A supplement to the SAVE

Body of Knowledge

SAVE International®
Function Analysis Guide: A supplement to the SAVE Body of Knowledge
© 2016 by SAVE International®
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or
transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the
copyright holder, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and
certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law.
For permission requests or ordering information, contact SAVE International® at the
address below:
19 Mantua Road
Mount Royal, NJ 08061
www.value-eng.org

ISBN 978-0-9961248-8-1
A publication of
Interspiral Press
Saline, MI 48176
www.interspiralpress.com

First edition.
CREDITS
AUTHORS

James D. Bolton, CVS®-Life, FSAVE, PE, PVM, FINVEST

MVF Director, Executive Director / SAVE Past President, Past Certification Board
Re-Certification Director

Richard A. Harrington, CVS®-Life, FSAVE

MVF Director / SAVE Past Chapter President, Past Director of Communications

Stephen J. Kirk, CVS®-Life, FSAVE, PhD, FAIA, LEED AP

MVF Director, VP Education / SAVE VP Education, Past President

Bruce L. Lenzer, CVS®-Life, FSAVE, CQM/OE, CLA, CAQMSA

MVF Director, President / SAVE Past President

James A. Rains, CVS®-Life, FSAVE

MVF Director, Past Chairman / SAVE Past President, Past Certification Board Executive
Director

Robert B. Stewart, CVS®-Life, FSAVE, PMP, PMI-RMP

MVF Director, Chairman / SAVE VP Communications

1
2 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to express their appreciation to SAVE International® and the
Miles Value Foundation for their support and encouragement during the many months
required to prepare this document. Inspiration for this document is from Lawrence D. Miles,
the creator of the value methodology and the technique of function analysis. Thanks also to
Charles W. Bytheway, who invented the FAST technique, and Jerry Kaufman, who
significantly refined the method.
A special thanks to Muthiah Kasi, CVS®-Life, FSAVE, PE, ASTM, FINVEST for
providing two case study examples. Karen Smith and Mariah Brink provided technical
reviews. Sara Lenzer served as copy editor. Dave Algase prepared the page design. David
Stone of Bluestone Marketing designed the book cover. April Hiller prepared the FAST
diagram graphics. The Chicago Chapter of SAVE helped fund this effort. Mary Ann Lewis,
FSAVE, current SAVE President, coordinated the Guide’s distribution with the SAVE
Business Office.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

SECTION A: VALUE METHODOLOGY & FUNCTION ANALYSIS

Introduction to the Value Methodology ....................................................

Why Use Function Analysis?...................................................................
Key Elements and Primary Techniques of Function Analysis .................
What Are the Functions of Function Analysis? .......................................
Function Inspired Change .......................................................................

SECTION B: FUNCTION ANALYSIS BASICS

Identify Functions ....................................................................................

Classify Functions ...................................................................................
Random Function Identification Worksheet ............................................
The Power of Function Analysis ..............................................................

SECTION C: FUNCTION ANALYSIS SYSTEM TECHNIQUE (FAST)

BASICS
What is FAST? ........................................................................................
Why use FAST? ......................................................................................
When to use FAST? ...............................................................................
How to perform function analysis and FAST diagramming .....................
How to Construct a FAST Diagram .........................................................
How to Validate a FAST Diagram ...........................................................
Allocate Resources .................................................................................
Prioritize Functions for Value ..................................................................
4 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Identify Opportunities for Value Improvement .........................................

FAST Summary and Function Inspired Change .....................................

SECTION D: PROJECT APPLICATION

Case Study Examples .............................................................................
D1 Highway Guiderail.........................................................................
D2 Library ..........................................................................................
D3 Retaining Wall...............................................................................
D4 Building Columns ..........................................................................
D5 Railroad Grade Separation ..........................................................
D6 Office Building...............................................................................

SECTION E: PRODUCT APPLICATION

Case Study Examples .............................................................................
E1 Mouse Trap ...................................................................................
E2 Combination Microwave-Convection-Broiler Oven .......................
E3 Commercial Battery .....................................................................
E4 Centrifugal Pump .........................................................................

SECTION F: PROCESS APPLICATION

Case Study Examples .............................................................................
F1 Value Methodology Module I Workshop ......................................
F2 Over-molded Insert Injection Molding Process ............................

APPENDICES
A. Frequently Asked Questions ............................................................
B. Value Definitions ..............................................................................
C. References ......................................................................................
D. Function Analysis Toolkit ..................................................................
1. Random Function Identification Worksheet ..................................
2. Function Analysis Systems Technique (FAST) Worksheet......... 4
 3. Function Resource Matrix Worksheet ...........................................

INTRODUCTION
Lawrence D. Miles, the “Father of Value Analysis,” stated, “The customer wants a
function.” People want functions, not things. Function analysis is considered the heart of the
Value Methodology (VM), however, many people have difficulty applying its concepts and
techniques to their projects, products, and processes. This document provides guidance on
the process and application of function analysis, including Function Analysis System
Technique (FAST), for practitioners and those who are preparing for SAVE International®
certification.
This guide presents instructions and examples of these techniques as part of the SAVE
International® Value Methodology Body of Knowledge (VMBOK) for the improvement of
projects, products, and processes. In addition, this guide supports the SAVE VM Standard
and the ASTM Standard #1699-13.
 Section A introduces the Value Methodology and relates function analysis to the overall
process of conducting a value study. This section also explains the importance of
function analysis.
 Section B provides the reader with the basics of function analysis, including the
identification, definition, and classification of functions. It also discusses how to analyze
functions to determine opportunities for value improvement. Finally, this section
presents function analysis worksheets and completed examples to help the reader
perform these tasks.
 Section C takes function analysis a step further by introducing FAST diagramming. This
section covers the basics of FAST, including guidelines for diagram preparation,
common symbols, and how to validate function logic. Section C also presents
information for assigning cost and other resource measures to functions. Value study
teams identify opportunities for the greatest value improvement by focusing on the high
cost/low performing functions based on these assignments.
 Sections D, E, and F offer examples of completed function analyses and FAST
diagrams for project, product, and process applications.
 The Appendix responds to frequently asked questions and provides definitions,
references, and a suggested toolkit of worksheets for use in performing function
analysis.
It is the authors’ intent that the Function Analysis Guide will result in a greater
understanding of function analysis and FAST diagraming to the extent that it becomes
second nature to those using the Value Methodology to improve their projects, products, and
6 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

processes. Application of the techniques covered herein will result in better studies and,
most importantly, better results.
SECTION A
VALUE METHODOLOGY & FUNCTION
ANALYSIS

Introduction to Value Methodology

The Value Methodology (VM) is a systematic process used by a multidisciplinary team to
improve the value of a project, product, or process through the analysis of functions. The
VM consists of the following six-phase job plan:
1. Information Phase
2. Function Analysis Phase
3. Creative Phase
4. Evaluation Phase
5. Development Phase
6. Presentation Phase
The Value Methodology, a Pocket Guide to Reduce Cost and Improve Value Through
Function Analysis (see Appendix C: References) provides a thorough discussion of the VM
and its application. This Function Analysis Guide focuses primarily on the second phase,
Function Analysis.

Why Use Function Analysis?

When we go to the store, do we buy things or do we buy what those things will do for
us. Of course, we buy what something does for us and how well it does what we want it to
do. That includes performance, quality, and selling features like attractiveness, taste, feel, or
smell. Finally, we also look at the price or cost to purchase that item. We normally buy the
product that does the most and costs the least. That is how value practitioners define value:
to perform the necessary functions reliably (performance) for the lowest overall cost (life
cycle cost). Knowing a product’s functions and the cost to produce the functions is
imperative to meeting the needs and demands of the customer.
Many professionals feel that the main purpose or objective of function analysis is to
identify the greatest opportunity for value improvement. Function analysis is actually the
catalyst that helps teams see the functions that underlie a project, product, or process. The
aim is to help VM practitioners and users understand proper verb/noun language in order to

9
10 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

create a shift in understanding. Proper execution of function analysis by a multi-disciplined

team produces a more creative, comprehensive understanding of an object’s functions,
enhancing results to achieve or exceed the study objectives.
This guide provides a common format to display the interactions or relationships
between functions, shown in a FAST diagram. The FAST diagram offers many benefits that
include an orderly arrangement of a project’s functions (organizing functions in how-why
logic), testing the validity of the functions chosen, stimulating team interaction, and creating
a common understanding of the project by all team members regardless of their background
or education.

Description of Functions and Function Analysis

Lawrence D. Miles stated, “If I can’t get the product, how do I get the function?” A
functi
on in [The] customer wants function. A customer wants something done,
VM is such as wanting something enclosed, held, moved, separated, cleaned,
define heated, cooled, or whatever under certain conditions; and, within
d as certain limits, wants a shape, a color, an aroma, a texture, a sound, a
“that precious material, or whatever brings pleasure to him or herself.
which Thus, the language of function is the heart of VM.
a
project, product, or process must do to make it work and meet the customer’s needs.”
This definition gets its roots from the writings of Mr. Miles:

Functions are described using generic, two-word connections. The first word is a verb
and the second is a noun. Mr. Miles stated, “While the naming of functions may appear
simple, the exact opposite is the rule.” In these abstract and generic verb-noun combinations,
the verb describes the action, and the noun describes the subject or object upon which the
action occurs. It is always best practice to use an active verb and a measurable noun
whenever possible (explained further in this guide).
 SECTION A 11

Once the team identifies a verb-noun function, they can test it by asking these three
simple questions:
1. What does the function perform for the customer?
2. Does the function perform what the customer wants? (i.e. Does this function meet
the customer’s expectation or need?)
3. Is the customer willing to pay for this function?
Function analysis is important because it alters the thought process of the user. Altering
the thought process means that function analysis actually changes the way one thinks about
a particular project, product, or process. No longer focusing on the subject under study and
what it is, team-thinking shifts to consider what it does, and how else to perform it. This
change in mindset is powerful.

Key Elements and Fundamental Techniques of Function

Analysis
Summarized below are the key elements of function analysis, followed by a more
detailed discussion, including examples and techniques, of each element. Figure A1
provides a basic illustration of the process.
1. Define Functions – Focuses on
identifying, classifying, and
organizing functions. A Certified
Value Specialist (CVS®) facilitator
may perform these steps together or
in sequence, based upon the various
techniques used.
Identify Functions – The most
commonly used techniques are: 1)
random function identification, 2)
Random Function Identification
Worksheet method, and 3) FAST.
Random function identification is
just that – randomly listing
functions of the overall subject. A
Figure A1: Elements of Function Analysis
Random Function Identification
Worksheet involves randomly listing
the functions of each component of the subject of the study.
Classify Functions – The key techniques of classification are the same as the first
step. Classify each identified function as basic or secondary.
12 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE
TIP: Some practitioners randomly identify functions based on the classification,
combining identification with classifying functions; for example, randomly listing all
the basic functions.

Organize Functions – To ensure that the study team has identified all functions, the
FAST is commonly used and is highly recommended. FAST is a powerful precedent
(How-Why) logic, analytical diagramming tool further described in Section C.
Identification of all functions is difficult without a logic diagram via the FAST method.
2. Allocate Resources – This element correlates resources (i.e., time, money, space) to
functions. The most common techniques used in this step include: 1) Random Function
Identification method, and 2) function-resource matrix.
3. Prioritize Functions – The goal of completing the previous elements is identification
of functions that have the best opportunity to improve value. Common techniques to
prioritize functions include the following: 1) high cost, 2) high life cycle cost, 3)
schedule performance and risk, 4) high risk, 5) sustainability, 6) customer
concern/problem, and 7) value team judgment.
1. Define Functions
This element focuses on defining functions. In order to accomplish this, it is necessary
to identify, classify, and organize the functions.
Identify Functions
Random function identification is the first and most important step of the function
analysis phase, and is the fundamental technique used to identify functions. In this step, the
team determines all possible verb-noun combinations that describe the functions of the
subject under study. Performing this step incorrectly or incompletely biases the rest of the
job plan on incorrect or poorly articulated functions, which leads to misguided thinking and
inferior results.
Some people argue that any verb-noun combination is a function. One purpose of this
guide is to show why that sentiment is incorrect. Many verb-noun combinations are simply
actions or activities, rather than functions. The difference is that an action or activity is not
generic and, thus, does nothing to change the viewpoint of a team member. For example,
think about Charge Battery. Is this an activity or a function? It is an activity. Hearing the
words Charge Battery, one might immediately think about hooking up a battery to a
charging machine or using battery cables and nothing else. Thus, those two words did
nothing to change a person’s viewpoint to divert his or her mind away from an action
performed by a person.
In his book, FAST Creativity & Innovation, Charles Bytheway states, “Active verbs
motivate, stimulate, and energize your thinking; and at the same time arouse within you your
 SECTION A 13

creative and inventive abilities” (page 12). For example, active verbs to use instead of
Charge might include Deliver, Store, Transfer or Transmit. Similarly, the name of an
element or component, such as Battery, is not a measurable noun, and places the focus on
the part instead of the function. Focusing on specific elements or components leads to a
cost-cutting approach rather than value improvement through function-oriented thinking.
Appropriate nouns to describe the battery include Energy and Power. From the list of verbs
and nouns, the team selects the best combination, such as Store Energy. When the team
brainstorms the function Store Energy, it broadens the perspective and leads to significantly
more ideas than using the action Charge Battery.
Another example is Cook Food. Is this an activity or a function? It is an activity.
Hearing the words, Cook Food, one might immediately think about a stove or microwave
and not much else. Those two words do not change a person’s viewpoint to divert his or her
mind away from the performance of the activity. In fact, one could argue that a stove does
not cook food. What does it do? Generic functions that more aptly describe the functions of
a stove include Generate Heat, Distribute Heat, Control Heat, and Conduct Electricity (or
gas).
Classify Functions
From the random function identification, the facilitator and team classify each function
into basic and secondary functions. A basic function is the specific purpose for which
something exists. The basic function answers the question “What must it do?” The
secondary function supports the basic function. In the battery example, the basic function is
to Deliver Energy and the secondary function is to Store Energy.
Organize Functions
Charles Bytheway developed the Function Analysis System Technique (FAST) in 1964.
At first glance, FAST diagrams resemble flow charts, but all similarity ends there. FAST
diagrams are function-oriented, not time-oriented. They display the functions identified in
Step 1 in a “logic format” that deepens understanding of them. FAST helps ensure the team
has identified all relevant functions. Bytheway stressed the importance of choosing functions
based on the various perspectives of the different stakeholders, from the owner to
maintenance manager. When the entire team works together to create a FAST diagram, an
important yet intangible result occurs. This result is a new and better understanding of the
project, process, or product that will lead to enhanced value.
2. Allocate Resources
This step allocates resources to functions. Resources may be cost, life cycle cost, time,
energy, space, failure points, risk, etc. Common techniques of allocating resources to
functions include 1) the Random Function Identification method, 2) function-resource
14 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

matrix, and 3) FAST diagram. Sections B and C contain further detail on these techniques
and example worksheets.
3. Prioritize Functions for Value
The value study team selects the functions that have the greatest opportunity for value
improvement. Traditionally, the team selects the functions that have the highest cost as focus
of the creative alternatives for cost savings. They may also select functions with other high
use resources for further study. Others might prioritize functions for value improvement
based on high risk to the project, or those functions that are not environmentally sustainable.
The customer/client may have concerns or problems with certain functions, and may request
the team to prioritize those functions for further study. Finally, the value study team may
have a “hunch” that certain functions offer a good opportunity for value improvement.
If the team has not prioritized functions for value improvement, then they have missed
the concept of function analysis.

