Rein.
church leaders, though they prefer not to use the word “mar- Standing Room Only: Strategies for Marketing the Per-
keting” to describe a good portion of their activities, are forming Arts (Boston: Harvard Business School Press,
resorting to marketing when they do not have enough mem- 1997). Coauthor: Joanne Scheff.
bers or not enough members show up for Sunday services or The Marketing of Nations: A Strategic Approach to
when not enough money is given to support the church. Building National Wealth (New York: The Free Press,
Religious leaders prefer to talk about being customer ori- 1997). Coauthors: Somkid Jatusripitak and Suvit
ented rather than to engage in marketing. Maesincee.
However, marketing is well established in other nonprofit Museum Strategies and Marketing: Designing the Mis-
areas. For example, politicians conduct marketing research, sion, Building Audiences, Increasing Financial Resources
raise money, advertise, and sell ideas. They talk about seg- (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998). Coauthor: Neil Kotler.
mentation, targeting, and positioning with ease, and they Marketing Places Europe (Harlow: Financial Times/
have a deep understanding of and skillfully use communica- Prentice Hall, 1999). Coauthors: Christer Asplund, Irving
tion and promotional tools and channels. In addition, social Rein, and Donald Haider.
marketers are active and somewhat effective in selling Marketing Asian Places (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
causes, such as “Say no to drugs,” “Don’t litter,” “Eat 2001). Coauthors: Irving Rein, Michael Hamlin, and Donald
healthier foods and exercise,” and many other causes. Haider.
All said, the invasion of marketing into the noncommer- Social Marketing: Improving the Quality of Life (Thou-
cial arena has been a drama laden with setbacks, opposi- sand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication, 2002). Coauthors:
tions, and victories, but the general consensus is that broad- Eduardo Roberto and Nancy Lee.
ening marketing has been good for marketing and good for Corporate Social Responsibility: Doing the Most Good
the areas that marketing has invaded. for Your Company and Your Cause (New York: John Wiley
& Sons, 2005). Coauthor: Nancy Lee.

Appendix: Books and Articles on the Articles

Broadening of Marketing “Broadening the Concept of Marketing,” Journal of Mar-
keting, January 1969, pp. 10–15. Coauthor: Sidney J. Levy.
Books “Beyond Marketing: The Furthering Concept,” Califor-
nia Management Review, Winter 1970, pp. 67–73. Coau-
Creating Social Change (New York: Holt, Rinehart &
thor: Sidney J. Levy.
Winston, 1972). Coeditors: Gerald Zaltman and Ira
“The Elements of Social Action,” American Behavioral
Kaufman. Scientist, May–June 1971, pp. 691–717.
Marketing for Nonprofit Organizations (Englewood “Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1975, 1982, 1986, 1991, 1996, Change,” Journal of Marketing, July 1971, pp. 3–12. Coau-
2003). Renamed Strategic Marketing for Nonprofit Organi- thor: Gerald Zaltman.
zations and published beginning in 1986. Coauthor: Alan “Metamarketing: The Furthering of Organizations, Per-
Andreasen. sons, Places, and Causes,” Marketing Forum, July–August
Cases and Readings for Marketing for Nonprofit Organi- 1971, pp. 13–23.
zations (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1983). Coau- “Demarketing, Yes, Demarketing,” Harvard Business
thors: O.C. Ferrell and Charles Lamb. Review, November–December 1971, pp. 74–80. Coauthor:
Strategic Marketing for Educational Institutions (Engle- Sidney J. Levy.
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1985, 1995). Coauthor: “A Generic Concept of Marketing,” Journal of Market-
Karen Fox. ing, April 1972, pp. 46–54.
Marketing for Health Care Organizations (Englewood “Buying Is Marketing, Too,” Journal of Marketing, Janu-
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1987). Coauthor: Roberta N. ary 1973, pp. 54–59. Coauthor: Sidney J. Levy.
Clarke. “Education Problems and Marketing,” in J.N. Sheth and
High Visibility: The Making and Marketing of Profes- P.L. Wright, eds., Marketing Analysis for Societal Problems
sionals into Celebrities (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., (Urbana, IL: Bureau of Business and Economic Research,
1987). Coauthors: Irving Rein and Martin Stoller. Repub- 1974), pp. 186–206. Coauthor: Bernard Dubois.
lished by NTC Business Books, 1998. “The Major Tasks of Marketing Management,” Journal
Social Marketing: Strategies for Changing Public Behav- of Marketing, October 1973, pp. 42–49.
ior (New York: The Free Press, 1989). Coauthor: Eduardo “Advertising in the Nonprofit Sector,” in Yale Brozen,
Roberto. Renamed Social Marketing: Improving the Quality ed., Advertising and Society (New York: New York Univer-
of Life and published by Sage Publications in 2002. Coau- sity Press, 1974), pp. 169–89.
thors: Ned Roberto and Nancy Lee. “Third Sector Management: The Role of Marketing,”
Marketing for Congregations: Choosing to Serve People Public Administration Review, September–October 1975.
More Effectively (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1992). Coau- Coauthor: Michael Murray.
116 The Broadening of Marketing Movement

