Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering & Technology
International Islamic University Islamabad.

Fluid Mechanics LAB

Course Code: ME-322 L

Name: ________________________________________

Reg. No. ________________________________________

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Course Title: Fluid Mechanics II LAB

Course Code: ME-322 L

Pre-requisite(s): None

Credit Hours: 01

Contact Hours: 03

Sr. # CLOs Statements PLO Level

Perform experiment to determine key variables of interest (such as flow
1 rate, coefficient of Drag, coefficient of velocity, coefficient of contraction, 4 P2
lift, power output and efficiency etc.)
Explain parameters related to Lab from the experiments in relation to the
2 4 C2
theoretical aspects
Contribute to experiment by working individually and in a group
3 9 A2

CLO-PLO Mapping
PLOs
Modern Tool

The Engineer and

Engineering

Development of

Environment and

Individual and

Communication

Lifelong Learning
Problem Analysis

Management
Investigation
knowledg

Sustainability

Project
Solutions

usage
Design /

Work
Team

CLOs
Society
e

Ethics

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
CLO-1 P2
CLO-2 C2
CLO-3 A2

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

List of Experiments

Sr. CLO- CLO- CLO-3

Labs
No 1 2
Study of basic hydraulic feed and hydraulic bench and measure flow rate using
1 ✔ ✔ ✔
rotameter
Flow rate measurement using venturimeter apparatus
2 ✔ ✔ ✔
Flow rate measurement using orifice meter
3 ✔ ✔ ✔
Measurement of Energy losses in different elements of flow meter(rotameter,
4 ✔ ✔ ✔
venturimeter, orifice meter)
Demonstration of Laminar and Turbulent Flow and measurement of
5 ✔ ✔ ✔
Reynolds number
To measure forces imparted by impact of jet for various deflectors
6 ✔ ✔ ✔
To find Co-efficient of discharge Cd, velocity Cv and contraction Cc of thick, thin and
7 ✔ ✔ ✔
wall venture and orifice type nozzles.
Determination the coefficient of Drag and coefficient of Lift produced by aero foil at
8 different angle of attack. ✔ ✔ ✔

To observe the boundary layer on a smooth and roughened plate placed in wind
9 ✔ ✔ ✔
tunnel.
10 To determine the mechanical Power produced by Pelton wheel. ✔ ✔ ✔

11 To determine the mechanical Power produced by Francis wheel. ✔ ✔ ✔

12 To determine the mechanical Power produced by Kaplan wheel. ✔ ✔ ✔

To measure the performance and study the working of reciprocating pump
13 ✔ ✔ ✔
To Study the Effect of Rotational speed on pump efficiency in centrifugal pump
14 ✔ ✔ ✔

Lab Requirement
Students are required to bring lab manual in each lab, without lab manual no one is allowed to enter the
lab. Graph paper is compulsory for graphs.

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Lab Assessment Rubrics

Level Poor Below Average Average Good Excellent

Marks 1 2 3 4 5

CLO-1 PLO-4 (Psychomotor Domain)

Aware of the
Requires help
Don’t know process but
Apparatus Mostly Unaware with minor Follows
how to requires help
Handling of the process of details, Does not procedure
handle the with major
experiment follows procedure appropriately
apparatus details (finding
properly
key variable)

CLO-2 PLO-4 (Cognitive Domain)

Results are
Results accurate Results accurate
Not Written Results not accurate, but
& Can validate & Affectively
calculations accurate, Not cannot identify
Results the experiment by utilizes the
& findings provided reasons for
and providing engineering
Also unable discussions & difference in
Discussion discussion & knowledge in
to interpret conclusion experimental
conclusions with discussions and
the results. properly and theoretical
minor mistakes. collusions
value

Marks 1 2 3 4 5

CLO-3 PLO-9 (Affective Domain)

Shares in Not Following Good sensible Positive attitude,

work of Shows no interest group activity, interaction but Encouraging
No Progress
Team in group activity poor interaction still needs the sensible
within group. reminder interaction

4
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Safety Precautions
OVERVIEW: This section is intended to ensure the safe operation of the Fluid Mechanics Laboratory.
Students are expected to conduct experiments in a safe manner respecting the physical well-being of
their fellow students and themselves. Students should read and understand all contents of this section

• Be calm and relaxed, while working in lab.

• First check your measuring equipment.
• When working with voltages over 40 V or current over 10 A, There must be at least two people
in the lab at all time.
• Keep the work area neat and clean.
• Be sure about the locations of fire extinguishers and first aid kit.
• No loose wires or metals pieces should be lying on the table or neat the circuit.
• Avoid using long wires, that may get in your way while making adjustments or changing leads.
• BE PREPARED. Read and fully comprehend the lab procedure as set forth in the lab manual
before you begin any experiment. If you do not understand the procedure, see your instructor.
• Always check your circuit connections before power it ON.
• Know emergency procedures. Make note of fire escape routes.
• Never use any faulty or damage equipment and tools.
• No food or beverage in the laboratory.
• Do not touch the equipment, the cord, the person.
• In case of emergency, disconnect the power source from the circuit breaker and pull out the plug
using insulated material.
• Immediately report any spills, equipment malfunctions, injuries or other perceived safety hazards
to your Instructor or staff member.
• Keep your work area clean.

FAILURE TO CONFORM WITH ANY OF THE ABOVE RULES MAY RESULT IN NOT
BEING ALLOWED TO PARTICIPATE IN THE LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

EXPERIMENT NO.1
Study of basic hydraulic feed and hydraulic bench and measure flow rate using rotameter

OBJECTIVE: -
1. To Study the Basic Hydraulic Feed System
2. Measure flow rate using Rotameter.
3. To Study the Hydraulic Bench and measure flow rate.

Apparatus/Parts:
• Basic Hydraulic Feed system
• Hydraulic Bench
• Flow meter
• Filter
• Safety switch ON/OFF
• Pipes
• Connectors
• Water
• Stop Watch

THEORY:

Flow Rate (Volumetric Flow Rate or Discharge):

The volumetric flow rate is the volume of fluid which passes through a given surface per unit time for
example cubic meters per second m3 s-1 in SI unit or litre per hour etc. It is usually represented by the
symbol Q.
Q=A·V
Which means that the volume of fluid passing through a flow meter is equal to the cross-sectional area
of the pipe(A) times the average velocity of the fluid (v)

Flow Meter (Variable Area Flowmeter):

A Rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube.It belongs to a class
of meters called variable area meters, which measure flow rate by allowing the cross-sectional area the
fluid travels through to vary, causing some measurable effect. A rotameter consists of a tapered tube,
typically made of glass, with a float inside that is pushed up by flow and pulled down by gravity. At a
higher flow rate more area (between the float and the tube) is needed to accommodate the flow, so the
float rises. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and spherical ellipses being the most
common.

Note that the "float" does not actually float in the fluid: it has to have a higher density than the
fluid, otherwise it will float to the top even if there is no flow.

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Principle of Operation

The rotameter's operation is based on the variable area principle: fluid flow raises a float in a tapered
tube, increasing the area for passage of the fluid. The greater the flow, the higher the float is raised. The
height of the float is directly proportional to the flow rate. With liquids, the float is raised by a
combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the velocity head of the fluid. With gases, buoyancy is
negligible, and the float responds to the velocity head alone.