What Are the Functions of the Function Analysis Phase?

It may be easier to understand the general concept of functions after getting to know the
purpose or objectives (the functions) of this phase, which include:
 Identify Opportunity
 Create Understanding
 Expand Knowledge
 Stimulate Communication
 Change Viewpoint
Identify Opportunity is one of the primary reasons to perform function analysis. Per
SAVE International®, the objective of the function analysis phase is to identify the functions
of the project that have the best opportunity for improvement of value. Remember that value
improvement can be a combination of improving performance and/or reducing cost.
Performance can increase at a greater rate than the increase in cost to create a value
improvement.
Create Understanding. After participating in a function analysis, even experienced
team members who have worked on the same project for years may discover a new
understanding of the project for which they are responsible. The wonderful aspect of this
“new” understanding is that it is a common understanding among all team members. When a
team works together to develop a random function list and a FAST diagram, it creates
something as a team. Thus, no matter the technical background of the participants, each
person can describe the product in functional terms. The use of generic, non-technical
functional terms creates a level playing field. In addition, because the entire team
 SECTION A 15

participated in creating the function logic diagram, there is buy-in or agreement from all
team members regarding what the project under study performs.
Expand Knowledge is a critical component of function analysis, as it is in other
phases of the job plan. The value study team gains new knowledge of the project under
study through the presentation materials, team discussions, and the application of the
function analysis process. In most cases, the majority of team members are unfamiliar with
functional thinking. Just becoming familiar with functional thinking is a significant learning
opportunity, which can produce advances in the project, both technical and non-technical.
Finally, this new knowledge leaves participants with tools that they can leverage to benefit
both their professional and personal lives.
Stimulate Communication. It is wonderful to see a team grow together with every
team member involved in the function analysis phase. No matter one’s background and
experience, he or she has a role to play during this process. The most interesting team
communication or interaction occurs at the beginning of the team’s effort to create the FAST
diagram. For example, as a facilitator, direct the team members to get out of their chairs and
start to place the Post-it® Notes to create a FAST diagram. This interaction continues
through the remainder of the function analysis phase, and helps create a collaborative team
environment. When this natural team bonding occurs, superior results in the remaining
phases of the VM job plan also occur. This is, by far, the greatest intangible benefit of using
VM.
Change Viewpoint. A primary role of the value study facilitator is to encourage
change. If radical change is to occur, then a change in behavior, attitude, and mental
thinking must also happen. Otherwise, no lasting change will occur. The team must alter
their human thought patterns to move into a new direction. We all know that our thought
patterns have developed over a very long time, in fact some patterns formed before we were
born. As we continue to grow and learn, we become creatures of habit and tend to follow
along the same paths, right or wrong. Thus to say that we need to change the viewpoint of a
person, we mean that we are actually trying to alter the way a person thinks and behaves.
This is very difficult; but for successful VM results, it must occur in the minds of the team
members.
Value study facilitators must allow ample time in the agenda to perform function
analysis. When a team skips function analysis or takes shortcuts, the study outcome will
suffer. If the time needed exceeds the time allotted on the agenda, it is still necessary to
complete all the steps of function analysis.

Function Inspired Change

Hospital Project Example
16 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Because of the heavy traffic and accidents that occur every day around the beltway in
Washington, DC, officials determined the area needed a new hospital near the beltway. The
value study team determined the basic function of the new hospital was to Reduce Response
for medical treatment. A “function inspired change” came from one of team members, who
suggested adding a heliport-landing pad at an existing hospital located in downtown
Washington, DC, and have a medical response team always available. This idea avoided
construction of a new hospital and still met the basic function, Reduce Response. This
excellent example of a function inspired change was implemented, saving the owner a
significant amount in life cycle cost.
The following sections will expand on the concepts of this section. Section B discusses
the basics of function analysis. Section C covers FAST in more detail. Sections D, E, and F
provide example case studies on the use of these principles for projects, products and
processes.
SECTION A 17
SECTION B
FUNCTION ANALYSIS BASICS

Function analysis embodies a group of techniques within the Value Methodology that sets it
apart from traditional cost reduction and problem solving efforts. Function analysis consists
of three distinct, sequential, and interrelated elements:
1. Define functions
• Identify functions – What are the functions of the project, process, or product?
• Classify functions – Are the functions, basic, secondary, higher order, or lower
order?
• Organize functions – Are the functions duplicative, defined correctly, or should
they be grouped in some meaningful way?
2. Allocate resources
3. Prioritize functions for value
Function analysis is the single most important and useful set of processes, tools, and
techniques in the Value Methodology. The primary objective of this guide is to
communicate this message in a clear and concise manner.

Define Functions
As stated in the previous section, the first element is to define the functions. There are a
number of distinct facets involved in defining functions, which include not only identifying
functions, but also classifying and organizing them. Each of these sub-elements plays an
important role in thoroughly defining functions and preparing the value study team for the
next element of function analysis: the allocation of resources.

Identify Functions
A function describes the purpose or intended use for anything, regardless whether it is a
product, process, project, or organization. In short, it is the reason why an owner, customer,
or user wants or needs something done. People do not want things; they want what things do
for them. Functions are abstract, non-specific descriptions of what things do and are
articulated using a concise, two-word statement. Do not confuse functions with physical
descriptions of actual activities or things.

19
20 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

The first principle in identifying a function is that

it contains only two words – a verb and a noun.

The verb should answer the question, “What does it do?” This question focuses
attention on the function, rather than the item under study or its design, and leads straight to
the heart of the functional approach. This is a radical departure from conventional thinking
where the first question is, “What is it?” followed by a second question of “How do we
make it less expensive or work better?” This more traditional emphasis on making the same
thing better gives little thought to the more vital considerations of the item’s function – what
is to be accomplished and why.
After answering the question “What does it do?” with a verb that defines the item’s
required action (it may, for instance, generate, control, pump, enclose, protect, or transmit),
the second question of “What does it do it to?” must be answered with a noun that describes
what it acts upon (electricity, temperature, liquids, light, surfaces, space, sound, and so on).
This noun portion of the two-word abstraction is preferably measurable, or at least
understood in quantifiable terms, since the team should assign a specific measurement to it
during the later evaluation process that relates various types of information to functions (i.e.,
time, cost, responsibility, etc.). A measurable noun together with a verb, preferably an active
verb, provides a meaningful description of a function (e.g., Insulate Energy, Transmit Load,
Support Object, and so on). However, one must recognize that not all functions are
quantifiable. We will explore this in more depth later in this section.
Active verbs are verbs that specifically describe what the subject of the function
statement is doing. These types of verbs carry a great deal of information in a function
statement and can convey a sense of purpose that extends beyond the literal meanings of the
words. A function statement like Provide Light does not adequately describe the manner in
which the item provides light. Does the item create light? Does the item reflect light? Does
the item magnify the light? If the item produces light, then the function Produce Light or
Illuminate Space would be far more descriptive and contextual than Provide Light. The
power of the active verb lies in the meaning and intention that it contains, and how it brings
direction and force to the function. The use of active verbs makes for less restrictive, more
expansive innovation in the Creative Phase. Table B1 lists a sample of active verbs.
 SECTION B 21

VERBS
Actuate Control Impede Prevent
Amplify Emit Interrupt Protect
Apply Enclose Limit Reduce
Change Fasten Locate Rotate
Collect Filter Modulate Secure
Conduct Ignite Move Store
Contain Transfer
Table B1: Active Verbs

As mentioned previously, functions that include quantifiable nouns are preferred.

However, this is not always possible as some functions may be qualitative in nature. For
example, the function Improve Aesthetics is a valid function stated in qualitative terms, as
the noun “aesthetics” is highly subjective and not quantitatively measurable. Plato said,
“Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder.” Qualitative functions are not necessarily of lesser
value than quantitative functions.
The following are examples of quantitative functions for various types of value studies:
 In product design studies, electric motors Deliver Torque; televisions Display
Image; fuel tanks Contain Liquid; heating elements Produce Heat.
 In design and construction studies, structural columns Transfer Load; interior walls
Separate Space; doors Control Access; clerestory windows Admit Light; and ceiling
tiles Attenuate Sound.
 In manufacturing process studies, the design of a machining or casting process is to
Form Shape, while the design of a material handling procedure is to Deliver
Material, and a QA/QC process is to Ensure Quality.
 In business process studies, a design of a payroll system is to Distribute Money; a
design of a contracting procurement procedure is to Acquire Services; and a design
of a change order approval procedure is to Authorize Change.
Simple statements such as these ensure clarity of thought and communicate functions
with little confusion. Regardless, it is important to select words that do not predetermine a
single way in which the function performs.
Qualitative function statements are not physically measurable. For example, Convey
Style; Enhance Satisfaction; Improve Convenience; and Project Status may not be
22 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

physically measureable. Tables B2 and B3 provide sample lists of nouns for quantitative
and qualitative functions.

MEASURABLE NOUNS
Acceleration Flow Liquid Radiation
Air Fluid Load Sound
Contamination Force Object Space
Current Friction Particles Speed
Data Insulation Polarity Torque
Density Light Protection Voltage
Energy Weight

Table B2: Nouns for Quantitative Functions

NON-MEASURABLE NOUNS
Aesthetics Comfort Gratitude Prestige
Acceptance Convenience Happiness Satisfaction
Appearance Features Identity Status
Approval Feelings Odor Style
Beauty Form Pleasure Taste

Table B3: Nouns for Qualitative Functions

Function statements serve as the focus for creativity. Imagine someone handed us a
scrap of paper with the statement, “Provide Service,” and told us to brainstorm as many
different ways as possible to “Provide Service.” Without knowing what it was intended to
describe, then the types of ideas we would come up with would differ radically from a
similar scrap of paper that instead had the words “Deliver Materials.” It is therefore
important to consider our words very carefully when we define functions.
 SECTION B 23

Consider the function of a forklift, Figure B1. The “verb” component is easy to isolate
as something like Move. The “noun” component also seems obvious, but there are several
options from which to choose.

Figure B1: Basic Function of a Forklift

Forklifts act upon pallets, which are essentially wooden trays that allow the arms of the
forklift to pick them up off the ground without damaging the materials placed on top of
O
them. Because the specific design of forklifts is to pick up pallets, which are generally
uniform throughout the world, the word “pallet” appears to be an appropriate noun to use in
function statements. On the face of things, this noun seems like a logical choice.NOUN: “Load”
The selection of nouns is worth discussing in detail at this point. The word pallet
conjures up a very precise image in our head. Further, when we use pallet as the noun in
function statements, it is really describing a series of activities rather than functions. Move
Pallet, although stated in functional, verb-noun syntax, describes an activity. When
visualizing the statement Move Pallet, it is easy to imagine a forklift lifting a wooden pallet
and placing it on a warehouse shelf. The word Pallet is leading our thinking to focus on the
current state of things rather than on the function. If we focus on the function statement
Move Pallet during creativity, we will likely limit ourselves to solutions that dwell in the
world of pallets.
24 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

What is a pallet? A pallet is a wooden tray that has specific physical properties, such as
standard dimensions, weight, capacities and tolerances. Further, the forklift does not move
just pallets; it also lifts the things placed on top of the pallets, such as boxes or crates. We
can measure all of these objects by physical properties such as size, weight, etc. Therefore,
we could use the word “load” to describe a pallet and items placed on top of it. The word
load is nonspecific and suggests physical things. Load is a measurable noun, as we can
describe an object physically in terms of its size and mass.
The simple substitution of load for pallet has transformed our understanding of the
functions of a forklift. The change may seem subtle at first, however, when the value team
moves into group brainstorming in the Creative Phase, they will have laid the foundation to
expand its thinking. Try brainstorming different ways to Move Load as opposed to ways to
Move Pallets. The team will generate far more ideas using the former statement than the
latter.
This same discussion holds true for activities, and perhaps even more so. Activities are
particularly misleading because it is generally very simple to convert an activity into a two-
word abridgment. For example, the team may identify the verb-noun Construct Bridge as a
function. While grammatically this is true, it misses the intent of functional thinking in that
it describes objective reality, rather than identifying the underlying intent of the concept that
it represents. Clearly, the statement Construct Bridge describes an activity that may occur,
but there is no knowledge conveyed by it as to why one would construct the bridge.
Functions must pass this additional “test” of answering why before the team would correctly
identify it as a function rather than an activity. Span River might be a more accurate
functional description of the bridge and answers why construct it.
Verb selection can be equally as important as noun selection. Building upon the bridge
example above, we could argue that Span River might also be acceptable. Bridges typically
cross over things such as rivers, valleys, roadways and rail lines. Therefore, the term span
seems like a reasonable choice of words since that is what bridges do. However, since we
are interested in functions and not real word objects, using the word span strongly implies
the idea that solution involves crossing over something. In fact, structural engineering uses
the word “span” in reference to a horizontal structural member that connects to two piers. As
a result, this term invokes the image of a bridge for many people. Once again, we easily fall
into object-based thinking, which leads our thinking into the world of bridges. We could just
as easily imagine a tunnel crossing beneath a river than a bridge going over it; however,
were we to focus on the function statement Span River by using only the verb span, would
we be as likely to conceive of alternative solutions, such as tunnels?
The power of functional thinking can be incredibly subtle this way, and it really
requires us to think very deeply about our word choices. Rather than using a verb like Span,
 SECTION B 25

we should think of a similar verb that is more encompassing and less specific. We could go
over, under, or around the river. A verb such as Bypass might be a better choice, as it is open
to any of these potential solutions. Further, upon examining the noun, River, which is very
specific, we may also want to think about the nature of rivers more generically. A river,
valley, roadway, or rail line all fundamentally creates obstacles. Therefore, if we use a
function statement such as Bypass Obstacle, we have completely shifted our thinking away
from object-based thinking and can entertain a very broad set of solutions.
Table B4 shows a number of examples in verb/noun selection for functions. Examine
each of these function statements and reflect on how the choice of verbs and nouns alters
one’s thinking on envisioning potential solutions.