“Applying Marketing Theory to College Admissions,” A “Marketing Places,” The Futurist, November–December
Role for Marketing in College Admissions (Princeton, NJ: 1993, pp. 14–21. Coauthors: Don Haider and Irving Rein.
College Entrance Board, 1976). “Can (Should) Religion Be Marketed?” Quarterly
“Axioms for Societal Marketing,” in George Fisk, Johan Review, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1994. Coauthors: Bruce Wrenn,
Arndt, and Kjell Gronhaug, eds., New Frontiers for Market- Norman Shawchuck, and Gus Rath.
ing, 1978. “Strategic Marketing for Non-Profit Organizations,”
“Marketing and Public Relations: Partners or Rivals?” Companion Encyclopedia of Marketing (London: Rout-
Journal of Marketing, October 1978, pp. 13–20. Coauthor: ledge, 1995), pp. 930–50. Coauthor: Alan Andreasen.
William Mindak. How the Arts Can Prosper Through Strategic Collabora-
“Educational Packaging: A Modest Proposal,” The Futur- tions, Harvard Business Review, January–February 1996,
ist, August 1978. pp. 5–ll. Coauthor: Joanne Scheff.
“Strategies for Introducing Marketing into Nonprofit “Crisis in the Arts: The Marketing Response,” California
Organizations,” Journal of Marketing, January 1979, pp. Management Review, Fall 1996, pp. 28–52. Coauthor:
37–44. Joanne Scheff.
“A Marketing Approach to Energy Conservation,” in “Not-for-Profit Marketing,” International Encyclopedia
Karl Henion II and Thomas Kinnear, eds., The Conserver of Business and Management (London: Thompson Publish-
Society (Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1979), ing, 1996), pp. 3696–3707. Coauthor: Alan Andreasen.
pp. 193–207. Coauthor: Arthur Sterngold. “Political Marketing—Generating Effective Candidates,
“The Marketing of Social Causes: The First Ten Years,” Campaigns, and Causes,” in Bruce Newman, ed., Handbook
Journal of Marketing, Fall 1980, pp. 24–33. Coauthor: of Political Marketing (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publica-
Karen Fox. tions, 1999). Coauthor: Neil Kotler.
“Strategic Planning for Higher Education,” Journal of “Can Museums Be All Things to All People? Missions,
Higher Education, Vol. 52, No. 5, 1981, pp. 470–89. Coau- Goals, and Marketing’s Role,” Museum Management and
thor: Patrick Murphy. Curatorship, Vol. 18, No. 3, 2000, pp. 271–87. Coauthor:
“Business Marketing for Political Candidates,” Cam- Neil Kotler.
paigns and Elections, Summer 1981, pp. 24–33. Coauthor: “Marketing Good Behavior,” Stanford Social Innovation
Neil Kotler. Review, Spring 2004, pp. 14–23. Coauthor: Nancy Lee.
“Reducing Cigarette Smoking: An Opportunity for Social “How Can a Place Correct a Negative Image,” Journal of
Marketing?” Journal of Health Care Marketing, Winter Place Marketing, January 2005. Coauthors: David Gertner
1980–1981, pp. 8–17. Coauthor: Karen Fox. and Irving Rein.
“Marketing: A Definition for Community Colleges,” in
William and Marybelle Keim, eds., New Directions for
Community Colleges: Marketing the Program (San Fran- References
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Umiker-Sebeok, ed., Marketing and Semiotics (Amsterdam:
Mouton de Gruyter, 1987). ——— and ——— (1969b), “New Form of Marketing Myopia:
“Broadening the Concept of Marketing Still Further: The Rejoinder to Professor Luck,” Journal of Marketing, 33 (July),
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“The Marketing of Parochial School Modeled as an Wilkie, William L. and Elizabeth S. Moore (2003), “Scholarly
Exchange Process,” Journal of Research on Christian Edu- Research in Marketing: Exploring the ‘4 Eras’ of Thought
cation, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1993, pp. 119–24. Coauthor: Bruce Development,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 22 (Fall),
Wrenn. 116–46.
“What Does It Mean for Pastors to Be Market Oriented?”
Journal of Ministry Marketing and Management, Vol. 1,
No. 1, 1995. Coauthors: Bruce Wrenn, Norman Shawchuck,
and Gus Rath.