The float moves up or down in the tube in proportion to the fluid flow rate and the annular area between
the float and the tube wall. The float reaches a stable position in the tube when the upward force exerted
by the flowing fluid equals the downward gravitational force exerted by the weight of the float. A
change in flow rate upsets this balance of forces. The float then moves up or down, changing the annular
area until it again reaches a position where the forces are in equilibrium. To satisfy the force equation,
the rotameter float assumes a distinct position for every constant flow rate. However, it is important to
note that because the float position is gravity dependent, rotameters must be vertically oriented and
mounted

Rotameter

Basic Hydraulic Feed System:

The Basic hydraulic feed system is a service unit for different Fluid Mechanics apparatus like Impact of
jet apparatus, Reynolds number demonstration, Centrifugal pump, Pelton wheel demonstration
Apparatus, Flow meter demonstration etc. It is made of Stainless steel impeller with a Tank capacity of
140 litres approx. It consist of a Flow meter. Membrane type flow adjusting valve, Safety switch
ON/OFF, Supports for accommodating the module to test. This unit incorporates wheels for mobility. Its
Dimensions are: 1000 x 600 x 700 mm and approximate
Weight is 40 Kg

Procedure:

• Check the filter (Membrane type flow adjusting valve)

for the dirt.
Basic hydraulic Feed
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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

• Take some water (approximately 40 Litres)

• Pour the water in the tank of the Basic Hydraulic
Feed system
• Connect one pipe to the flow meter using connector
Supply power to the system single-phase.
• Then start the apparatus by pressing the ON/OFF button
Note down the flow rate on the flow meter
Hydraulic Bench:
The Hydraulic Bench has been designed to complement with a wide range of accessories for students
experiments on the subjects of fluid mechanics. The unit consists of upper moulding and lower stainless-
steel tank mounted on top of a stainless-steel frame fitted with lockable wheels. The moulding is made
of fiberglass for light weight and corrosion resistant features. An open channel and volumetric
measuring tank are incorporated with the bench and means for mounting and connecting of various
accessories are provided.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
Water is stored in a sump tank in the lower part. A centrifugal pump is provided to draw the water from
the sump tank through a control valve to an outlet in the bed of the open channel. After passing through
testing unit, water is collected in the volumetric measuring tank which is stepped to accommodate high
and low flow rates. The volumetric tank incorporates a stilling baffle and remote sight tube with
calibrated volumetric scale. A dump valve at the base of the tank returns water to the sump tank for
recycling. An overflow opening is incorporated on the stilling baffle to prevent overtopping if the dump
valve is left closed
.
1. Working bench 2. Water channel
3. Volumetric tank 4. Main switch
5. Flow control valve 6. Sight tube
7. Centrifugal pump 8. Sump tank
9. Flowmeter 10. Drain Valve
(Rotameter)

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Unit Assembly:
1 2 5 3

4
6
7
9

10

SPECIFICATIONS:
Sump Tank:
Material: Stainless Steel
Volume: 150 Liters

Volumetric Tank:
Material: Fiberglass
Volume: 60 Liters

Delivery Pump:
Type: Centrifugal Pump
Material: Stainless Steel
Motor: 0.37 kW
Head: 32 meters

Determining Volumetric Flow rate using Hydraulic Bench:

The service module incorporates a moulded volumetric measuring tank which is stepped to
accommodate low or high flow rates.
A remote sight gauge, consisting of a sight tube and scale, is connected to a tapping in the base of the
tank and gives an instantaneous indication of water level. The scale is divided into two zones
corresponding to the volume above and below the step in the tank. A dump valve is in the base of the
volumetric tank. In operation, the volumetric tank is emptied by allowing the entrained water to return to
the sump. When test conditions have stabilized, retain the water in the tank.

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Timings are taken as the water level rises in the tank. Low flow rates are monitored on the lower portion
of the scale corresponding to the small volume beneath the step. Larger flow rates are monitored on the
upper scale corresponding to the main tank.
When extremely small volumetric flow rates are to be measured, the measuring cylinder should be used
rather than the volumetric tank. When using the measuring cylinder, diversion of the flow to and from
the cylinder should be synchronized as closely as possible with the starting and stopping of a watch. Do
not attempt to use a definite time or a definite volume.
Sr. # Discharge/Litres Time/s Flow rate
l/h l/m l/s m3/s

Discussion & Conclusion

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

10
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

EXPERIMENT NO. 02

Flow rate measurement using venturimeter apparatus

OBJECTIVE: -
1) Determination of error in flow measures using the venturimeter.
2) Determination of the Cd factor in the venturimeter.

Apparatus/Parts:
• Flow Meter Demonstration Apparatus
• Basic Hydraulic Feed System/Hydraulic Bench
• Flow Meter
• Pipes and Pipe Connectors
• Water

THEORY:
Flow in a Pipe:
When a fluid is flowing in a pipe the innumerable small particles get together and form a flowing
stream. These particles while moving group themselves in a variety of ways e.g they may move in
regular formation just as disciplined soldier do or they may swirl or jostle like the individual in a
disorderly manner; the type of flow of a liquid depends upon the manner in which the particles unit and
move.

Unit Description:
The Venturimeter, variable area meter and the orifice plate are installed in a series configuration to
permit direct comparison. Flow through the test section is regulated using a flow control valve. This
together with the bench control valve permits variation of the system static pressure. Pressure tappings
in the circuit are connected to an eight-bank manometer which incorporates an air inlet/outlet valve in
the top manifold with facilities to connect a hand pump. This enables the levels in the manometer bank
to be adjusted to a convenient level to suit the system static pressure. The pressure tappings for the
manometers are arranged to give a set of readings around the flow meters in the system.

11
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Fig: Flow meter Demonstration Apparatus

Venturimeter:
Venturi flow meters have been used for many years to measure the pipe discharge (Flow Rate). The
fluid flowing through a pipe is led through a contraction section to a throat with a smaller cross section.
Thus, the velocity in the throat is higher, leading to a reduction in pressure.
The discharge from the pipe can be determined based on the pressure drop between the inlet and throat
sections of the Venturi.
As shown in the figure 1 the fluid is accelerated by its passage through a converging cone of angle
1520o. A fluid passing through smoothly varying constrictions experience changes in velocity and
pressure. These changes can be used to
measure the flow rate of the fluid.

Procedure:
In this experiment we will find the difference between the flow we introduce in the Basic Hydraulic
Feed System and the flow (theoretical) we calculate from the mathematical expression using the venturi
meter in the flow meter demonstration apparatus.
First of all once the equipment is completely assemble by connecting the Basic Hydraulic Feed system
to the flow meter demonstration apparatus through pipes. Then we start the basic hydraulic feed system
which consists of water and the water flow in the flow meter. We read the rota meter which gives us the
real flow rate. We will make measures of the flow introduced in the equipment seeing the water reaches
in it in a determinate time. For each flow introduced we will have to see the reading in the volumetric
tubes (manometers) which corresponds to the venturi. This way the real flow will be directly given by
our Basic Hydraulic Feed System. Then from the above equation we will calculate the theoretical flow
rate. We will compare it with the real flow rate and will find the error. The theoretical flow rate is
calculated by formula

12
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

A2
Qth = × √2 g ∆ h

√( )
2
A2
1−
A12

Throat Area A2 = 3.14×10-4 m2 Inlet Area A1 = 8.04×10-4 m2

Then we will compare the real flow to the theoretical flow and will find the Coefficient of
discharge for the Venturi meter.

Coefficient of Discharge Cd:

Assuming a horizontal flow (neglecting minor elevation differences between measuring points)
the Bernoulli Equation can be modified to:

P1 + 1/2 ρ v12 = p2 + 1/2 ρ v22 which is simplified to relation Cd can be calculated by

Cd=Qreal/Qth

Observations:

S.No Q H1 (mm H2 Qth Cd

(lit/hr) H2O) (mm H2O) (lit/hr)

Specimen Calculations:
Graph:
Qreal vs Qth
Qreal vs √ h1−h2

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Discussion & Conclusion:

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

14
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Flow rate Measurement using Orifice Meter.

OBJECTIVE: -
 Determination of the error in flow using flow measures using the Orifice plate.
 Determination of the Cd factor in the orifice plate

Apparatus/Parts:
Flow meter demonstration Apparatus
Basic Hydraulic Feed System
Connecting Pipes
Water as fluid

THEORY:
Flow in a Pipe:
When a fluid is flowing in a pipe the innumerable small particles get together and form a Flowing
stream. These particles while moving group themselves in a variety of ways e.g they may move in
regular formation just as disciplined soldier do or they may swirl or jostle like the individual in a
disorderly mob; the type of flow of a liquid depends upon the manner in which the particles unit and
move. Though there are many types of flows, yet the following are important from the subject point of
view.