Column A Column B
Support Beam Support Load
Widen Roadway Increase Width
Grind Component Smooth Surface
Drill Hole Create Opening
Provide Support Support Weight
Inspect Part Find Defects
Pay Invoice Transfer Funds
File Letter Store Information
Manage People Ensure
Productivity

Table B 4: Verb/Noun Selection for Functions

The function statements appearing in Column A are stated very differently than in
Column B. What makes them so different? Which column would likely produce a broader,
more innovative set of potential solutions?
The system of defining a function in two words, specifically a verb and a noun, has
numerous benefits:
 It forces conciseness by defining a function in two words. If with two words, the
functional component is still too large to be defined or to be understood by the team,
26 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

then that is a sign to drill deeper and to provide a more detailed, two-word
definition.
 It forces the team to break the item under study into its simplest elements.
 It aids in enhancing innovation by focusing the team on what things do, rather than
what they are, resulting in broader and deeper thinking about potential solutions. In
contrast, if the team focuses on the status quo or current state of an item or problem,
it results in restricted thinking and a more limited set of solutions.
There is one simple technique used for identifying functions called Random Function
Identification. This approach enables teams to identify the various functions of a project,
product, or process. The value study team performs this technique by applying the following
steps:
1. Review the bill of materials, construction cost estimate, or work breakdown
structure. This information provides an excellent starting point for detailing the
individual elements of a project, product, or process.
2. Create a simple matrix or table that includes columns for elements or components
and functions (i.e., verbs and nouns).
3. List the elements or components from the appropriate document identified in step 1
on the matrix.
4. Identify the basic function(s). Start by asking the question, “What does it do?”
5. As a team, brainstorm all of the possible functions for each element or component
by asking the same question, “What does it do?” There could potentially be
numerous functions for each component.

Product Example - Carpentry Hammer

Table B5 shows an
example of random function
identifi-cation using the
Random Function Identification
Work-sheet method for a
carpentry hammer, Figure B2.
Note that we list the various
parts of the product in the first
column. It is best to begin by
just writing down the first part
or element and brainstorming as
many functions as possible.
Once the team feels they have
adequately addressed the first

Figure B2: Carpentry Hammer

(Source: Vaughn, reprinted with permission)
 SECTION B 27

part or element, they should add the next one and repeat the function identification process.
They should repeat this process until they have covered all the parts, elements, or activities.
The basic purpose of these techniques is to identify functions. The team will classify,
organize, and analyze these functions in subsequent phases. Some of the functions may be
redundant, some may be incorrect, and others may not apply. Further, it is very likely that
the team may not have identified all the functions at this time, and they will reveal
themselves during the later steps of function analysis (i.e., development of a FAST
diagram). This technique should focus on generating a sufficient number of functions that
adequately describe the subject under study.

Function Function
Component
Verb Noun Type*
Head (machined, steel Drive Nails
casting) Remove Nails
Deliver Force
Transfer Force
Transmit Force
Apply Force
Increase Force
Increase Leverage
Improve Durability
Focus Force
Deflect Force
Enhance Appearance
Reduce Deflection
Handle (hickory) Transfer Force
Receive Force
Create Leverage
Increase Friction
Transmit Vibration
Reduce Vibration
Wedge (hickory) Connect Components
Increase Friction
Wedge (steel) Connect Components
Increase Friction
Improve Durability
Sealant (epoxy) Connect Components
Ensure Durability
Label (paper, adhesive) Identify Brand
* Basic, Secondary, Higher Order, Lower Order, Unwanted
Shellac (spray applied) Resist Oxidation
Table B5: Random Function
Enhance Appearance Worksheet,
Identification
Carpentry Hammer (Initial Effort)
28 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Assembly (labor) Connect Components

Improve Durability
Meet Standards
It is important to note that Larry Miles himself stated that the most effective verb-noun
combination is sometimes difficult to determine. Do not rely on the first verb-noun
combination offered by a team member. Use the first one as a catalyst to think about
alternative verbs and/or nouns that may better describe what the subject under study does.
This is why it is important to encourage the team to offer as many different function
statements as possible. If the team arrives quickly at what they feel is the right function, then
it is likely they have not thought about it deeply enough. Function analysis requires us to
think differently.

Classify Functions
There are several classifications of functions:
 Basic functions
 Secondary functions
 Required
 Unwanted
 Higher order functions
 Lower order functions
Basic Functions
The basic function is the specific purpose for which something exists and answers the
question “What must it do?” Things may possess more than one basic function. This is
determined by considering the customer’s needs. The four rules that govern the selection of
basic functions are:
1. The basic function describes the primary purpose and intent of the project, product,
or process.
2. If you can eliminate a function while still theoretically achieving the primary
purpose and intent, then it is not a basic function.
3. The loss of the basic function(s) will
cause a loss in value.
4. The customer must be willing to pay
for it.

Example: Multimedia
Projector (Project Image vs.
Generate Light)
 SECTION B 29

For example, assume a team is studying a multimedia projector, Figure B3. They
identify two functions that appear to be good candidates for the basic function: Project
Image and Generate Light. The team first considers Project Image and applies the four rules
identified above to test it. The team agrees that Project Image indeed describes the primary
purpose of the device, satisfying the first rule. Moving on to the second rule, if you eliminate
Project Image, the product would not satisfy the direct needs of the customer. Considering
the third rule, if you eliminate Project Image, then it would definitely destroy almost all of
the product’s value. Fourth, the customer is definitely willing to pay for this function. Based
on this quick analysis, the team concludes that Project Image is indeed a basic function.
The team next considers the function Generate Light and discusses the first rule. Does
Generate Light fully describe the purpose and intent of the product? The team agrees that
the current product projects an image by generating light; however, customers do not buy
multimedia projectors to generate light. Because it fails this first rule, Generate Light cannot
be a basic function.

Secondary Functions
Secondary functions answer the question “What else does it do?” For VM purposes,
secondary functions may or may not add value. Secondary functions support the basic
function(s) and usually result from a particular design configuration or approach. Generally,
secondary functions contribute greatly to cost, and may not be essential to the performance
of the basic function.
Required secondary functions are those functions that are required by the customer
and/or user relative to how to perform the basic function. For example, a customer of a
multimedia projector may desire the team to address the functions Minimize Size and
Minimize Weight to ensure that the device is portable.
Unwanted secondary functions are those functions that, by definition, are unwanted
while the product performs the basic or secondary function(s). Some functions occur as a
byproduct of the way one addresses other functions as part of a project, product, or process.
One must address these unwanted secondary functions because they create additional
problems in some way that erodes value. Continuing with the multimedia projector example,
one notable unwanted function includes Generate Heat. The secondary function, Generate
Light, also generates heat. The heat generated by most projectors is significant and requires
the inclusion of a secondary system to Dissipate Heat. Ironically, most projectors currently
available utilize a fan system that creates yet another unwanted secondary function,
Generate Noise. Unwanted functions typically erode value by adding cost and/or degrading
performance. One of the objectives of VM is to eliminate unwanted functions.

Figure B3: Multimedia Projector

30 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Higher Order Functions

Higher order functions represent the specific need that precipitates or causes the
existence of the basic function(s). Another way to think about higher order functions is that
they describe the outcome or result of a basic function(s). For example, a customer
purchases a multimedia projector to satisfy the basic function of Project Image. The reason
he or she needs to project image is to Display Image. To expand on this concept, the reason
the customer may want to display image is to Present Information. Many different higher
order functions vary for owners, customers, and users.

Lower Order Functions

Lower order functions describe functions that lie beyond the scope of the study. They
describe required inputs for a project, product, or process, but are not part of it. For example,
a lower-order function of a multimedia projector would be Supply Current and Supply
Signal. The projector does not come with a power or data source, and the team can assume
provision of such inputs.

Organize Functions
In the previous carpentry hammer example, the team initially identified a list of
functions for the hammerhead using the technique of random function identification in
Table B6.
In reviewing this list of verb-noun combinations, the team saw that they essentially
stated several functions in different ways. The team started with Drive Nails and Remove
Nails. After further discussion, it was clear that these really described the actions of a
hammer – not the functions.

Verb Noun The noun nail is really a part name. The team
realized that if they used the noun nail, then it
Drive Nails would focus the team’s thinking on nail-based
Remove Nails solutions. Through better phrasing, the team
successfully generated function statements that will
Deliver Force
allow them to think laterally about a variety of
Transfer Force alternative solutions.
Transmit Force After further discussion, the team agreed upon
Connect Materials and Separate Materials in favor
Apply Force
of the previous verb-noun pairs. As a result, the
Increase Force team eliminated the functions Drive Nails and
Increase Leverage Remove Nails from the list. Further, the team
recognized that these functions are higher order
 SECTION B 31

functions as they speak to the need for why most users acquire carpentry hammers - to
connect pieces of wood to one another. By asking the question “How does a hammer
connect materials?” the team concluded that it is through the transfer of force from the
user’s arm to the head of the nail. This means that the basic function is likely either Transfer
Force or Transmit Force.
Next, the team discussed the functions Transfer Force and Transmit Force. These two
functions sound similar, but the team agreed there are important differences. The team
deemed the verb transfer as more appropriate, since the head of the hammer really transfers
the force from the user’s arm rather than transmitting it. After further discussion, the team
decided to retain Transfer Force as the basic function, and eliminate Transmit Force.
Similarly, the functions Increase Force and Amplify Force are very similar and say the
same thing. The team ultimately decided that Increase Force is more appropriate and
dropped Amplify Force from the list. They identified this function as a required secondary
function, as it supports the basic function. The team continued with their work and
eventually completed the worksheet.
The team is satisfied that through utilizing the Random Function Identification
Worksheet, they have simultaneously identified and classified functions, as illustrated in
Table B7.

Function Analysis Worksheets

The purpose of a function analysis worksheet is to correlate various types of
information with the functions. You can use many different types of function worksheets.
The most commonly used and perhaps most simple type of function analysis worksheet
expands the random function identification worksheet, as shown in Table B7.
The Function Analysis Phase helps people understand the project, product, or process
under study, and lays the foundation for creative solutions that will improve it. Function
analysis sets the Value Methodology apart from other problem solving and improvement
techniques. Developing a mastery of the function approach takes practice, and you will
develop a solid comfort level only through repeated application. All value practitioners must
strive to develop these function analysis skills.
We should ask anyone who professes to practice the
Table B6: Selection of Listing value methodology if he or she utilizes function analysis,
of Verbs-Nouns for a and if so, how he or she applies it. This is the primary
Carpentry Hammer test in determining whether the practitioner is truly
applying VM. If the practitioner does not understand or
properly employ the concepts and techniques of function analysis, then you can say with
absolute certainty that whatever process is used, it is not the Value Methodology.
32 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE
 SECTION B 33

Function Function
Component
Verb Noun Type*
Head (machined, steel Connect Materials Higher Order
casting) Separate Materials Higher Order
Deliver Force Basic
Transfer Force Secondary
Apply Force Lower Order
Increase Force Secondary
Increase Leverage Secondary
Improve Durability Secondary
Focus Force Secondary
Deflect Force Unwanted
Enhance Appearance Secondary
Reduce Deflection Secondary
Handle (hickory) Transfer Force Basic
Receive Force Secondary
Create Leverage Secondary
Increase Friction Secondary
Transmit Vibration Unwanted
Reduce Vibration Secondary
Wedge (hickory) Connect Components Secondary
Increase Friction Secondary
Wedge (steel) Connect Components Secondary
Increase Friction Secondary
Improve Durability Secondary
Sealant (epoxy) Connect Components Secondary
Ensure Durability Secondary
Label (paper, adhesive) Identify Brand Secondary
Shellac (spray applied) Resist Oxidation Secondary
Enhance Appearance Secondary
Assembly (labor) Connect Components Secondary
Improve Durability Secondary
Meet Standards Secondary

* Basic, Secondary, Higher Order, Lower Order, Unwanted

Table B7 – Random Function Identification, Carpentry Hammer (Final
Effort)
34 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

The carpentry hammer example illustrates how to apply function analysis on a

manufactured product. Although Larry Miles at General Electric conceived function
analysis for use on industrial applications, we can apply it to any product, project, or
process. To illustrate the power of function analysis, this guide will also explore examples
for a project (a warehouse building) and a process (a budget and invoice process).

Project Example - Warehouse

Function Analysis is useful for projects. Figure B4 is an illustration of a warehouse.
Space (square feet of area) is the resource measure. Construction cost is also a common
resource measure.