Orifice: An orifice is a vessel through which the fluid flows out is known as an orifice. The usual
purpose of an orifice is the measurement of discharge.

Fig: Flow meter Demonstration Apparatus

Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Procedure:
In this experiment we will find the difference between the flow we introduce in the Basic Hydraulic
Feed System and the flow (theoretical) we calculate from the mathematical expression using the venturi
meter in the flow meter demonstration apparatus.
First of all, once the equipment is completely assembled by connecting the Basic Hydraulic Feed system
to the flow meter demonstration apparatus through pipes. Then we start the basic hydraulic feed system
which consists of water and the water flow in the flow meter. We read the rota meter which gives us the
real flow rate. We will make measures of the flow introduced in the equipment seeing the water reaches
in it in a determinate time. For each flow introduced we will have to see the reading in the volumetric
tubes (manometers) which corresponds to the orificemeter. This way the real flow will be directly given
by our Basic Hydraulic Feed System. Then from the above equation we will calculate the theoretical
flow rate. We will compare it with the real flow rate and will find the error. The theoretical flow rate is
calculated by formula

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

A2
Qth = × √2 g ∆ h

√( )
2
A2
1−
A12

Throat Area A2 = 3.14×10-4 m2 Inlet Area A1 = 8.04×10-4 m2

Then we will compare the real flow to the theoretical flow and will find the Coefficient of
discharge for the Orifice meter.

Coefficient of Discharge Cd:

Assuming a horizontal flow (neglecting minor elevation differences between measuring points)
the Bernoulli Equation can be modified to:

P1 + 1/2 ρ v12 = p2 + 1/2 ρ v22 which is simplified to relation Cd can be calculated by

Cd=Qreal/Qth

17
Observations:

S.No Qreal H6 (mm H7 Qth Cd

(lit/hr) H2O) (mm H2O) (lit/hr)

Specimen Calculations:

Graph:
Qreal vs Qth
Qreal vs √ h1−h2
Discussion & Conclusion:

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

EXPERIMENT No. 4

Objective: Measurement of Energy losses in different elements of flow meter(rotameter, venturimeter,

orifice meter)

Apparatus/Parts:
• Flow meter demonstration Apparatus
• Basic Hydraulic Feed System
• Connecting Pipes
• Water as fluid

Procedure
First of all we connect the flow meter demonstration apparatus to the Basic Hydraulic Feed
system through pipes. Then we fill the basic hydraulic feed system with water. Then we open the
pump of the basic hydraulic feed system and open the flow control value of the Basic Hydraulic feed
system and Flow meter demonstration Unit. Now we compare the three elements which the
venturimeter, Orifice mete and variable area flow meter. For each real flow introduced we have to see
the energy loss in each device.
The readings of to energy loss for the venturimeter will come given by manometric tubes 1 and 3,
The reading of the energy loss for the variable area meter will come given by the manometric tube 4
and 5, The reading of the energy loss for the orifice plate will come given by manometric tubes 6 and
8. It has to be taken into account that the difference between the energy loss between the manometric
tubes 1 and 8 to be the sum of all the energy losses.

Flow Meter Apparatus

Observation & Calculations
Total
Energy Loss Energy
Sr. QREAL h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 h8 Loss
No. (l/h) VenturimeterOrificemeterRotameter
h1-h8
h1-h3 h4-h5 h6-h8

Graph:
Energy loss vs Flow rate
Discussion & Conclusion

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

EXPERIMENT NO.5
Demonstration of Laminar and Turbulent Flow and measurement of Reynolds number

Apparatus
• Osborne Reynolds Demonstrator
• Basic Hydraulic Feed System
• Ink
• Water
• Pipes
Theory
Reynold’s Number Demonstration Apparatus:
Osborne Reynolds’ demonstration equipment consists of
Inlet Pipe:
The inlet pipe is connected between the bench supply and the base of the constant head tank,
where glass marbles still the flow.
Flow Visualization Pipe
The flow visualization pipe is fitted with a bell mouth which promotes smooth entry to the
pipe.
Flow Control Valve
Flow through the pipe is regulated using a flow control valve. In use this valve should
face the volumetric tank. A short length of flexible piping attached to the valve will
prevent Splashing.
Dye Reservoir and Dye Injection
Dye contained in a reservoir is injected into the pipe
via a hypodermic tube. The flow of dye is controlled
via a valve and its position is adjusted using a screw

1. Tank for ink well with inlet pipe.

2. Water tank with glass beads.
3. Water supply.
4. Water drain.
5. Pipe section with valve.
6. Over flow.

Types of Flow

• laminar
• turbulent 23
• transient
Fig: Reynold’s Number Demonstrator
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Laminar flow
Laminar flow generally happens when dealing with small pipes and low flow velocities. Laminar flow
can be regarded as a series of liquid cylinders in the pipe, where the innermost parts flow the fastest, and
the cylinder touching the pipe isn't moving at all.

Turbulent flow
In turbulent flow vortices, eddies and wakes make the flow unpredictable. Turbulent flow happens in
general at high flow rates and with larger pipes.

Transitional flow
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulence in the center of the pipe,
and laminar flow near the edges. Each of these flows behave in different manners in terms of their
frictional energy loss while flowing and have different equations that predict their behavior.

Turbulent or laminar flow is determined by the dimensionless Reynolds Number.

Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number is important in analyzing any type of flow when there is substantial velocity
gradient (i.e. shear.) It indicates the relative significance of the viscous effect compared to the inertia
effect. The Reynolds numberis proportional to inertial force divided by viscous force.

The flow is

• laminar when Re < 2300

• transient when 2300 < Re < 2500
 turbulent when Re >2300

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Discussion

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

24
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
To measure forces imparted by impact of jet for various deflectors

Apparatus/Parts:

• Impact of Jet Apparatus

• Basic Hydraulic Feed System
• Water as working fluid
• Deflectors (Plate, Cone ,Hemi-sphere and slope deflector)

THEORY:

Jet of Water:
A jet of water is a stream of water coming out from a nozzle at high speed.

Application:
It is mainly used in Turbines especially in Impulse turbines

Calculation of Theoretical Jet Force

The theoretical jet force is calculated from the principle of linear momentum.
For Plate

Fth = V . ρ . (w1 – w2)

if w2 = 0 then

Fth = V . ρ . w1

For Cone

Fth = V . ρ . (w1 – w2x)

w2 = - w1. cos α with α = 45o

w2x = w2 . cos α

Fth = V . ρ . w1 . ( 1 + cos2 α)
For Hemisphere
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Fth = V . ρ . (w1 – w2)

if w2 = - w1 then

Fth = 2 . V . ρ . w1

For Slope

Fx = V . ρ . w1 . cos α

o
Fth = Fx . cos α with α = 45

2
Fth = V . ρ . w1 cos α

Comparison of the Bodies

The bodies used have a different geometry. This is the reason, why the energy of the water jet is
used different by each body. How large the extent of utilization is, can be seen, for example, on the
amount of water need to raise a body against the force F.

1. Weight
2. Deflector
3. Nozzle
4.Water
5.SupplyWater
6.Tank
7.Lever Apparatus

1. Lever Apparatus
2. Deflected Water Jet
3. Deflector
F1 Jet force
F2 Weight Force 26
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Procedure:
• Place the test set-up on the hydraulic feed so that the drain
routes the water into the channel. Fit connecting hose between
hydraulic and unit.
• Assemble deflector (hemisphere, cone) for this, loose the 4
screws on the cover and remove the cover. Fit appropriate
deflector on the threaded end of the rod, cover back the vessel
& tighten the 4screws.
• Now the 3 adjusting screws are adjusted accordingly so that
the deflector is in line with the nozzle to avoid eccentric
loading.