Source: RS Means

Figure B4: Warehouse Project

In Table B8, a random function identification worksheet has been prepared detailing
the warehouse project.
It is worth noting that there are several ways a team can develop the random function
identification worksheet, by spaces within the building or by construction materials (or
both). In the example provided, the team elected to breakdown the building by its spatial
components.
 SECTION B 35

Random Function Identification Worksheet

Subject: Warehouse

Basic Function: Ship Material (Verb, Noun)

Higher Order Function: Distribute Material (Verb, Noun)
* Basic, Secondary (Required, Unwanted), Higher Order, Lower Order

Resource Function Function Resource %

Component
(space GSF) Verb Noun Type* Allocation
Entry/ Reception Area 600 Receive Visitors S 95%
Entry/ Reception Area Enclose Space S 5%

Office Area 2000 Manage Inventory S 20%

Office Area Report Inventory S 20%
Office Area Manage Facility S 35%
Office Area Maintain Safety S 10%
Office Area Enclose Space S 5%
Office Area Ensure Efficiency S 10%

Toilet Area 400 Maintain Hygene S 95%

Toilet Area Enclose Space S 5%

Mechanical/ Elect. Eq. Area 1000 Maintain Comfort S 75%

Mechanical/ Elect. Eq. Area Energize Warehouse S 20%
Mechanical/ Elect. Eq. Area Enclose Space S 5%

Truck Dock Area 4000 Ship Material B 45%

Truck Dock Area Receive Material S 50%
Truck Dock Area Enclose Space S 5%

Material Storage Area 52000 Retrieve Material S 5%

Store Material S 61%
Material Storage Area Transport Material S 30%
Material Storage Area Classify Material S 1%
Material Storage Area Maintain Safety S 1%
Material Storage Area Enclose Space S 2%

Total 60000
36 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE
 SECTION B 37

Process Example – Random Function Identification Worksheet

Subject: Budget & Invoice Process
Budget & Invoice Basic Function: Request Payment (Verb, Noun)
Process Higher Order Function: Receive Payment (Verb, Noun)
* Basic, Secondary, Higher Order, Lower Order, Unwanted
Performing random function
identification on a process Function Function
Component
usually focuses on using the Verb Noun Type*
Activity 1 Define Scope Lower Order
various activities involved as the Activity 2 Identify Resources Secondary
“components” for the purposes Activity 3 Negotiate Fees Secondary
of function analysis. Take the Activity 4 Estimate Work Secondary
Allocate Resources Secondary
activities from a work break-
Activity 5 Review Information Secondary
down structure (WBS) or process Ensure Quality Secondary
flowchart and list on the random Validate Information Secondary
Activity 6 Authorize Work Secondary
function identification work-
Activity 7 Transmit Information Secondary
sheet. The team can then begin Review Information Secondary
identifying the functions of each. Activity 8 Authorize Work Secondary
Activity 9 Estimate Work Secondary
Typically, time is a key Review Information Secondary
consideration in considering Allocate Resources Secondary
related resources that comes later Activity 10 Transmit Information Secondary
Activity 11 Allocate Resources Secondary
in the Allocate Resources step of Activity 12 Allocate Resources Secondary
function analysis. Figure B5 Transmit Information Secondary
provides the process flowchart Activity 13 Perform Work Secondary
Activity 14 Review Information Secondary
for this budget and invoice
Allocate Resources Secondary
process from which the random Estimate Work Secondary
function identification worksheet Activity 15 Transmit Information Secondary
shown on Table B9 was based Activity 16 Transmit Information Secondary
Track Resources Secondary
on for this process. Activity 17 & 20 Review Information Secondary
Validate Information Secondary
Validate Work Secondary
Transmit Information Secondary
Activity 18 & 21 Review Information Secondary
Validate Information Secondary
Transmit Information Secondary
Activity 19 Transmit Information Secondary
Summarize Effort Secondary
Activity 22 Request Payment Basic
Table B9: Activity 23 Transmit Information Secondary
Summarize Effort Secondary
Random Function Activity 24 Validate Work Secondary
Identification Activity 25 Review Information Secondary
Worksheet, Budget Validate Information Secondary
Summarize Effort Secondary
& Invoice Process
Activity 26 Receive Payment Higher Order
 38
FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure B5: Process Flowchart for a Budget & Invoice Process

 SECTION B 39

The Power of Function Analysis

The concept of “function” lies at the heart of the Value Methodology and is the most
critical aspect that drives innovative change. Larry Miles, quite by accident, originally
discovered the secret of this subtle, yet powerful, way of thinking. Once he fully understood
the fact that people want to accomplish functions, and separated this abstract concept from
the objects associated with them, he was able to open the door for innovation in a
methodical, predictable way.
Defining functions is the crucial first step of function analysis. The proper use of verbs
and nouns, and adherence to the two-word abridgment, is essential to constructing function
statements that will provide the right level of abstraction in helping understand what is
needed and what is happening while opening our mind to new ways of achieving desired
functions or eliminating unwanted ones. Similarly, understanding the hierarchy of functions
helps us differentiate between basic and secondary, higher-order and lower-order.
In the next chapter, we will take this concept a step further and explore the
interrelationship between functions through the construction of function models,
specifically, the correct application of the Function Analysis System Technique (also known
as the FAST Diagram). Further, the technique of allocating resources to functions will be
demonstrated. Together, these powerful techniques provide a means of identifying which
functions will provide the greatest opportunity for value improvement during the Creative
Phase of the VM Job Plan.
40 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE
SECTION C
FUNCTION ANALYSIS SYSTEM
TECHNIQUE (FAST) BASICS

What Is FAST?
Function Analysis System Technique (FAST) is a powerful, structured tool used to identify
and analyze functions with intuitive logic to stimulate creative and innovative thinking. The
primary objective is to improve value of functions for a given project, product, or process.
Charles W. Bytheway developed FAST and first presented and published a technical
paper at the 1965 SAVE International® annual conference. This was the first major
expansion of the function analysis approach originated by Lawrence D. Miles during World
War II. FAST had an immediate impact and brought a significant, new dimension to
function analysis that, to this day, sets VM apart from all other analytical techniques.
During the 1980’s and 1990’s, J. Jerry Kaufman ushered in the next expansion and
evolution of FAST through his teachings at North Carolina State University, including
numerous SAVE International® publications, and professionally dedicated FAST training
seminars. Kaufman stated,

“The methodology of FAST is deceivingly simple, the application is

difficult. It is so simple to understand that it is frequently mistaken for
common sense. The application of FAST requires a change in thinking
habits, making it necessary to apply strict discipline to encourage
innovation and keep from reverting to the same old way of thinking.”

This new way of thinking, expressing a visual and narrative, results from asking how,
why, and when of each function (Active Verb and Measurable Noun statements) which
correlates the logic. It is this different way of thinking which forces the brain to examine a
project, product, or process from a new perspective. It is this type of thinking, exercising the
brain in a different way, which opens the mind to creative and innovative ideas. Like any
new exercise, this approach requires practice. Practice from both a professional and personal
perspective will eventually become a common way of thinking.

41
42 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Development of a FAST diagram is a multi-disciplinary team approach that focuses on

the scope under study and forces rapid, in-depth exploration. This technique specifically
illustrates the relationships and interrelationships of all functions within any given scope.
The result of this technique provides a hierarchy of functions in order of their levels of
abstraction to achieve a critical logic path of functions for any given project, product, or
process.
An experienced Certified Value Specialist (CVS®) Facilitator knows how to lead the
value team throughout this process. The primary role of the CVS® facilitator is to
encourage, prod, question, and answer questions regarding process guidelines and
diagraming rules, while remaining neutral and avoiding influence. The experienced CVS®
Facilitator will guide the process and ensure the entire team represent and take ownership of
the result.
Functions and FAST diagrams create a universal language that is essential for
communication within multi-disciplined teams and between teams, users, clients, and
management. FAST diagrams clarify and structure problems on one sheet of paper, whether
international or infinitesimal in scope. The process promotes discussion while building a
team from diverse backgrounds with differing points of view. The result will change our
analysis and understanding of the problem and opportunity in simple terms, relative
importance, and relationships.

Why Use FAST?

Function analysis and FAST diagraming combine for a proven, credible method of
defining a problem or opportunity down to its simplest form, while enhancing creativity
above the norm. The farmer does not need a horse and plow, rather what he needs is to Turn
Soil; people do not need refrigerators, rather they need to Preserve Food. This tool
encourages greater creativity in problem solving and assures the focus on solving the correct
problem.
As compared to only performing basic function analysis using the Random Function
Identification worksheet and allocating costs accordingly, FAST provides greater precision
into validating function types and how they logically relate. FAST ensures all functions
defined within the scope of study have been validated using intuitive logic answering the
questions of “How” and “Why.” Following development of a FAST diagram, allocating
resources (such as costs or performance measures) to functions will reveal that 80 percent of
the opportunities for value improvement (costs, failure points, schedule issues, etc.)
represent 20 percent of the functions. While building the FAST diagram, creativity is
stimulated toward innovative solutions to improve value. In concluding construction of the
 SECTION C 43

FAST diagram, the top 20 percent of FAST diagram functions are where the CVS®
facilitator will then focus team brainstorming in the Creative Phase.
A FAST diagram ensures management and customers that the value study team has
captured all the functions within the scope of the study. The diagram becomes the team’s
communication tool to share with others the “How” and “Why” functions of the Project,
Product, or Process. It not only demonstrates how the functions are logically oriented, but
also how proposed changes will affect and improve value.
Function analysis and FAST diagramming will add value throughout the VM job plan.
In fact, a CVS® facilitator will use the well-constructed FAST diagram to engage the team
in re-validating key requirements and conclusions from the Information Phase.
The most obvious benefit of developing a FAST diagram is experienced in the
Creative Phase where brainstorming how to improve the selected functions results in
numerous alternative ideas for value innovation.
In the Evaluation Phase, the FAST diagramming will support definition of the
criteria required to evaluate brainstormed ideas and select the best alternatives for
development.
During the Development Phase, function analysis and the FAST diagram verify or
confirm that selected alternatives continue to meet and/or improve value of the functions
required by the customer. The team uses the developed alternatives to revise the FAST
diagram, as necessary, by combining, adding, eliminating, or relocating functions to depict
the overall value from function changes to the project, product, or process.
Finally, in the Presentation Phase, the FAST diagram helps “sell” alternative ideas
by demonstrating the functions have been achieved with value. Moreover, managers
attending the presentation are typically impressed with the FAST diagram universal
language that prompted the teams’ innovation and produced value recommendations.
In conclusion, SAVE International® highly
recommends CVS® facilitators use FAST as
often as practical when performing VM studies. TIP: CVS® facilitator(s)
may help the team build the
When To Use FAST? FAST diagram as needed.
The team performs FAST diagramming in However, experienced
the Function Analysis Phase, which is teams need little or no
between the Information Phase and the facilitator assistance when
Creative Phase. This begins with the CVS® they create a diagram.
facilitator’s orientation and instruction on how
to create a FAST diagram with the appropriate
44 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

TIP: CVS® facilitator(s) can prepare TIP: CVS® facilitator(s)

a draft diagram prior to the VM Study may conduct a Pre-VM
to instruct team members on the Study working session
FAST diagramming concept. This with a small sub-team or
approach helps the team to learn the full team to assist in
FAST diagramming, encourage and preparation of the FAST
engage the team, and to help optimize Diagram. Again, the
the team time during the VM Study diagram must be the
workshop. The diagram must be the product of the team and
product of the team and NOT the NOT the facilitator’s.
facilitator’s

tools. Then, the CVS® facilitator will lead, coach, or assist the team, as required, while
emphasizing the team’s responsibility to develop, validate, and make adjustments to finalize
the diagram.

How to Perform Function Analysis and FAST

Diagramming
Function Analysis as described in Sections A and B
begin with Define Functions. Defining functions includes TIP: Use one Post-
identification and classification as it relates to building a It® per function
FAST diagram.

Define Functions:

 Identify functions: Identify functions randomly by using the Random Function

Identification worksheet. In preparation to build the FAST diagram, transfer all functions
to a Post-It® Note.
 SECTION C 45

 Classify functions: When building the FAST diagram, validate functions classified as
basic or secondary, higher order, lower order, etc.

TIP: As mentioned in Section B, Random Function Identification

worksheets classify Basic, Secondary, Higher Order, and Lower
Order functions. CVS® facilitators will solicit the team’s response to
ensure every function is classified.
46 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

TIP: When building the FAST diagram, the team may discover that a
function as classified in the Random Function Identification worksheet
is incorrect, and therefore can change the classification as appropriate.