Now make sure that the defector is almost 10mm away from
the nozzle before applying any load with the help of spring and
the plate.

• Set the pointer to a zero position (without any load being

added) and mark it. Apply desired load.
• Now switch on the hydraulic feed let water impinge through
the nozzle. Water started striking the plate and plate showed
some deflection towards upside.
• A pointer is attached to this plate which showed some
deviation from its initial point.
• To take it back to the reference point, we added some weight
till it comes to its reference point.
• At this stage, we noted down the reading of Flow rate of
water and weight added to the deflector

27
Observation & Calculations
For Plate
Flow rate Velocity Calculated Force Measured Force (N)
Lit/h (m/s) (N)

For Hemisphere
Flow rate Lit/h Velocity Calculated Force Measured Force (N)
(m/s) (N)

For Slope
Flow rate Lit/h Velocity Calculated Force Measured Force (N)
(m/s) (N)

For Cone
Flow rate Lit/h Velocity Calculated Force Measured Force (N)
(m/s) (N)

Comparison of for Bodies

Example value Flow rate Lit/hour
0.5 N
Plate
Hemisphere
Slpoe
Cone

Sample Calculations (For all deflectors)

Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Discussions & Result

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

29
EXPERIMENT NO 7
To find Co-efficient of discharge cd, velocity cv and contraction cc of thick, and thin wall venture and
orifice type nozzles

Apparatus/Parts:

• Orifice Discharge Apparatus

• Basic Hydraulic
Feed
• Connecting Pipes
• Water as a fluid

Figure : Discharge through the orifice

Theory:
As the tank size is much larger than the orifice diameter the velocity of the water in the tank in
the direction of the orifice flow is very low and can be neglected.
The velocity of water slowly increases as it approaches the orifice. The streamline of the flow is shown
in Fig.1, from point 1 on the water surface of the tank to point 2 which is at the smallest area of the jet.
The water jet will reduce its diameter after passing through the orifice. This is known as Vena Contracta.
Pitot head level can be adjusted to measure the velocity of the jet at the Vena Contracta. Apply
Bernoulli’s equation.

Where: p = Pressure, N/m2

V = Velocity, m/s
Z = Elevation, m γ = Specific weight of water, N/m3
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
Subscript 1 and 2 refer to point 1 and point 2 respectively.
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Since p1 and p2 are equal to the atmospheric pressure the theoretical velocity of jet at Vena Contracta
from equation give us:

The actual velocity V2,act of the jet at Vena Contracta can be measured directly by a Pitot tube. The
velocity head from the Pitot tube is equal to the height H of water in the Pitot tube, therefore,

The ratio of V2,act to V2,th is called Velocity Coefficient Cv of the orifice, then

The ratio of the cross section area Ac of the jet at Vena Contracta to the cross-sectional area Ao of the
orifice is called the Coefficient of Contraction Cc , then

do = Orifice diameter = 8mm

Ao = Orifice cross-sectional area
dc = Diameter of jet at Vena Contracta
Ac = Cross-sectional area of jet at Vena Contracta
Theoretical discharge through the orifice

Qth = Ao V

Actual discharge through the orifice

Qact = AcV2,act = Ac
31
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

The ratio of actual discharge of orifice to theoretical discharge is called the Coefficient of Discharge Cd
then:

Figure : Orifice Discharge Apparatus

1. Inlet strainer, 2. Water connection, 3. Overflow, 4 twin tube manometers,

5 Pitot tube, 6. Water jet, 7. Measuring device for jet diameter

Procedure:
Fill up the tank with water up to required head by adjusting valve of hydraulic feed.
To measure the diameter of vena contracta lose the micrometer assembly screw and bring micrometer
knife near to jet.
Move the micrometer knife in such a way that it touches the first edge of water jet and measure the
reading on micrometer main scale.(position 1).

32
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Move the micrometer knife in such a way that it touches the other edge of water jet along the diameter
and measure the reading on micrometer main scale (position 2). Difference of reading will provide the
diameter of vena contracta.
Now move the pitot tube beneath the water discharging from orifice as shown in the figure and calculate
Hc. Head H can be measured directly on
the tube.

Figure 3. Pitot tube orientation Observation

Nozzle Flow Diameter of Static Velocity Coefficient of Coefficient Coefficient
Type Rate jet at vena head H Head velocity of of
contract (m) Cv contraction discharge
Hc
(L/HR) Dc(m) Cc
(m) Cd

Discussions & Conclusions

33
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

34
EXPERIMENT NO 08

Determination the coefficient of Drag and coefficient of Lift produced by aero foil at different
angle of attack

The demonstration wind tunnel is an open wind tunnel of the so-called Eiffel type wind tunnel, where
the air is drawn in from outside and blown back out into the open. The surrounding area returns the air to
the inlet. This type of wind tunnel is only suitable for relatively low air velocities (0 < Ma < 0.2). The
model reaches a Mach number of about Ma = 0.1.

Theory
The demonstration wind tunnel is an open wind tunnel of the so-called Eiffel type wind tunnel, where
the air is drawn in from outside and blown back out into the open see figure below. The surrounding area
returns the air to the inlet. This type of wind tunnel is only suitable for relatively low air velocities (0 <
Ma < 0.2). The model reaches a Mach number of about Ma = 0.1. As open wind tunnels feature negative
pressure in the measurement section, the section must be closed.

Open Wind Tunnel

On the other hand, if higher velocities are required, and then a closed wind tunnel can be used see figure
below. Since in these wind tunnels the measurement section represents the ambient pressure, the
measurement section can be open. Closed wind tunnels have an advantage in that less energy is required
than in an open wind tunnel due to the closed-circuit air routing. However, they need more space to
accommodate and higher cost to produce.
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Figure: Close Wind Tunnel

FUNCTION OF THE WIND TUNNEL

From reference to the above figure, the air is drawn in from the atmosphere via the streamlined funnel
(1).
Any transverse flow components are filtered out in the flow straightener (2). It is made of a tubular
honeycomb structure. The air exits from the flow straightener as a parallel flow and is accelerated to
roughly 3.3 times its original velocity in the jet (3).
The static pressure (4) is measured downstream of the jet at the entrance to the measurement section.
Based on the assumption of virtually loss free flow, the flow velocity can be determined from the
pressure difference with respect to ambient pressure (total pressure at zero velocity), or total pressure
can be recorded with pitot tube.
The air then flows through the measurement section (5) which has a constant cross-section. After the
measurement section the flow is decelerated in a diffuser (6) and part of the pressure drop required to

36
 Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

accelerate the air in the jet is recovered. The diffuser angle is designed in a way to prevent flow
separation.
An axial fan (7) with downstream guide (8) draws the air out of the diffuser and conveys it into the open.
A guard (9) behind the fan prevents contact with the fan when it is in operation.