 Organize functions: Initially, the Random Function Identification Worksheet organizes

functions by systematically focusing the team’s attention by project elements, product
parts, or process steps. It should be noted that the technique of random function
identification does not organize functions in How-Why logic.
After identifying and classifying functions using the Random Function
Identification Worksheet and using Post-It® Notes, the team needs to expend additional
effort to further organize, eliminate duplication, and improve the quality of poorly stated
functions. Experienced CVS® facilitators will maintain the integrity of expressing
functions in the appropriate “active” verb- “measurable” noun form wherever possible.
The FAST Diagram process begins by taking the list of functions developed in the
Random Function Identification worksheet, and writing each function on a Post-It® Note.
Once the VM team determines the functions for any given subject surrounding a
project, product, or process, a graphical representation of these functions is developed. The
components of a FAST diagram consist of the classified functions, which include basic and
secondary functions, higher order function(s), and lower order function(s), including project
or design objectives, one-time functions, and all the time functions, as required.
A FAST diagram has two vertical lines referred to as scope lines as illustrated in Figure
C1. The scope of the project, product, or process, as represented by function statements, is
always between the left and right scope lines. The lower order function(s) are always on the
right side of the right scope line, and the higher order function(s) are to the left of the left
scope line. The higher and lower order functions are the bookends (the far left and right
functions respectively) and functions connecting them form the critical function logic path.
The lowest order function and highest order function outside the scope lines are not part of
the scope of functions under consideration to make change. However, greater opportunities
exist for innovative solutions when moving from lower order to higher order. In other
words, considering the use of a ballpoint pen, its higher order function to the far left
bounding scope line is to “Communicate Information.” A lower order function is to “Make
Marks” by “Dispensing Fluid.” Although the “Communicate Information” is outside the
scope line, there is more creative and innovative alternatives to “Communicate Information”
than there are to “Make Marks” or “Dispense Fluid.” Creative opportunities could lead to
 SECTION C 47

other solutions that abandon a fluid filled ballpoint pen design. Levels of Abstraction
address this concept.
Figure C1: FAST Diagram Guidelines

Levels of Abstraction
Functions have a unique characteristic that allows a logical progression of movement
between them. This sequence, or progression, of functions aligned in series using “How-
Why” logic left to right and right to left is referred to as the “Level of Abstraction.”
The multimedia projector example in Figure C2 below illustrates this logical
progression. The basic function is Project Image. To determine the basic function, we ask
what the Project, Product, or Process must do to meet the required customer need. In the
case of the multimedia projector MUST “Project Image.” Otherwise, if it does not “Project
Image,” the Product fails to meet the basic function of the customer requirement. Next, ask
the question “how,” and answer it with another function, in this case, Generate Light. Then
ask, “how” do to generate light, and answer with another function, Convert Energy. “How”
does the component convert energy? The answer is Receive Current. Finally, “How” do we
receive current? Supply Current (a lower-order function). Conversely, move right to left,
and ask a different question: “Why” do we receive current? The answer is Convert Energy.
“Why” does the component Convert Energy, to Generate Light. “Why” does the component
48 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

generate light, to Project Image (the basic function). “Why” do we Project Image, to Convey
Information (the higher-order function). The most opportunity for creative ideas is at the
highest order function: “Project Image,” which is the basic function.
 SECTION C 49

Figure C2: Multimedia Projector

50 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

If the function “Project Image” in its “Level of Abstraction” sequence is selected for
focus during the Creative Phase (the next step in the VM job plan) – then the value study
team might identify other ways of displaying images such as televisions, computer monitors,
slide projectors, retinal displays, etc. If the team focuses on a function with a higher level of
abstraction such as Convey Information, then the team might identify concepts such as
books, television programs, brochures, radio ads, web pages, etc.
The real value of “Level of Abstraction,” encourages the team to focus on more than
one level, thus generating ideas that are more creative. It leads to greater fluency (more
ideas), more flexibility (greater variety of ideas), and an improved functional understanding
of the Project, Product, or Process and the opportunities to solve the right problem. This
technique can also help the team achieve agreement on “Levels of Abstraction,” while
validating function types and sequence of the critical function logic path. This unique and
powerful approach provides the team a very different perspective to look in-depth at a
Project, Product, or Process.
Therefore, as compared to only performing basic function analysis using the Random
Function Identification worksheet, FAST provides greater precision into validating function
types and how they logically relate.

Standard Conventions and Graphics

The best-developed FAST diagrams use basic steps, standard conventions, and graphics
to organize random functions. Many FAST diagrams show variations in graphically
representing the scope of the project, product, or process. Although the multi-disciplinary
VM team involved in the project may understand the notations, it may be difficult for
outsiders, even those familiar with the FAST diagram technique, to read the diagram without
the aid of a participating VM team member or CVS® VM professional. It is the purpose of
this guide to develop a standard procedure recognized as best practice, with examples of
various types of projects, products, or processes.
Using standard conventions and graphics, FAST creates a universal language to
understand and communicate functions of a project, product, or process. After decades of
evolution and thousands of generated FAST diagrams, SAVE International® standardized
these best practice conventions in this guide. Standard conventions and graphics facilitate
flexibility to expand the model when needed.
A FAST diagram has three primary directions: “How,” “Why,” and “When.” See
Figure C3, which illustrates determinate logic.
 SECTION C 51

Figure C3:
FAST
Diagram
Logic

The how and why directions are always in the horizontal position. Many functions could
happen at the same time or because of one of the other random functions. These are shown
in the when direction, or vertically. Note that the basic difference between a FAST diagram
and other diagrams is a FAST diagram is function oriented, not time oriented or a process
flow. At this point, the rule of always reading from the exit direction of a function in
question should be adopted so that the three primary questions – how, why, and when – are
answered in the blocks indicated in Figure C3. The first step in testing and validating the
logic is to ask one of three questions of each function and to respond with another verb-noun
function statement per below:

1. How is (function) to be accomplished? By (B)

2. Why does (function) need to be accomplished? So you can (A)
3. When (function) occurs, what else happens at the same time as or as a result? (C)
and (D)

The answers to the three questions above are singular, but they can be multiple (AND)
or optional (OR) gates. In addition, their relative importance may be noted.
There are several combinations of how-why-when to describe functions and the
function orientations of a project, product, or process. While it is healthy to debate these
combinations with good team interactions, the CVS® VM facilitator needs to be mindful of
the time and focus the team on selecting the best function orientations.
52 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Use of “AND” Gates

“AND” gates are represented by a split or fork in the horizontal path. The fork is read as
“AND” meaning, that both forks in the path must be fulfilled in order to traverse from one
horizontal function to the next horizontal function. This is similar to a series circuit in
electrical terms; in other words, one cannot proceed or close the circuit unless all of the
circuits (functions in this situation) are closed or satisfied.
The standard graphic convention for an “AND” gate is shown in Figure C4.

Figure C4: AND Gate Illustration

Use of “OR” Gates

“OR” gates are represented by a split or fork in the critical function logic path where
multiple or optional ways of traversing from one function to the next function in the
horizontal direction are possible. This is similar to a parallel circuit in electrical terms; in
other words, any one of the alternative functions will close the circuit or allow one to
proceed from one secondary function to another. Figure C5 illustrates the universally

Figure C5: OR Gate Illustration

 SECTION C 53

accepted standard graphic convention for the use of “OR” gates. This configuration is
confirmed by asking, How is “Function A” achieved or performed? “Function A” is
achieved by performing “Function C” OR, “Function D.” Then ask how is “Function C”
OR “Function D” achieved or performed? “Function B” achieves or performs “Function C”
OR “Function D.” Conversely, the logic is validated by asking the why question moving
from “Function B” right to left. Why does “Function B” achieve or preform the next
function? “Function B” achieves or performs by doing “Function C” OR “Function D.” Why
does “Function C” or “Function D” achieve or perform, by doing “Function A.”

How to Construct a FAST Diagram

Experienced CVS® VM facilitators prepare FAST diagrams using Post-It® Notes.
Using the functions from the random function worksheet, the team prepares a Post-It® Note
for each unique function using a thick marker for easy visibility.
The steps to create a FAST diagram are illustrated in Figure C6.
 Step 1: Start by using the labeled FAST template in Figure C6.
 Step 2: Using the Post-It® Notes with functions written on them, select the function
believed to be the basic function. Place this function on the function logic path to
the immediate right of the left scope line.
 Step 3: Evaluate whether this is the basic function by asking the question “Why”
perform this function? The answer should be the higher order function (3) placed to
the left of the left scope line.
 Step 4: Then continue in the how direction from the basic function by asking
“How” is the basic function performed? That is the next function on the critical
function logic path. Continue moving to the right and repeat this process until you
reach the lower order function (5). All of the functions to the right of the basic
function on the critical function logic path are required secondary functions down to
the lower order function. Connect these functions with a horizontal line from the
side of one function to another.
 Step 4A: If two or more secondary functions are needed at the same time to
close the gap between two other secondary functions, then utilize an “AND”
gate (4A) to traverse to the next required secondary function per Figure C6.
Note that it is possible to have an AND gate in either the “How” or “Why”
direction.
 Step 4B: If there are, two or more different functions (optional ways) which
could satisfy moving between one secondary function and another secondary
function, then utilize an OR gate (4B) to traverse to the next required secondary
54 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE
 SECTION C 55

Figure C6: FAST Diagram Step-by-Step Template

56 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

function per Figure C6. Note that it is possible to have an OR gate in either the
“How” or “Why” direction.
 Step 5: As you develop the FAST diagram, test the validity of the critical function
logic path which was just completed by starting with the lower order function and
ask “Why” moving from right to left to ensure that the answer to “Why” this
function is needed is the next immediate function to the left. Complete this
questioning process of asking “Why” to ensure the logic is correct until you reach
the higher order function. The critical function
TIP: Once the team is logic path must go from the higher order function
working in the how to the lower order function. Each adjacent
direction, it may become
function, moving in both directions, must answer
necessary to go to the
lower order function and the “How” and “Why” questions logically in order
move in the “Why” to ensure the validity of this critical function logic
direction to connect with path. The higher (3) and lower order (5) functions
the functions going in the are the bookends (the leftmost and the rightmost
“How” direction. functions, respectively) of the critical function
logic path and are not part of the project scope
since they are both outside of the scope lines.

 Step 6: Place secondary functions TIP: It is desirable to have as

which are caused by or happen at the many functions in the how, why,
same time as other secondary and when directions as make
functions beneath the required sense. By doing that, you will
secondary function where they are show the relationships between
as many functions as possible.
needed (6), per Figure C6 in the
Complete the following steps to
“When” direction. Connect these
address any remaining
functions with a vertical line from the functions
top and bottom of one function to
another.
 Step 7: Project or Design objectives are those secondary functions, which typically
relate to government regulations, customer requirements, or engineering
specifications. Place these functions in the upper left corner (7) of the FAST
diagram as illustrated in Figure C6.
 Step 8: All-the-time functions are those secondary functions that happen all the
time (examples: Assure Quality or Assure Portability). They typically relate to
functions that help attract the customer (sell functions) or may be expected or
required at any time over the represented critical function logic path. Place these
 SECTION C 57

functions in the upper right corner (8) of the FAST diagram as illustrated in Figure
C6.
 Step 9: One-time functions are those secondary functions that only happen once.
Some examples are Assist Assembly, Protect Product, Protect Component in
shipment, and Maintain Traffic (during construction). Place these functions in the
upper center portion of the FAST diagram (9), as illustrated in Figure C6. Please
note a one-time function may be located directly under a function located on the
critical function logic path, if that function causes or results from that function on
the critical function logic path.
Since “AND” gates and “OR” gates can be difficult to understand, the following FAST
diagram of a hammer illustrates their use (see Figure C7). For example, why do you deliver
force? To deliver force OR separate materials. How do you improve ergonomics? By
reducing fatigue AND increasing friction.

How to Validate a FAST Diagram

The FAST diagram is validated when the entire value study team agrees that all the
functions have been identified on the diagram, and the logic (how, why, and when) has been
completely satisfied. This is an important distinction, as there is no one “correct” FAST
diagram for any given project (as in comparing it to other modeling techniques), but there is
a “valid” FAST diagram. The single most important output of the multi-disciplined value
study team engaged in a FAST exercise is satisfying the how-why logic of the critical
function logic path. The second most important output is team consensus. Team consensus
and integrity of functions and function logic, with the assistance of an experienced CVS®
facilitator, is paramount to generating a successful FAST diagram.
If the adjacent functions do not make logical sense moving in either direction, then
there is a function logic mismatch. Functions must be changed or re-arranged to ensure the
function logic path is valid.
As a summary, start with the basic function, and ask the question “How” does this
function accomplish or perform the basic function? The answer to that question is a
required secondary function and is located to the immediate right of the basic function. This
process is followed until all of the functions have been identified in the “How” direction.
Once this process is completed, validate the logic of this newly developed critical function
logic path by starting from the right side of the diagram at the lower order function and
asking the question “Why.” The answer to “Why” the lower order function is accomplished
should be the secondary function to the immediate left of the right scope line. Continue to
test the logic in both the how and why directions, until the value study team agrees with the
logic in both directions. If the logic along this function logic path does not make sense in
58 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

either the left to right (“How”) direction or the right to left (“Why”) direction, then the
adjacent functions need to be reversed, changed, or new functions developed which will
ensure the logic makes sense going in both directions.
 SECTION C 59

Figure C7: FAST Diagram with “AND” & “OR” Gates – Carpentry Hammer
60 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Finally, validate the FAST diagram with consensus from the value study team that the
logic makes sense in both directions, and there are no other changes required. Then the
team can proceed as one team, one voice, and one common language represented by the
FAST diagram as their tool, to convey their project, product, or process to others.

Function Resource Matrix

The five-step procedure to allocate resources (cost, space, time, weight, etc.) to
function is as follows:
1. List the functions within the scope of the project across the top of the Function Resource
Matrix form (Figure C8) from the FAST diagram.
2. List components such as parts, major subassemblies/systems, procedure steps, etc.
vertically on the left side of the form with their associated resources (cost, time, weight,
space, etc.) determined from the Information Phase.
3. Identify functions with a direct association with each component.
4. Determine how much cost of each item belongs to each function. Take care to identify
the actual cost to perform each function. One common mistake is equally dividing the
total cost across each of the functions that the item performs. Another mistake is placing
a higher cost on a function because the function is important. In most cases, there is little
correlation between a function’s cost and its importance.
The key is for the team to determine the actual distribution of cost for each function.
For example, if a part were made out of stainless steel because it needs to Resist Corrosion,
then the cost difference between a part with cold rolled carbon steel and stainless steel
would be the percent cost difference to Resist Corrosion. In a building project, the cost of
back-up power would go towards the function of Insure Power or Supply (Back-up) Power.
The function Condition Space for a building will not only include the cost of the mechanical
equipment, ductwork, and labor to install it. The cost will also include the portion of
electrical wiring and control system to power, control, and manage it, as well as the portion
of labor to install the electrical and control systems’ parts and components.
5. Add costs in all columns vertically to determine the allocated cost to each function.
The team working on the carpentry hammer project begins by transferring information
from the random function identification worksheet to the function resource matrix. This
includes the components, component costs, and functions. It is acceptable to have the same
function statement appear multiple times under different components.
The team first considers the hammerhead made of forged, machined steel, which costs a
total of $4.73 to manufacture. The function-resource matrix is set up to allow the team to
enter approximate percentages. The worksheet then automatically calculates the monetary
 SECTION C 61

amounts. The team reviews the various functions identified for each cost component during
random function identification. The team then discusses how to distribute costs among the
 Function Resource Matrix, Worksheet #3
62

Subject:
Resource Type (cost, space, time, weight, etc.):
* Percent of Resource Allocation

FUNCTION - Active Verb / Measurable Noun

PCT* COMPONENT QTY. U/ M UNIT TOTAL

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%
FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

0%

Figure C8: Function Resource Matrix Worksheet

0%

0%

0%

RESOURCE TOTALS 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

FUNCTION - PERCENTAGE: 100.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0%
 Function Resource Matrix Worksheet
Subject: Carpentry Hammer
Resource Type (cost, time, weight, etc.): Cost
* Percent of Resource Allocation

FUNCTION - Active Verb / Measurable Noun

PCT* COMPONENT QTY. U/M UNIT TOTAL Deliver Transfer Receive Focus Transmit Reduce Deflect Reduce Increase Improve Reduce Increase Improve Improve Meet Assemble Enhance Resist Identify Connect Create
Force Force Force Force Vibration Vibration Force Deflection Force Ergonomics Fatigue Friction Durability Comfort Standards Component Appearancce Oxidation Brand Component Leverage

100% Head (machined, steel casting) 1 EA $4.730 $4.73 50% 15% 5% 10% 5% 15%

100% Handle (hickory) 1 EA $2.470 $2.47 25% 25% 10% 10% 10% 20%

100% Wedge (hickory) 1 EA $0.060 $0.06 100%

100% Wedge (steel) 2 EA $0.060 $0.12 50% 50%

100% Sealant (epoxy) 1 EA $0.220 $0.22 80% 20%

100% Label (paper, adhesive) 1 EA $0.050 $0.05 100%

100% Shellac (spray applied) 1 EA $0.040 $0.04 50% 50%

100% Assembly (labor) 1 LS $2.350 $2.35 20% 80%

RESOURCE TOTALS 10.04 2.37 1.33 0.62 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.25 0.71 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.26 0.02 0.05 2.04 1.20

FUNCTION - PERCENTAGE: 100.00% 23.56% 13.22% 6.15% 0.00% 0.00% 2.46% 0.00% 2.36% 0.00% 0.00% 2.46% 2.46% 7.06% 4.68% 0.00% 0.00% 2.55% 0.20% 0.50% 20.36% 11.99%
SECTION C

Force.
The

function.
associated

Hammer
Deflection is
next
functions.

component to heat-treat it.

function

Figure C9: Allocation of

basic function, Deliver Force.

cost, allocates to this function.

considered.

Costs to Functions for the

The

hammer. Another 5 percent of the cost

detailed bill of materials contains about
add weight to the hammer. After
Transfer Force. The team thinks that

The function Enhance Appearance

hammer and claw elements. The
from the special heat-treating that the
equals approximately 5 percent of the
decides half the cost attributes to the

machining of the hammerhead, which

examines the hammerhead casting,
which includes the claw. The team

Create Leverage. This function is

The final function discussed is
is a reasonable approximation for this
is related to the form of the head of the
10 percent of the total cost of this
strength and durability for both the
casting undergoes to increase its
Final

Improve Durability. Most of this cost is

The next function discussed is
Reduce
about 15 percent of the cost to Transfer
The next function discussed is

discussing it, the team decides to assign

some of the casting is there simply to
team
63
64 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

directly related to the claw, specifically, to the shape and machining of this part of the
hammer. Another 15 percent of the cost is a reasonable approximation for this function.
The team must repeat the process to ensure all allocated costs to function is complete.
See Figure C9 for the completed Function Resource Matrix for the hammer.

Placement of Resources on the FAST Diagram

After allocating the amount of resources to each function in the function resource
matrix worksheet, the value study team can place the resource units of measure, on the
FAST diagram for visual reference. This resource information is entered on the FAST
diagram either below or in close proximity of the appropriate function box (e.g. under the
function box). Function-cost or Function-Units of Measure relationships provide critical
insight for the value study team indicating where potential opportunities for greatest value
improvement exists.
TIP: Some CVS® facilitators use different color Post-It® Notes as a visual aide to
highlight costs or other units of measure on the diagram.
TIP: Consider adding a percentage of the resource to the total amount of the
resource for each function.

The purpose of this step using the Pareto Principle of 80/20

is to identify which functions provide the greatest
opportunity for value improvement.

All professional CVS® VM practitioners should be proficient in all of these function

analysis steps. These steps to allocate resources to the functions include 1) Random
Function Identification Worksheet listing, 2) building a FAST Diagram Worksheet, and 3)
Function Resource Matrix. The original Miles’ Value Analysis technique applied only
Random Function Identification and allocated resources using the Function Resource
Matrix. However, since FAST diagramming was introduced and evolved, CVS®
practitioners now use the following steps:
1. Identify functions by random function identification
2. Build a FAST diagram
3. Allocate resources accordingly in the function resource matrix
 SECTION C 65

4. Place the resources on the FAST diagram

TIP: Rather than only using “Identify functions” and “Allocate Resources,”
contemporary professional practice follows all three of these steps. Building the
FAST diagram provides visual clarity and logical representation of the product,
project, or process; promotes superior quality creative brainstorming; and ensures
logical and accurate function relationships are oriented on the FAST diagram. The
diagram becomes an excellent communications tool for the team and management.

Project Example - Warehouse

 66

Warehouse

Figure C11:
Refer to Figure C11.
Project

Warehouse Project
Function Resource Matrix Worksheet
Subject: Warehouse
Resource Type (cost, time, weight, etc.): Space - Gross Square Feet (GSF)

Function Resource Matrix –

FAST

allocates resources from the

Figure C10 is an example

Function Resource Matrix.

below each function. The team
method of locating “space”
diagram. It illustrates one

(square feet) resources directly

* Percent of Resource Allocation

FUNCTION - Active Verb / Measurable Noun

PCT* COMPONENT QTY. U/M UNIT TOTAL Ship Retrieve Store Manage Report Transport Receive Classify Receive Maintain Manage Maintain Energize Maintain Enclose Ensure
Material Material Material Inventory Inventory Material Material Material Visitors Hygene Facility Comfort Warehouse Safety Space Efficiency

100% Entry/ Reception Area 600 GSF 600 95% 5%

100% Office Area 2,000 GSF 2,000 20% 20% 35% 10% 5% 10%

100% Toilets 400 GSF 400 95% 5%

100% Mechanical/ Elect. Eq. Area 1,000 GSF 1,000 75% 20% 5%

100% Truck Dock Area 4,000 GSF 4,000 45% 50% 5%

FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

100% Material Storage Area 52,000 GSF 52,000 5% 61% 30% 1% 1% 2%

RESOURCE TOTALS 60,000 1800.00 2600.00 31720.00 400.00 400.00 15600.00 2000.00 520.00 570.00 380.00 700.00 750.00 200.00 720.00 1440.00 200.00

FUNCTION - PERCENTAGE: 100.00% 3.00% 4.33% 52.87% 0.67% 0.67% 26.00% 3.33% 0.87% 0.95% 0.63% 1.17% 1.25% 0.33% 1.20% 2.40% 0.33%
Figure C10: FAST Diagram – Warehouse Project with Resource Allocation
 SECTION C 67

The following Pareto diagram, Figure C12, created from the function resource matrix
demonstrates the 80%/20% rule (80% of the resources allocated to 20% of the functions).
The VM team may decide to focus on the function, “store material” since that function has
the most space. During the creativity phase the team would brainstorm ways to achieve this
function but with much less space.

Pareto Function Space Diagram - Warehouse

Store Material

Transport Material

Retrieve Material

Receive Material

Ship Material

Enclose Space

Maintain Comfort

Maintain Safety

Manage Facility

Receive Visitors

Classify Material

Report Inventory

Manage Inventory

Maintain Hygene

Ensure Efficiency

Energize Warehouse

- 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000

Figure C12: Pareto Function Analysis Diagram

Process Example – Budget & Invoice Process

Figure C13 is an example FAST of the Budget and Invoice Process discussed in
Section B.
Figure C14 is the completed Function Resource Matrix for the Budget and Invoice
Process.
68 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure C13: FAST Budget and Invoice Process

 SECTION C 69

There are, of course, other key

0.34%
1.00
Work Resources Resources Quality Standards Change Fee Information Status Information Information Resources
Track

1%
indicators of poor value, such as

1.93%
quality, reliability, productivity, or

5.67
Review

34%

20%
0%
4%

1%
risks that the value study team needs
to consider. The value study team

8.44%
24.75
Request Validate Summarize Perform Authorize Estimate Allocate Identify Ensure Meet Manage Negotiate Validate Monitor Transmit

17%

12%
4%

1%
should develop random functions for
these areas of high failure rates,

0.57% 0.00%
0.00
rework, and risk during the Function

1.67
Analysis Phase of the value study to
33%

12%
ensure they have been identified and

0.68%
2.00
6%

thus considered accordingly in part of

the agreed upon FAST diagram.

0.00%
0.00
FUNCTION - Active Verb / Measurable Noun

Function resource matrix

0.00%
0.00
worksheets, like the one shown as
Figure C8, are another way to define
8.18% 0.06%
0.17
33%

and prioritize high cost functions for

24.00
69%

the Creative Phase. The function

resource matrix worksheet is complete
1.45%
4.25
11%

1%

when costs (or other resources)

identified to the functions are listed
1.02%
3.00
7%

1%

and calculated by percentage.

5.46%
16.00
Work

40%

In addition, teams select other

functions for performance
7.25% 54.56%
21.25 160.00
Work

66%
95%

improvement based on specific

Effort

project, product, or process needs. As

17%

10%

an example, some projects, products,

8.70%
25.50
Payment Work

60%

12%

or processes may have a scope or

1.36%
4.00

focus to identify functions for

33%

problem resolution. Using the Pareto

100.00%
293.25
TOTAL

121.00
40.00

35.00

84.50

12.25

Principle or 80-20 rule, 80% of the

0.50
Resource Type (cost, time, weight, etc.): Time
Budget & Invoice Process

problems are in 20% of the functions.

Function Resource Matrix Worksheet

QTY. U/M UNIT

In some instances, quantifying cost of

Hrs

Hrs

Hrs

Hrs

121.00 Hrs

Hrs

value might be challenging.

64.00

35.00

84.50

12.25
0.50
* Percent of Resource Allocation

FUNCTION - PERCENTAGE:
100% Administrative Assistant

Figure C14: Example of

RESOURCE TOTALS
100% Project Coordinator
COMPONENT

Function Resource Matrix

100% Sub-Consultant

Worksheet – Budget Invoice

100% Employee
100% President
Subject:

100% Client

Process Using Time as the

PCT*

Resource
70 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Brainstorming how to resolve problems may have a direct or indirect correlation to project,
product, or process value depending on qualified or quantified measures. Sometimes, it can
be difficult to quantify value improvement. CVS® facilitators and teams should make every
effort to quantify solutions and impacts of proposed changes, to ensure the how and why of
proposed alternatives will improve value and satisfy the customer sponsoring the VM study.

Prioritize Functions for Value

The final step of function analysis is to identify the functions with the greatest
opportunity to improve value. This might be the highest cost functions from the function
resource matrix. As needed, select other high-use resources, such as life cycle cost, energy,
time, space, etc. Others might prioritize functions for value improvement based on high risk
to the project. As an example, for some projects, select functions not environmentally
sustainable. The customer/client may have concerns or problems with some functions they
want to prioritize for study or value improvement. Finally, the value study team may have a
“hunch” that certain functions have a good opportunity for value improvement.

Identify Opportunities for Value Improvement

As discussed above, the act of prioritizing functions by cost or life cycle cost will often
create obvious choices for improvement. For any given value study, the team needs to be
aware of areas where they may or may not be allowed to focus, based upon the project
objectives and goals. It is important to recognize the emphasis may not always be on cost,
but rather other performance factors such as space, time, energy, quality, environmental
impact, etc.

FAST Summary and Function Inspired Change

The goal of the function analysis phase is to develop full and in-depth understanding of
the project, product, or process purpose(s) through function analysis and FAST
diagramming. Once achieving this understanding, function analysis and FAST diagramming
helps the team select areas for maximum return on value, consistent with the VM project
study objectives. FAST diagramming inspires change and innovation.
Upon completing the FAST diagram, the multi-disciplinary value study team must
select key functions for Creative Phase brainstorming by reviewing and identifying those
functions with the high cost, duration, failure rates, rework, risk, etc. The recommended
method to select functions for brainstorming is application of the Pareto Principle or 80 – 20
rule (80% of the costs, problems, or opportunities for value improvement are in 20% of the
parts or functions.
 SECTION C 71

FAST is a proven tool, which has brought a significant new dimension to function
analysis that, to this day, sets VM apart from all other analytical techniques. As such, one
could say this is the most important phase in the VM Job Plan. This powerful approach
requires practice to be proficient in leading teams to achieve innovative value-added
improvements for projects, products, and processes.
TIP: New practitioners performing function analysis and FAST diagramming
should engage an experienced CVS® facilitator to maintain quality and integrity of
the VM Job Plan and FAST diagrams. The CVS® Mentorship ensures a new
practitioner will become proficient. Maintaining integrity to the VM standard, VM
Job Plan process, and FAST diagrams maximizes return on the value study
investment for the customer or client sponsoring the VM Study.
SECTION D
PROJECT APPLICATION

This section provides case study examples

of function analysis for project applications.
These include a roadside guiderail, a library,
a retaining wall, typical building columns, a
railroad grade separation, and an office
building. Each example follows the function
analysis elements described in the earlier
sections, and each used the function analysis
templates (see Appendix).