DESIGN OF THE WIND TUNNEL

4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3
11

12
2
13
1

14

1. Smoke Generator Cylinder 2. Smoke Generator

3. Prechamber with flow straightener 4. Jet
5. Dial gauge 6. Pitot Tube
7. Measurement Section 8. Two-component Force unit
9. DAQ Control Box 10. Diffuser
11. Axial Fan 12. Inverter with fan speed controller
13. Models 14. Laboratory trolley

Prechamber (3), jet (4) and diffuser (10) are made of glass-fiber reinforced plastic. The flow straightener
(3) has a tubular honeycomb structure as shown in figure. The measurement section (7) is made of
Perspex glass. The axial fan (11) is provided with a downstream guide, which makes it highly efficient
and producing low noise. The fan is driven by a three-phase AC motor. A frequency converter (12)
permits infinite adjustment of rotational speed and thus air velocity see figure . The fan is rigidly
connected to the diffuser and both are attached to the laboratory trolley using rubber elements. This
effectively provides a shielding of vibrations and guarantees extremely smooth running.
37
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Procedure:
 Mount the aerofoil model in the middle of the working section
 Set the force at the measuring amplifier to zero with the help of the offset potentiometer.
 Start the wind tunnel, after the desired wind speed is reached set the aerofoil to the zero angles.
This is achieved by turning the holder until the model is directed to zero angle of attack. All
angles will be measured with reference to this angle position.
 Measure the drag and lift forces at different setting angles.
Calculation of the Drag and Lift:
The lift and drag forces are calculated from the measured forces as follows:

Observation & calculation

FD
FL
α

Discussion & Conclusions

38
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

39
EXPERIMENT NO 09
Objective:
To observe the boundary layer on a smooth, roughened and highly roughened plate placed in
wind tunnel.
Apparatus Description
The unit consists of three optionally insert able plates of differing roughness which can be fitted
in parallel with the flow in the working section of the wind tunnel and a Pitot tube probe (3) for
measuring velocity.
The plates can be moved in axial direction by way of knurled screw at the bottom of the
measuring section.
For exact measurement of the flow field in vertical direction, the Pitot tube probe (3) can be
adjusted with extreme precision via a Dial Gauge (1). The movement direction of the pitot tube
can be adjusted by using lead screws, for ‘y’ direction movement adjust the upper lead screw (2),
and for ‘x’ direction movement adjust the lead screw (5) on the right side, although a Digital
Vernier (5) is provided to adjust the ‘x’ direction position.

Technical Specifications:

Dimensions
Bracket
Width: 310 mm
Length: 400 mm
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Plate
Length: 150 mm
Thickness: 4 mm
Horizontal adjustment: 150 mm

Surface roughness Rz
Smooth 50 μm
Medium Roughened 90 μm
Highly Roughened 600 μm

Pitot tube probe with micrometer spindle

Probe diameter: dia. 0.7 mm
Vertical adjustment: 20 mm
Resolution: 0.01 mm
Hose connections: dia. 2 mm
Procedure:
1. Measure ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure and relative humidity and thus
establish current air density.
2. Set multi-tube manometer at equal level.
3. Run up wind tunnel to desired speed.
4. Use adjusting knob to move plate to rear position so that Pitot tube probe at front
edge is at x = 0 mm.
5. Lower probe onto surface of plate and record first measured value for pdyn. On account
of the probe diameter of d = 0.7 mm, this value corresponds to a height of y = 0.25
mm.
6. Record a measured value every 0.25 mm up to a height of y = 2 mm. One measured
value every 0.5 mm suffices up to a height of y = 10 mm.
7. Repeat procedure for other positions (e.g. x = 0, 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150mm) see
figure 1.

41
 Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Fig. 1

Observations:
Velocity distribution in the boundary layer, smooth plate, roughness

Distance from x = 0 mm x = 25 mm x = 50 mm x = 75 mm
the plate y in Pressure Velocity Pressure Velocity Pressure Velocity Pressure Velocity
mm Pa m/s Pa m/s Pa m/s Pa m/s
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50

Velocity distribution in the boundary layer, smooth plate, roughness

Distance from x = 100 mm x = 125 mm x = 150 mm x = 200 mm

the plate y in Pressure Velocity Pressure Velocity Pressure Velocity Pressure Velocity
mm Pa m/s Pa m/s Pa m/s Pa m/s
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50

42
Discussion & Conclusions

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

EXPERIMENT NO 10
Determine Performance characteristics of PELTON WHEEL

Apparatus/Parts:
• Pelton Wheel apparatus
• Basic Hydraulic Feed System
• Water as working fluid
• Connecting Pipes

THEORY:
Hydraulic machines are defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic energy (energy
possessed by water) into mechanical energy or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
Turbines are defined as hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
Hydraulic turbines are of different types according to specification and pelton wheel is one of the types
of hydraulic turbines.

Pelton wheel turbine:

The pelton wheel turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. The water strikes the bucket along the
tangent of the runner. The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy. The pressure
at the inlet and outlet is atmospheric. The turbine is used for high heads.
The wheel essentially consists of a disc made of cast-iron or steel fitted to the shaft. On the periphery of
the wheel are attached the blades or buckets. The buckets are made of cast iron or hard bronze and are in
the form of a double hemispherical cup. The water to the wheel is delivered by one or more nozzles. The
water after passing through the nozzle strikes the bucket at its centre in tangential direction the flows
axially in both directions over the two cups. The turbine rotates most efficiently when runner rotates at
half the velocity of the jet.

Constructional Details:
Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement:
The amount of water striking the buckets of the runner is controlled by providing a spear in the nozzle.
The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a hand wheel or automatically in an axial
direction depending upon the size of unit. When the spear is pushed forward into the nozzle the amount
of water striking the runner is reduced. On the other hand if the spear is pushed back, the amount of
water striking the runner increases.

Runner with buckets:

It consists of a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly spaced are fixed. The
shape of the buckets is of double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each bucket is divided into two
hemispherical parts by a dividing wall which is known as splitter.
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Casing:
The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge water to tail race. It
also acts as safe guard against accidents. As pelton wheel is an impulse turbine, the casing of the pelton
wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.

Breaking Jet:
When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction the amount of water
striking the runner reduces to zero. But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a long time. To
stop a nozzle in a short time a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of water on the back of
buckets. This jet of water is called breaking jet.

Working of Pelton wheel turbine:

The water from the reservoir flows through the penstocks at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted. The
nozzle increases the kinetic energy of the water flowing through the penstock by converting pressure
energy into kinetic energy. At the outlet of the nozzle, the water comes out in the form of jet and strikes
on the splitter, which splits up the jet into two parts. These parts of the jet glides over the inner surfaces
and comes out at the outer edge. The buckets are shaped in such a way that buckets rotates, runner of
turbine rotates and thus hydraulic energy of water is converted into mechanical energy on the runner of
turbine which is further converted into electrical energy in a generator/alternator.

1) Needle nozzle

2) Adjustable nozzle needle

3) Vane on the impeller

4) Redirected water
jet
5) profile of the vane

Procedure:
To run the turbine:

45
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual
1) Spring balance
2) Manometer
• In case high head water tank receives water from a centrifugal pump,3)thenAdjustment ofthat
ensure first the tank is
adequately filled before running the turbine. nozzle cross-section
• Open the supply valve of the tank slowly. 4) Needle nozzle
5) Impeller
• Open the nozzle slowly by operating the spear valve and further adjust the spear valve.
6) Adjustment of the
band brake
To slow down the turbine:
• For reducing the speed of runner suddenly, deflector is used to divert the jet by the required
amount.
• Close the spear valve slowly to the required extent.
• Remove the deflector away from the
Fig: Pelton jet. Apparatus
Wheel

To stop the turbine:

• In order to stop the turbine, divert the jet completely with the help of a jet deflector and employ a
braking device, if any, to bring the runner to stand still.
• Close the supply valve of the tank slowly.
• Close spear valve of the nozzle.
Pelton wheel turbine:
The Pelton turbine is the most visually obvious example of an impulse machine. A spear valve
directs a jet of water at a series of buckets which are mounted on the periphery of a rotor.  As the water
exiting the spear valve is at atmospheric pressure, the force exerted on the rotor is entirely due to
changes in the direction of the flow of water.  The Pelton turbine is therefore associated with
considerable changes of kinetic energy but little change in pressure energy.  The spear valve allows the
jet diameter to be varied which allows the water flow rate to be varied with a constant jet velocity. 
Large turbines may include more than one spear valve around the periphery of the rotor.
The operating characteristics of a turbine are often conveniently shown by plotting torque T, brake
power Pb, and overall turbine efficiency Et against turbine rotational speed n for a series of volume flow
rates Q. It is important to note that the efficiency reaches a maximum and then falls, whilst the torque
falls constantly and linearly.