Example D1: Guiderail

The first example consists of a roadside
guiderail as illustrated in Figure D1-1.
The components are listed in Figure
D1-2 as follows: Figure D1-1: Photo of Example
Roadway Guiderail

Figure D1-2: Component Listing and Costs for Roadway Guiderail

The VM study team followed the key elements and process of function analysis:
1. Define functions. We used the Random Function Identification Worksheet to identify
and classify the functions of each component (Figure D1-3, Worksheet 1) A FAST
Diagram helped organize the functions. (Figure D1-4, Worksheet 2)

72
 SECTION D 73

2. Allocate resources. The function resource matrix, as described in Section C, is the

technique used to allocate resources to the functions. Refer to Figure D1-5, Worksheet 3
(We then added the allocation of cost to the FAST diagram.)
3. Prioritize functions for value. The team identifies the functions with the greatest
opportunity to improve value. This might be the based on the highest cost functions from
the function resource matrix. For example, in the case of the guiderail, it is the function
Guide Movement. The team may also base their selection on other high-use resources
such as life cycle cost, energy, time, space, etc. Other teams might prioritize functions
for value improvement based on high risk to the project. They may also select functions
that are not environmentally sustainable. The customer/client may have concerns or
problems with some functions and request the team to prioritize them for study. Finally,
the VM team may have a “hunch” that certain functions have a good opportunity for
value
improvement. Random Function Identification Worksheet
Once the Subject: Highway Guiderail
team has selected
the functions for Basic Function: Guide Movement (Verb, Noun)
further study, Higher Order Function: Reduce Injury (Verb, Noun)
* Basic, Secondary (Required, Unwanted), Higher Order, Lower Order
they explore
Resource Function Function Resource %
ideas to achieve Component
(cost) Verb Noun Type* Allocation
those functions as
Post $35.00 Support Weight S 10%
part of the
Post Absorb Energy S 25%
Creative Phase of Post Transfer Energy S 25%
the value Post Position Assembly S 25%
Post Resist Corrosion S 15%
methodology.
Bracket $15.00 Absorb Energy S 25%
Bracket Guide Movement B 5%
Bracket Join Shapes S 55%
Bracket Resist Corrosion S 15%

Rivets $8.00 Join Shapes S 85%

Rivets Resist Corrosion S 15%

Figure D1-3: Guardrail $180.00 Absorb Energy S 11%

Worksheet 1 - Guardrail Guide Movement B 71%
Guardrail Identify Edge S 3%
Guiderail Guardrail Resist Corrosion S 15%
Random
Reflector $5.00 Reflect Light S 100%
Function
Identification Labor for Assembly $75.00 Join Shapes S 65%
Worksheet Position Assembly S 35%

Total $318.00
74 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE
 SECTION D 75

Figure D1-4: Worksheet 2 - Guiderail FAST

Diagram
 76 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure D1-5:
Worksheet
3 - Guiderail
Function
Resource
Matrix
Worksheet
 SECTION D 77

Example D2: Library

A branch
library for Wash-
ington, DC was
studied using
function analysis to
focus on the
functions of the
spaces provided to
the patrons. Rather
than use cost as the
resource, the team
used gross square
feet (GSF) as the
measure. The
overall building has
25,000 GSF.
The team Figure D2-1: Photograph of the Model of the Library
performed the (Architect: Davis Brody Aedas)
following function
analysis steps for the library.
1. Define functions. Random Function Identification Worksheet 1 (Figure D2-
2a&2b) helped the team randomly identify and classify the functions of the
various spaces of the library. Various stakeholders helped in this process, including
the library management, staff, custodians, and the patrons (users) of the library.
Share Knowledge was determined to be the basic function of the library. The FAST
diagram was prepared to organize the functions. This diagram helped confirm the
basic and secondary functions. (Figure D2-3)
2. Allocate resources. The function resource matrix allocated space resources (square
feet) to the functions. See Figure D2-4, Worksheet 3. The team placed this
allocation on the FAST diagram.
3. Prioritize functions for value. The team identified the functions with the greatest
opportunity to improve value. This included the functions with the largest amount of
space. Of particular interest was the large amount of space associated with the
function, Access Areas (circulation space). Refer to Pareto diagram (Figure D2-5)
that illustrates this as the largest amount of space devoted to a single function. It was
78 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

also a secondary function. Later, as part of the Creative Phase, the team prepared
alternative floor plan sketches to explore ideas to minimize this amount of space.
 SECTION D 79

Figure D2-2a: Worksheet 1 - Library Random Function Identification

Worksheet
80 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE
 SECTION D 81

Figure D2-2b: Worksheet 1 - Library Random Function Identification

Worksheet
82 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE
 SECTION D 83

Figure D2-3: FAST Diagram – Library

 Function Resource Matrix Worksheet
Subject: Library
84

Resource Type (cost, time, weight, etc.): Space - Gross Square Feet (
* Percent of Resource Allocation

FUNCTION - Active Verb / Measurable Noun

PCT* COMPONENT QTY. U/M UNIT TOTAL Share Access Store Access Instruct Connect Attract Create Foster Receive Maintain Manage Access Meet Maintain Energize Offer Enclose Serve
Knowledge Information Information Internet Use www Patrons Environment Collaboration Patrons Hygene Facility Areas Fire Code Comfort Facility Refreshments Space Patrons

100% Multi-Function Collections Area 1,300 GSF 1,300 20% 80%

100% Fiction Collection Area 800 GSF 800 20% 80%

100% Periodicals Area 600 GSF 600 40% 60%

100% Conference Area 2,800 GSF 2,800 30% 10% 20% 10% 30%

100% Entrance/ Gallery Area 2,700 GSF 2,700 25% 25% 50%

100% Materials Display Area 400 GSF 400 25% 50% 25%

100% Information Services Area 900 GSF 900 20% 20% 10% 15% 10% 10% 15%

100% Vending Area 100 GSF 100 100%

100% Children's Services Area 3,100 GSF 3,100 20% 20% 10% 15% 10% 10% 15%

100% Sight & Sound Area 500 GSF 500 50% 50%

100% Young Adult Services Area 700 GSF 700 20% 20% 10% 15% 10% 25%

100% Adult Study Area 900 GSF 900 20% 25% 10% 10% 10% 25%

100% Project Workroom 200 GSF 200 10% 90%

100% Circulation Services Area 700 GSF 700 50% 50%

100% Toilets 800 GSF 800 100%

FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

100% Janitor Closets 60 GSF 60 100%

100% Corridor/ Stairs/ Elevator Area 4,000 GSF 4,000 80% 20%

100% Mechanical/ Elect. Eq. Area 2,440 GSF 2,440 80% 20%

Figure D2-4: Worksheet 3 – Library Function Resource Matrix

100% Exterior Wall Area 2,000 GSF 2,000 100%

RESOURCE TOTALS 25,000 2060.00 2075.00 2060.00 840.00 1265.00 840.00 875.00 1515.00 840.00 1350.00 860.00 530.00 3200.00 800.00 1952.00 488.00 100.00 2000.00 1350.00

FUNCTION - PERCENTAGE: 100.00% 8.24% 8.30% 8.24% 3.36% 5.06% 3.36% 3.50% 6.06% 3.36% 5.40% 3.44% 2.12% 12.80% 3.20% 7.81% 1.95% 0.40% 8.00% 5.40%
 SECTION D 85

Figure D2-5:
Library
Pareto Space
Function
Analysis

Example
D3: Retaining Wall
We construct retaining walls to minimize encroachment. If there is enough horizontal
distance, the ground can be sloped. In such a case, there is no need to have an element to
Retain Earth. Design objective or all-the-time-functions influence the selection of the type of
element. There are different ways to retain the soil. Their selection depends upon the design
objective or all-the-time-functions of the project element.
Figure D3-1 shows a 190’ long, and 11.5’ high concrete retaining wall or project. The
purpose of the wall is to avoid encroachment to a stream. The objective of the retaining wall
is to Minimize Settlement. The soil profile, as shown in Figure D3-1, includes 5’-4” of
unsuitable material. If we place the footing over this unsuitable material, there is potential for
settlement of the wall.
86 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure D3-1: Typical Wall Section

Function analysis helps to define value.
 Establish the objective. Multiple objectives are not desirable. It complicates the
process if they are contradictory.
 Develop Critical Path functions. For any element, various options will have very
similar sets of critical path functions. Changes to critical path function for various
options are possible. The team considers functions that happen at the same time as
part of the critical path functions.
 The team needs to keep the cost of the caused-by functions (these are often unwanted
functions) to a minimum.
 SECTION D 87

 The team develops functions using the stakeholder constraints, needs, and desires.
They derive most of the critical path functions from the needs of the stakeholders.
They show constraints and desires under the All-the-time functions.
 The team should isolate high cost elements and modify using various options.

Functions of Concrete Retaining Wall

The cost of the concrete retaining wall is $249,859. The critical path functions of the wall
are Retain Earth, Resist Pressure, Receive Force, Transfer Force, and Distribute Force
(Figures
D 3-2 and D 3-4).
The footing satisfies the following functions: Distribute Force, Prevent Overturning, and
Minimize Settlement. These functions are classified caused-by functions. The function Prevent

Overturning is a caused-by Function (Figures D3-2a and D3-4).

Figure D3-2: Typical Wall Functions Figure D3-2a Typical Footing Functions

The team considers this type of retaining wall to minimize vibration that may affect the
adjacent building. The concrete retaining wall may be subjected to settlement when it Resists
Pressure. In this case, the cost is higher due to bad soil underneath, as illustrated in Figures
88 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

D3-1 and D3-3. In addition, when the wall retains soil, it

traps water. This causes a need for the function Drain
Water (See Figure D3-4 FAST Diagram).

Function Cost of Concrete Retaining Wall

The team allocates the costs of the sub-elements to
various functions. For example, they allocate the footing
cost to Distribute Force, Prevent Overturning, and Minimize
Settlement. They distribute the cost of the wall, as shown in Figure D3-3:
Figure D3-5, to five functions. Similarly, they allocate Concrete Retaining Wall
 SECTION D 89

oth
er
cos
ts
to
vari
ous
fun
ctio
ns
(se
e
Fig
ure
D3-
4:
FA
ST
for
Ret
aini
ng
Wa
ll).

Figure D3-4: FAST Diagram for Retaining

Wall
 90
FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure D3-5: Function Resource (Cost) Matrix of Concrete Retaining

W ll
 SECTION D 91

Example D4: Building Columns

Design Objective:
The column in a building is a critical member. It supports the floors and resists the
wind. The objective of adding columns in a building is to assure the stability of the building
for all external loads. This includes dead load, live load, wind load, and seismic forces.
The first step is to define
the objective. In this case, it is to
Stabilize Building. Regions
where seismic is not a factor, the
design objective could be
Support Floor. In such a case,
there are shear walls or core
walls designed to take the wind
load, and the columns are for
gravity loads only. When they
design the columns to resist
gravity load and wind load, the Figure D4-1: Columns of the Parthenon
design objective may be Support
Building. When the builder expects the columns to withstand earthquake forces in addition
to gravity and wind loads, they design for the objective, Stabilize Building.
Figure D4-1 illustrates the columns of the Parthenon, which assured stability for over
two thousand years.

Higher-Order Basic Function

This function is the specific response to the objective. The building will be stabilized if
the movements are controlled. The movement includes vertical and lateral movements. The
higher-order basic function is Control Movements.
The function that answers the question “How does it control movements?” is Transfer
Load. “How does it transfer load?” is answered by two functions: Resist Compression and
Resist Tension.
“How does it resist compression?” is answered by the function Resist Buckling. If the
column buckles, it loses its ability to Resist Compression. How does it Resist Buckling is
answered by the function Receive Force. The formwork satisfies the function Develop
Shape.
92 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Size 36x36
Strength (KSI) 6.0
Figure D4-2: As Designed Cost of
Percent Steel 1.92 a Square Column, Per Floor
Cost Percentage
Concrete
$269.9 31.2%
Column
Formwork $259.2 29.9%
Reinforcing
Main Vertical $248.2 28.6%
Dowels $44.6 5.2%
Ties $44.5 5.1% Figure D4-3: FAST Diagram
for Building Column
Total Cost $866.4 100%
 SECTION D 93

Function Cost Matrix

The team analyzed the function cost of As Designed Rectangular column for its
performance of functions. Major cost (29%) is to Resist Compression. Cost of other
functions are Resist Tension (24%), Transfer Load (5%), Receive Force (1%), and Enhance
Appearance (1%). Formwork is a onetime action required to perform the function Develop
Shape (30%). Vertical reinforcement is to resist part of compression and mostly to Resist
Tension. Reinforcing Dowels partly Resist Tension and mostly to Transfer Force.
Reinforcing ties are used to Resist Buckling.
The team identified high cost functions based on the above distribution. The three
leading functions Resist Compression (29%), Resist Tension (24%), and Develop Shape
(30%) consume most of the cost.
The team explores other variations of columns for the same load to optimize the cost of
each function. This includes:
 Varying the size of the columns
 Varying the strength of the concrete (reduces the function, Resist Compression)
 Varying the shape of the columns (results in less of the function Develop Shape).

Vary Size
Keeping the strength and shape constant, they investigated, designed, and estimated
various sizes of columns for a given load. The calculation of the most economical column
that performed the function, Resist Compression, is a square column with 6,000 psi concrete
(see Figure D4-6).

Vary Strength
All three parameters, concrete strength, column size, and percent of reinforcement are
varied. They designed and estimated all possible combinations. The cost calculation for the
most economical column is to satisfy the functions Resist Compression and Optimize Area.
It is preferable to increase concrete strength and reduce the column size (Figure D4-6).

Vary Shape
Geometry increases the strength of the column, and provides ability to resist buckling.
Circular ties and shape help the circular column Resist Buckling. Square columns need
elaborate ties to contain the concrete to Resist Buckling.
Vertical reinforcement resists compression and tension. Figures D4-4a and 4b show
reinforcing for square column with 6000 psi and circular column with 9000 psi.
94 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE
 SECTION D 95

Figure D4-4a: Square Column Figure D4-4b: Circular Column

Reinforcing Reinforcing
See Fig. D4-2: $248.2 (28.6%) See Fig. D4-2: $108.5 (19.5%)

In this project, they used standard prefabricated formwork for circular column and site
assembled formwork for square column (Figures D4-5a and 5b). This resulted in high cost
for formwork.

Figure D4-5a: Square Column Figure D4-5b: Circular Column

Formwork Formwork
See Fig. D4-6, $259.2 (29.9%) See Fig. D4-6, $93.6 (16.8%)
96 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure D4-6: Cost comparison of size, strength and shape.

Summary
For a high-rise building with 35 floors
and 40 columns, the gross savings was
$431,900 and a realized net savings of
$365,000. Figure D4-7 shows the change
from a square column to a circular column.

Figure D4-7: Before & After VM

Study
SECTION D 97
98 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Example D5: Railroad Grade Separation

This project replaced an existing at-grade railroad crossing with an undercrossing to
accommodate growing traffic and development. See Figure D5-1. Motorists and emergency
response vehicles are now able to cross over the railroad tracks without stopping for trains,
thereby increasing safety and reducing travel times.