The calculations are given by as

Hydraulic power supplied by the water,
Ph = ρ g Hi Q (Nm/s = Watts)      

Input head to the turbine (Hi)

the head used by the turbine in performing work. 
Hi = P /ρ g (unit = meter)                                  

The mechanical power, Pm

produced by the turbine in creating a torque T on the brake at rotor speed n is given by

46
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Pm = 2xπxnxT [Nm/s = Watts]                                           

The torque
T = Fb x r          [Nm]                                                         

where Fb is the brake force reading on the spring balances and r is the
pulley radius.
Radius of brake drum pulley r = 0.030m 

The overall turbine efficiency Et is thus:- 

                       
            
 Which is equal
to :                    

Experimental Procedure:
Connect the apparatus with the hydraulic feed.
Switch on the hydraulic feed pump.
Open the valve slowly so that water begin to flow through the turbine.
Adjust the flow rate in turbine by nozzle adjuster screw.
Load the turbine by turning the adjustment breaking device.
Note down the speed of turbine in rpm with the help of tachometer.
Note down the breaking power F.
Fb = F1 – F2
Observations
Sr# Speed Force Net Force Torque Power (Watt) Efficiency
(rpm) F1(N) F2(N) F b (Nm) Mechanical Hydraulic
(N) Pm Ph

Sample Calculation

Discussion & Conclusions

47
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

48
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

EXPERIMENT NO. 11
Determine Performance characteristics of Francis turbine

Apparatus
 Francis apparatus
 Basic Hydraulic Feed System
 Water as working fluid
 Connecting Pipes

THEORY:
Hydraulic machines are defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic energy (energy
possessed by water) into mechanical energy or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
The unit is intended for instruction and experimentation and serves to demonstrate the operating
principle of a Francis turbine. The vanes in the scroll casing can be adjusted. The turbine can be
loaded with an adjustable mechanical brake unit. Typical turbine characteristic curves and power
curves for various speeds can thus be recorded by way of the vane adjustment and brake unit.

49
The main parts of the Francis turbine are
 Penstock
 Casing
 Guide mechanism
 Runner

1. Adjustable brake unit 2. Spring balance

3. Vane adjustment 4. Vanes

5. Tube inlet 6. Scroll casing

7. Base plate 8. Runner

Reaction Turbine:
In this type of turbine there is a gradual; pressure drop and takes place continuously over the fixed
and moving blades or over guide vanes and moving vanes. The function of the guide vanes is that
they alter the direction of water as well as increases its velocity. As the water passes over the
moving vanes its kinetic energy is absorbed by them.

Francis Turbine:
The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as Francis turbine after
the name of J.B Francis an American engineer who in beginning designed inward radial flow
reaction turbine. In the modern Francis turbine, the water enters the runner of the turbine in the radial
direction and leaves in the axial direction at the outlet of the runner. Thus the modern Francis turbine is
a mixed flow type turbine.

Constructional details:
Pen Stock:
It is a long pipe at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted. The water from reservoir flows through the
penstock. The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of water flowing through the penstock.

Casing:
In case of reaction turbine, casing and runner are always full of water. The water from the
penstocks enters the casing which is of spiral shape in which area of cross section of the casing goes on
decreasing gradually. The casing completely surrounds the runner of the turbine. The casing is made
of spiral shape so that the water may enter the runner at constant velocity throughout the
circumference of the runner.

Guide Mechanism:
It consists of a stationary circular wheel all round the runner of the turbine. The stationary guide vanes
are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the
runner without shake at inlet. Also by a suitable arrangement, the width between two adjacent vanes
of a guide’s mechanism can be altered so that the amount of water striking the runner can vary.
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Runner:
It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed. The surface of the vanes is made
very smooth. The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters and leaves the runner without
shock. The runners are made of cast steel, cast iron or stainless steel. They are keyed to the shaft.

Draft Tube:
The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than atmosphere pressure.
The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe of gradually
increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the tail race. This tube
of increasing area is called draft tube. The draft tube, in addition to serve a passage for water
discharge has the following two purposes also
 The turbine may be placed above the tail race and hence turbine may be inspected properly.
 The kinetic energy rejected at the outlet of the turbine is converted into useful pressure energy.

Procedure:
The operating characteristics of a turbine are often conveniently shown by plotting torque T, brake
power Pb, and overall turbine efficiency Et against turbine rotational speed n for a series of volume flow
rates Q. It is important to note that the efficiency reaches a maximum and then falls, whilst the torque
falls constantly and linearly.

The calculations are given by as

Hydraulic power supplied by the water,
Ph = ρ g Hi Q (Nm/s = Watts)      

Input head to the turbine (Hi)

the head used by the turbine in performing work. 
Hi = P /ρ g (unit = meter)                                  

The mechanical power, Pm

produced by the turbine in creating a torque T on the brake at rotor speed n is given by
Pm = 2.π.n.T  [Nm/s = Watts]                                           

The torque
T = Fb x r          [Nm]                                                         

where Fb is the brake force reading on the spring balances and r is the
pulley radius.
51
 Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Radius of brake drum pulley r = 25mm 

The overall turbine efficiency Et is thus:- 

                                             
 Which is equal to

Experimental Procedure:
1. Position experimentation setup on hydraulic bench such that the outlet from the draft tube (1) can
guide the water into the duct of hydraulic bench.
2. Make hose connection between hydraulic bench and Connection (2) of Francis turbine using quick
release connectors.
3. Use hand wheel (3) to fully release brake unit of turbine, this relieves the load on the spring
balances (4) and the belt (5) is no longer pulled against the pulley.

4. Close Hydraulic bench’s main cock and switch on pump; slowly open
main cock as far
as it will go. Release lever (6) for vane adjustment by turning it and expel air from draft tube by
slowly opening and closing (7) the vanes.

5. The angle of impact of the water on the runner vanes (1) is stipulated by the position of the vanes (2).
The above angle determines the speed and thus also the power of the turbine.

52
 Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

 Vane adjustment is released by turning the lever.

 Now open the water supply from the hydraulic bench.
 Load the turbine by turning the adjustment breaking device.
 Note down the speed of turbine in rpm with the help of tachometer. Note down the breaking
power F. Fb = F1 – F2
Observations
Sr# Speed Force Net Force Torque Power Efficiency
(rpm) Fb (Nm) (Watt)
F1(N) F2(N) (N) Mechanical Hydraulic
Pm Ph

Sample Calculation:

Discussion & Conclusions

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

53
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

54
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

EXPERIMENT NO. 12
Determine Performance characteristics of Kaplan Turbine
Apparatus
 Kaplan Turbine apparatus
 Basic Hydraulic Feed System
 Water as working fluid
 Connecting Pipes
THEORY: Hydraulic machines are defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic
energy (energy possessed by water) into mechanical energy or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
MIXED FLOW REACTION TURBINE
This is a turbine wherein it is similar to inward flow reaction turbine except that when it leaves the
moving vane, the direction of water is turned from radial at entry to axial at outlet. The rest of the parts
and functioning is same as that of the inward flow reaction turbines.
Axial flow reaction turbine: This is a reaction turbine in which the water flows parallel to the axis of
rotation. The shaft of the turbine may be either vertical or horizontal. The lower end of the shaft is
made larger to form the boss or the hub. A number of vanes are fixed to the boss.When the vanes are
composite with the boss the turbine is called propeller turbine. When the vanes are adjustable the
turbine is called a Kaplan turbine

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 7

55
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

1. Adjustable brake unit 2. Shaft

3. Water inlet 4. clapping bars

5. Water outlet 6. propeller

7. Force gauge 8. base plate

Constructional details:
Pen Stock:
It is a long pipe at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted. The water from reservoir flows through the
penstock. The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of water flowing through the penstock.

Casing:
In case of reaction turbine, casing and runner are always full of water. The water from the
penstocks enters the casing which is of spiral shape in which area of cross section of the casing goes on
decreasing gradually. The casing completely surrounds the runner of the turbine. The casing is made
of spiral shape so that the water may enter the runner at constant velocity throughout the
circumference of the runner.

Guide Mechanism:
It consists of a stationary circular wheel all round the runner of the turbine. The stationary guide vanes
are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the
runner without shake at inlet. Also by a suitable arrangement, the width between two adjacent vanes
of a guide’s mechanism can be altered so that the amount of water striking the runner can vary.

Runner:
It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed. The surface of the vanes is made
very smooth. The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters and leaves the runner without
shock. The runners are made of cast steel, cast iron or stainless steel. They are keyed to the shaft.

Draft Tube:
The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than atmosphere pressure.
The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe of gradually
increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the tail race. This tube
of increasing area is called draft tube. The draft tube, in addition to serve a passage for water
discharge has the following two purposes also

The turbine may be placed above the tail race and hence turbine may be inspected properly.
The kinetic energy rejected at the outlet of the turbine is converted into useful pressure energy.

56
Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Procedure
The operating characteristics of a turbine are often conveniently shown by plotting torque T, brake
power Pb, and overall turbine efficiency Et against turbine rotational speed n for a series of volume flow
rates Q. It is important to note that the efficiency reaches a maximum and then falls, whilst the torque
falls constantly and linearly. The calculations are given by as

Hydraulic power supplied by the water,

Ph = ρ g Hi Q (Nm/s = Watts)      

Input head to the turbine (Hi)

the head used by the turbine in performing work. 
Hi = P /ρ g (unit = meter)                                  

The mechanical power, Pm

produced by the turbine in creating a torque T on the brake at rotor speed n is given by
Pm = 2xπxnxT [Nm/s = Watts]                                           

The torque
T = Fb x r          [Nm]                                                         
where Fb is the brake force reading on the spring balances and r is the pulley radius.
Radius of brake drum pulley                           r = 25mm

The overall turbine efficiency Et is thus:- 

                                             
 

Which is equal to

Observations
Sr# Speed Force Net Force Torque Power Efficiency
(rpm) Fb (Nm) (Watt)
F1(N) F2(N) (N) Mechanical Hydraulic
Pm Ph

Sample Calculations

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Discussion & Conclusions

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Experiment No 13
To study the performance of Reciprocating Pump

 Apparatus
 Reciprocating ump unit
 Hydraulic bench
 Water supply
 laptop

Theory
In general a pump may be defined as a mechanical device which when interposed in a pipeline, converts
the mechanical energy supplied to it from some external source into hydraulic energy and transfers the
same to the liquid through the pipeline, thereby increasing the energy of the flowing liquid. Almost all
the pumps increase the pressure energy of the liquid which is subsequently converted into potential
energy as the liquid is lifted from a lower level to a higher level. The various pumps may broadly be
classified into the following two types:

Positive-displacement pumps.
Rotodynamics pumps (or dynamic-pressure pumps).
The 'positive displacement' pumps are those pumps in which the liquid is sucked and then it is actually
pushed or displaced due to the thrust exerted on it by a moving member, which results in lifting the
liquid to the required height. These pumps usually have one or more chambers which are alternately
filled with the liquid to be pumped and then emptied again. As such the discharge of liquid pumped by
these pumps almost wholly depends on the speed of the pump. The most common example of the
positive displacement type of pumps is that of reciprocating pumps.

The 'rotodynamic pumps' have a rotating element, called impeller, through which-as the liquid passes its
angular momentum changes, due to which the pressure energy of the liquid is increased; As such a
rotodynamic pump does not push the liquid as in the case of a positive displacement pump. The
centrifugal pumps are the most common examples of rotodynamic pumps.

Main components and working of a reciprocating pump:

A reciprocating pump essentially consists of a plunger and a cylinder where the plunger is enclosed by
cylinder. The cylinder is connected to suction and delivery pipes, each of which is provided with a non-
return or one way valve called suction valve and delivery valve respectively. The function of non-return
or one way valve is to admit liquid in one direction only. Thus the suction valve allows the liquid only to
enter the cylinder and the delivery valve permits only its discharge from the cylinder. The piston of the
plunger is connected to a crank by means of a connecting rod.
As the crank is rotated at uniform speed by a driving engine or motor, the piston or plunger moves to
and fro (or backward and forward) in the cylinder. When the crank rotates from e =0' to e = 180', the
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piston or plunger which is initially at its extreme left position (that is, it is completely inside the
cylinder), move to its extreme right position, (that is, it moves outwardly from the cylinder). During the
outward movement of the piston or plunger a partial vacuum (pressure below atmospheric) is created in
the cylinder, which enables the atmospheric pressure acting on the liquid surface in the well or sump
below, to force the liquid up the suction pipe and fill the cylinder by forcing open the
suction valve.

Since during this operation of the pump the liquid is sucked from below it is known as its suction stroke.
Thus at the end of the suction stroke the piston or plunger is at its extreme right position, the crank is at e
= 180' (i.e., at its outer dead center), the cylinder is full of liquid, the suction valve is closed and the
delivery valve is just at the point of opening.

In a reciprocating pump, a volume of liquid is drawn into the cylinder through the suction on the intake
stroke and is discharged under positive pressure through the outlet valves on the discharge stroke. The
discharge from a reciprocating pump is pulsating and changes only when the speed of the pump is
changed. This is because the intake is always a constant volume. Often an air chamber is connected on
the discharge side of the pump to provide a more even flow by evening out the pressure surges.
Reciprocating pumps are often used for sludge and slurry.

Types of Reciprocating Pumps:

The reciprocating pumps can be classified according to the liquid being in contact with one side or both
the sides of the piston or plunger; and according to the number of cylinders provided.

According to the first basis of classification the reciprocating pumps may be classified as:
 Single acting pump.
 Double acting pump.

If the liquid is in contact with one side of the piston or plunger only, it is known as single acting pump.
Thus as shown in Fig. a single acting pump has one suction and one delivery pipe and in one complete
revolution of crank there are only two strokes-one suction and one delivery stroke. On the other hand if
the liquid is in contact with both the sides of the piston or plunger, it is known as double acting pump.
As shown in Fig. a double acting pump has two suction and two delivery pipes with appropriate valves,
so that during each stroke when suction takes place on one side of the piston, the other side delivers the
liquid. In this way in the case of a double acting pump in one complete revolution of the crank there are
two suction strokes and two delivery strokes.

According to the number of cylinders provided the reciprocating pumps may be classified as:
 Single cylinder pump.
 Double cylinder pump.
 Triple cylinder pump.
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Function of Air Vessel:

The air vessel is a cast iron chamber, which has opening at the base, through which water can flow, one
chamber is fitted on the suction pipe just near to suction valve and one on the delivery pipe just near the
delivery valves. Each channel is converted through a small length of pipe. For efficient working,
vacuum vessels should be 3 to 5 times the discharge per stroke and the air vessel on the delivery side 6
to 10 times the discharge per stroke.
During the middle of delivery stroke, when pump is facing the water into the delivery pipe at a velocity
greater than the average, excess water flows into the air vessel and compresses the tapped air in upper
portion of the chamber. At the end of the stroke when water flows into the delivery pipe at a rate less
than the average water flows out of air vessel from the excess amount of water already stored to keep the
discharge more uniform. This fluctuating water column causes the acceleration head to be reduced that
in between pump cylinder and the air vessel, which allows the pump to run at higher speeds. Thus in this
way it saves large amount of power lost in developing accelerating heads on suction side, water first
collects in the air vessel and then flows in cylinder on delivery side. Water first goes to air vessel and
then flows with a uniform velocity. An air vessel provided in a reciprocating pump acts like a flywheel
of an engine.

Other functions
 Reduces the possibility of separation and cavitation.
 Allows pump to run at high speed.
 Suction head can be increased by increasing the length of pipe below air vessel.
 Large amount of power is saved due to low acceleration head.
 Uniform discharge.
Unit Assembly:

5
7

9
4
10

3
11

12 1

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13

14

15

16

17

18

20
19

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1. Discharge Pressure in Bars 2. Breaker

3. Emergency Switch 4. Power Meter
5. RPM Meter 6. Flow Sensor
7. Pressure Sensor 8. Air Vessel
9. Water Tank 10. Control Valve
11. Frequency Modulator 12. Reciprocating Pump
13. Non return Valve 14. Pump Discharge
15. Pressure Safety set at 6 Bars 16. Pump Suction
17. Piston 18. Lock Knob
19. Stroke increase or decrease percentage 20. Knob to increase or decrease stroke length

Technical Specification:
Bore diameter = 38 mm Stroke Length = 2 ~ 20 mm
ID of delivery Pipe = 15 mm Power Consumption = 0.35 kW Maximum
Flow rate = 155 L/h Maximum Pressure = 1.3 MPa
Mechanical Safety = 6 bars Phase = Single

Formulae
Discharge flow rate
Theoretical flow rate
Qth = A.Ls.N/60
A= cross sectional area of piston
Ls = length of stroke
N = speed of crank

Actual Flow rate

QAct = volume flow rate in m3/s (take from rotameter directly)

Pump Head:
H = (PD – PS) / ρw.g
where
H = pump head
Ps = suction pressure
PD = Discharge pressure
ρw = Density of water

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Hydraulic Pump Output Power:

PHYD = ρw .g .H .QAct
H = Head of pump

Electrical Power:
The motor input power is directly obtained from digital display, or can be calculated using formula
Pel = V . I

Pump Efficiency:
The pump efficiency is calculated from the hydraulic pump power and the electric motor power.
ηpump = (PHYD/PA) x 100

Volumetric Efficiency
ηV = COD x 100
COD = Coefficient of discharge

Pump Speed:
The maximum speed of reciprocating pump can be calculated as
v = r. ω
r = S/2
S = Stroke length
ω = angular speed pf pump (2.π.N / 60)

Slip percentage
Slip = theoretical flow rate - Actual flow rate
Percentage slip = Slip x 100
Procedure:
 Push the Emergency Button.
 Plug the wire to the socket.
 Turn ON the Main Breaker.
 Fill the tank with water till desire level.
 Release the Emergency Switch.
 Press RUN button on the Speed Controller.
 Set the Pump Speed from the variable potentiometer.
 Note down the values in the table.
 Repeat the experiment with different variation like changing the suction head, changing the
stroke length, changing the RPM, and note down the values.

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Observation
Stroke Length: _____________ Bore Dia: 38mm

Sr Suction Pressure P1 Discharge Flowrate RPM Power

no (mmH2O) Pressure P2 Actual QACT Electrical
(bar) (LPM)

Sample Calculations:
Graph:
Pump head vs flow rate
Efficiency vs flow rate
Discussion & Conclusions

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks

EXPERIMENT NO 14:
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Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

Objective
Demonstration working of centrifugal pump
Effect of the Rotational Speed on the Efficiency of Centrifugal Pump

Apparatus/Parts:
 Variable speed centrifugal pump apparatus
 Basic Hydraulic Feed System
 Water as working fluid
 Connecting Pipes

Theory
The centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic machine, which increases the pressure energy of a liquid with the
help of centrifugal action. In this type of pump liquid is imparting a whirling motion due to the rotation
of the impeller which creates a centrifugal head or dynamic pressure. This pressure head enables the
lifting of liquid from a lower level to higher level. The centrifugal pump acts as a reverse of an inward
radial flow reaction turbine

Figure 1.Centrifugal ump

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Main parts
1. Impeller: The rotating part of a centrifugal pump is called “Impeller”. It consists of a series of
backward curved vanes. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which is connected to the shaft of an
electric motor.
2. Casing or chamber: The casing of a centrifugal pump is similar to the casing of a reaction
turbine. It is an air-tight passage surrounding the impeller and is designed in such a way that the
kinetic energy of the water discharged at the outlet of the impeller is converted in to pressure
energy before the water leaves the casing and enters the delivery pipe. The following three types
of casing are commonly adopted:
1. Volute casing
2. Vortex casing
3. Casing with guide blades
3. Suction pipe: it connects the inlet of the pipe to the pump from which the water is to be pumped.
4. Strainer: it is provided at the lower end of the suction pipe which prevents the solid bodies and
debris from entering the pump which is not prevented will result in damaging the impeller.
5. Delivery pipe: its lead water from the pump outlet to the desired point.
6. Prime mover: it drive the shaft of an impeller. It may be an IC engine or electric motor
Operation:
1. Prime the pump: priming means filling the suction pipe ,casing of the pump and a portion of the
delivery pipe upto the delivery valve with the liquid to the pumped so that the air is completely
driven out of these elements.
2. After priming , keeping the deivery valve still closed, start an prime mover to rotate the impeller.
The rotation of the impeler inside the casing, which is full of liquid,will produce the vortex
which is responsible for imparting a centrifugal head to the water. It will also cause a reduction
of pressure at the center of the impeller and thus liquid will rush through the suction pipe.
3. when the impeller attain a normal speed the delivery valve is opened and thus liquid will rush
though the suction pipe.

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Unit Assembly

1. Display and controls

2. Centrifugal pump
3. Motor
4. Ball valve for adjusting the delivery pressure
5. Delivery side Pressure manometer
6. Intake side Pressure manometer

Formulae
To determine the pump efficiency, the electrical input power of the drive motor and the hydraulic
output of the pump are needed.
 Motor Input Power:
The motor input power is given from the frequency converter and shown on the digital display.
PA = (from the digital display)

 Hydraulic Pump Output Power:

The output power of the hydraulic pump is calculated from:
PHYD = VHρg
H is the delivery head, ρ the water density and g the gravitational acceleration.

 Density of water:
The density of water is considered as:
ρ= 998 kg/m3

 Delivery Head of the Pump:

The delivery head is calculated as follows:
H= {(PD – PS) / gρ} + y + {(CD2 – CS2) / 2g}
 The influence of the flow speeds C D and CS cancel each other due to equal cross-sections in suction
and pressure connections.
y is the height difference of the two manometer, where y = 0.18m

 Pump Efficiency:
The pump efficiency is calculated from the hydraulic pump power and the electric motor power.

ηpump = (PHYD/PA.ηmotor)
efficiency of motor ηmotor = 0.92
procedure
 Attached the Basic Hydraulic Feed System with the Centrifugal Pump apparatus to provide it a
continuous water supply, and first done the priming of the motor. For this purpose, we turned on
the pump of Basic Hydraulic Feed System for a moment.
 After priming, we started our experiment by turning on the centrifugal pump. We turned on the
control valve completely to allow water come inside the pump without any hindrance.
 So, now at some RPM we get the reading of Power displayed on the digital meter in watts.
 We got the reading of Ps showed on the analogue pressure meter in bar.
 We got the flow rate of water from Rotameter attached with the Basic Hydraulic Feed System.
 After getting all these readings, we calculated our required efficiency and performed the
experiment by changing the value of RPM from RPM knob
Observation
n = _________rpm
Sr # PD Ps QAct H PA PHYD ηPump
bar bar (l/h) (m) (W) (W)
(%)

n = _________rpm
Sr # PD Ps QAct H PA PHYD ηPump
bar bar (l/h) (m) (W) (W)
(%)

Sample Calculations
Graph
Pump head vs flow rate
Efficiency vs flow rate
Discussion & Conclusions

Laboratory Skill Rubrics

CLO-2 Marks Poor Below Average Average Good

Results not Results accurate & Results accurate &

Results are accurate, but
accurate, Not Can validate the Affectively utilizes
cannot identify reasons
provided experiment by the engineering
Results and 5 for difference in
discussions & providing discussion knowledge in
experimental and
Discussion conclusion & conclusions with discussions and
theoretical value
properly minor mistakes. collusions

Marks 0 2 4 5

Total Marks 5 Obtained Marks