Figure D5-
1:
Photograp
h of the
Railroad
Grade
Separation
(completed

The team performed the following function analysis steps for this project.
1. Define functions. Worksheet 1 (Figure D5-2) helped the team randomly identify and
classify the functions of the various design elements of the project. Various
stakeholders helped in this process including the project team, local government agency
(owner), and state department of transportation representatives. Figure D5-3 is the
FAST diagram that was prepared to organize the functions. This diagram helped
confirm the basic function (Improve Traffic) and secondary functions.
2. Allocate resources. The function resource matrix allocated cost resources to the
functions. See Figure D5-4, Worksheet 3. The team placed this allocation on the FAST
diagram. Additionally, it also identified performance attributes and relative levels of
risk associated with the various project functions. The team elected to assign these
values directly to the FAST diagram, as it was felt that the additional rigor of preparing a
function resource matrix for these was not necessary.
3. Prioritize functions for value. The team in this case identified the functions with the
greatest opportunity to improve value. This included functions that were not only cost
critical, but also performance and risk critical. Through the FAST diagram, several
functions jumped out at the team that were not particularly high cost functions. These
 SECTION D 99

included the functions “Increase Width,” which was flagged as risk critical as it was
linked to uncertain utility impacts; and “Remove Obstruction,” due to the risk of
contaminated soils.

Figure D5-2: Worksheet 1 – Railroad Grade Separation

100 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Random Function Identification

 SECTION D 101

Figure D5-3: Worksheet 2 – Railroad Grade Separation FAST Diagram

 Function Resource Matrix, Worksheet #3
Subject: Railroad Grade Separation
Resource Type (cost, space, time, weight, etc.): Cost (in $ millions)
* Percent of Resource Allocation

FUNCTION - Active Verb / Measurable Noun

102

PCT* COMPONENT QTY. U/M UNIT TOTAL Increase Support Separate Accom. Raise Match Remove Remove Convey Treat Pump Collect Enhance Control Manage Construct Accom. Maintain Retain Relocate
Width Load Grades Peds Profile Grades Obstr. Water Water Water Water Water Aesthetics Traffic Traffic Project Improvements Utilities Earth Business

100% Bridge 1 LS 4.4 4.40 50% 50%

100% Retaining Walls 1 LS 2.0 2.00 50% 50%

100% Pavement Section 1 LS 1.0 1.00 34% 66%

100% Approaches 1 LS 4.9 2.90 33% 33% 34%

100% Sidewalks 1 LS 0.4 0.40 20% 80%

100% Curb & Gutter 1 LS 0.1 0.10 50% 50%

100% Stormwater Sewer 1 LS 0.2 0.20 50% 50%

100% Detention Pond 1 LS 0.3 0.30 75% 25%

100% Lift Station 1 LS 0.2 0.20 100%

100% Landscaping 1 LS 0.3 0.30 25% 75%

100% Signs 1 LS 0.2 0.20 100%

100% Contractor Mobilization 1 LS 1.2 1.20 100%

100% Detours/Traffic Management 1 LS 0.8 0.80 100%

50% Right-of-Way 1 LS 2.0 2.00 50% 50%

1 LS 0.5 0.50 100%

FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

100% Utility Relocation

100% Roadway Demolition 1 LS 0.3 0.30 100%

RESOURCE TOTALS 16.80 0.34 4.90 2.20 0.32 0.96 0.99 0.30 0.10 0.15 0.23 0.20 0.20 0.23 0.20 0.80 1.20 1.00 0.50 1.00 1.00

FUNCTION - PERCENTAGE: 100.00% 2.02% 29.15% 13.10% 1.90% 5.70% 5.87% 1.79% 0.60% 0.89% 1.34% 1.19% 1.19% 1.34% 1.19% 4.76% 7.14% 5.95% 2.98% 5.95% 5.95%

Figure D5-4: Worksheet 3 – Railroad Grade Separation Function Resource

 SECTION D 103

Example D6: Office Building

An office administration building for the Folsom Dam Project - U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation was studied as part of a certified Module I Workshop. The objective of the
building is to provide adequate and more modern office space to house Central California
Area Office (CCAO) employees and visitors. There was also an objective to meet certain
LEED (a sustainability rating system) level.
The existing buildings that comprise the CCAO do not meet seismic standards, heating
and cooling equipment is unreliable and inefficient, and areas of some of the buildings are
not handicap accessible. Staff is also spread out among many buildings, which makes work
performance and collaboration more difficult and time consuming.
As part of this project, the plan is to raise and remove many of the existing buildings
(mostly the modular type buildings), and construct new parking areas. The major
components of the project include:
• New building that provides space for all area office groups, office space, a meeting
room, and a break room.
• Site-work associated with the new building
• Demolition of existing facilities located in the footprint of the new building
See Figure D6-1 for the site plan of the new building.

Function Analysis
1. Define Functions. The team performed identification and classification of functions
on the Random Function Identification Worksheet (Figure D6-2). The team divided the
building into major sub-sections such as electrical, site work, architectural, structure, etc.
and identified the functions for each. They also chose to define the functions of the
various programmatic areas of the building (e.g., lobby, meeting rooms, private offices,
etc.) They used the detail cost estimate to insure they covered all the costs for the various
construction elements on the list. In addition, they identified the area of the major
programmatic spaces as well. They organized the function relationships using a FAST
diagram (Figure D6-3).
2. Allocate Resources. The team used the Function Resource Matrix to calculate the
Building Function Costs by using the detailed cost estimate for each building component
and allocating those costs over their respective functions (Figure D6-4). They prepared
a second matrix to calculate the area of the programmatic functions as well (Figure D6-
5). This combination provided both a building systems based approach as well as a space
planning approach to better understand and identify opportunities for value
improvement.
104 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

3. Prioritize Functions. Several high cost functions were selected for the creative phase,
such as “Enclose Space,” “Control Temperature,” “Distribute Power,” and “Improve
Appearance.” See Pareto function cost distribution (Figure D6-6). These functions made
up approximately 43% of the total cost of the office building as illustrated at right. In
addition, the team evaluated each of the programmatic functions highlighted in color
appearing on the FAST diagram for focused creativity because they felt that the current
design did not properly allocate the rooms and did not optimize their locations in the
floor plan. This also was necessary since it was determined early in the workshop that
the building geometry would need to change for various reasons.

Enclose Space 20.8%

Control Temperature 7.2%
Distribute Power 8.3%
Improve Appearance 6.4%

Total 42.7%
 SECTION D
105

Figure D6-1: Site Plan for Office Building

106 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Random Function Identification Worksheet

Subject: Office Building

Basic Function: Facilitate Work (Verb, Noun)

Higher Order Function: Improve Efficiency (Verb, Noun)
* Basic, Secondary (Required, Unwanted), Higher Order, Lower Order
Resource Function Function Resource %
Component
(cost, time, etc.) Verb Noun Type* Allocation
Building (Interior Program Spaces) Facilitate Work Basic
Support Collaboration Secondary
Support Work Secondary
Receive People Secondary
Support Hygiene Secondary
Store Materials Secondary
Connect Spaces Secondary
Receive People Secondary
Shelter People Secondary
Roadway/parking Support Transporation Secondary
Building Improve Efficiency Higher Order
Normal Power Service Entrance $344,100 Control Power Secondary 3
Convert Power Secondary 29
Distrbute Power Secondary 53
Enable Access Secondary 4
Protect Equipment Secondary 11
Emergency Power Service Entrance $120,300 Distrbute Power Secondary 37
Generate Power Secondary 63
Solar Power Distribution $277,740 Generate Power Secondary 100
Main Power Distribution $152,000 Control Power Secondary 16
Distrbute Power Secondary 77
Protect Equipment Secondary 7
Normal Power Distribution $158,500 Distrbute Power Secondary 95
Protect Equipment Secondary 5
Critical Power Distribution $256,090 Distrbute Power Secondary 96
Protect Equipment Secondary 3
Maintain Power Secondary 1
Lighting $191,500 Convert Power Secondary 5
Illuminate Area Secondary 65
Increase Safety Secondary 4
Maintain Power Secondary 26
Power $67,510 Control Access Secondary 48
Control Power Secondary 3
Transmit Image Secondary 36
Distrbute Power Secondary 13
Telecommunication System $103,810 Support Equipment Secondary 33
Transmit Signals Secondary 65
Protect Equipment Secondary 1
Extinguish Fire Secondary 1
Fire Protection System $94,600 Warn Occupants Secondary 30
Detect Smoke Secondary 50
Transmit Signals Secondary 20
Site Work $1,174,328 Collect Stormwater Secondary 8
Control Vehicle Secondary 0
Divert Stormwater Secondary 8
Guide Traffic Secondary 4
Identify Accessibility Secondary 0
Improve Appearance Secondary 7
Increase Safety Secondary 3
Figure D6-2a: Worksheet 1 - Office Random Function Identification
 SECTION D 107

Random Function Identification Worksheet

Subject: Office Building

Basic Function: Facilitate Work (Verb, Noun)

Higher Order Function: Improve Efficiency (Verb, Noun)
* Basic, Secondary (Required, Unwanted), Higher Order, Lower Order
Resource Function Function Resource %
Component
(cost, time, etc.) Verb Noun Type* Allocation
Increase Shade Secondary 1
Irrigate Landscape Secondary 3
Prepare Site Secondary 24
Remove Obstructions Secondary 1
Salvage Equipment Secondary 2
Stabilize Grade Secondary 9
Stabilize Surface Secondary 2
Stabilize Soil Secondary 6
Support Transportation Secondary 22
Stairs $40,490 Move People Secondary 100
Arch. Features and Entrance $32,850 Improve Appearance Secondary 100
Parking Shades $393,080 Increase Shade Secondary 75
Generate Power Secondary 25
Foundation $275,430 Support Mass Secondary 94
Control Moisture Secondary 6
Architectural $2,541,686 Accommodate Plenum Secondary 17
Collect Stormwater Secondary 2
Control Access Secondary 4
Divert Stormwater Secondary 0
Divide Space Secondary 11
Enable Access Secondary 3
Enclose Space Secondary 16
Illuminate Area Secondary 11
Impede Fire Secondary 3
Improve Appearance Secondary 18
Increase Safety Secondary 2
Refresh Employee Secondary 3
Protect Employee Secondary 0
Resist Environment Secondary 5
Reduce Noise Secondary 5
Elevator $168,000 Move People Secondary 100
Plumbing $276,000 Collect Stormwater Secondary 12
Deliver Water Secondary 23
Refresh Employee Secondary 12
Heat Water Secondary 15
Remove Waste Secondary 38
HVAC $650,000 Control Temperature Secondary 100
Potable Water $158,930 Deliver Water Secondary 92
Extinguish Fire Secondary 8
Sanitary Sewer $28,895 Remove Waste Secondary 100
Building Attract People Lower Order
Supply Power Lower Order
Supply Water Lower Order
Supply Signals Lower Order
Supply Sewer Lower Order
Figure D6-2b: Worksheet 1 - Office Random Function Identification
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Figure D6-3: Worksheet 2 - Office FAST Diagram

 DIRECT FUNCTION - Active Verb / Measurable Noun
PART or OPERATION COST Accommodate Collect Control Control Enclose Deliver Distrbute Divide Extinguish Generate Illuminate Improve Increase Move Prepare Remove Resist Support
plenum stormwater access temperature space water power space fire power area appearance shade people site waste environment transportation
NORMAL POWER SERVICE
100% ENTRANCE 344,100 53%
EMERGENCY POWER SERVICE
100% ENTRANCE 120,300 37%

100% SOLAR POWER DISTRIBUTION 277,740 100%

100% MAIN POWER DISTRIBUTION 152,000 77%

NORMAL POWER DISTRIBUTION
100% (1st) Flr 71,500 95%
NORMAL POWER DISTRIBUTION
100% (2nd) Flr 87,000 97%
CRITICAL POWER DISTRIBUTION
100% (1ST) Flr 145,840 96%
CRITICAL POWER DISTRIBUTION
100% (2nd) flr 110,250 97%
LIGHTING (277V UNLESS NOTED
100% OTHERWISE) 191,500 65%

100% POWER 67,510 48% 13%

100% TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM 103,810 1%

100% FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM 94,600

100% SITE DEVELOPMENT 1,174,328 8% 7% 1% 24% 22%

100% SUPERSTRUCTURE STEEL 1,208,840 100%

100% STAIRS 40,490 100%

100% ARCH. FEATURES AND ENTRANCE 32,850 100%

100% PARKING SUNSHADES 393,080 25% 75%

SECTION D

100% FOUNDATION 275,430 94%

100% ACHITECTURAL 2,541,686 17% 2% 4% 16% 11% 11% 18% 5%

100% ELEVATOR 168,000 100%

100% PLUMBING 276,000 12% 23% 38%

100% FIRE PROTECTION PLUMBING 305,000 100%

100% HVAC SYSTEM 650,000 100%

100% POTABLE WATER 158,930 92% 8%

100% SANITARY SEWER 28,895 100%

TOTALS 9,019,679 432,087 177,900 134,072 650,000 1,874,414 209,696 751,964 279,585 318,753 376,010 404,060 572,556 306,553 208,490 281,839 133,775 127,084 258,352

Direct Costs EXCLUDE all Fixed burden & Overhead, S,G,&A, Margin

FUNCTION - PERCENTAGE: 100.00% 4.79% 1.97% 1.49% 7.21% 20.78% 2.32% 8.34% 3.10% 3.53% 4.17% 4.48% 6.35% 3.40% 2.31% 3.12% 1.48% 1.41% 2.86%
109

Figure D6-4: Function Resource Matrix, Office Building

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FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure D6-5: Function Resource Matrix, Office Building Spaces

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Figure D6-6: Pareto Cost Distribution

SECTION E
PRODUCT APPLICATION

This section provides case study examples of function analysis for product applications.
These include a mousetrap, a combination microwave-convection-broiler oven, a battery,
and a pump. Each example follows the function analysis elements described in the earlier
sections, and uses the function analysis templates (see Appendix).

Example E1: Mousetrap

The mousetrap is a common training item for Module I Workshops or Function
Analysis training (See Figure E1-1). While this product might appear to be simple, a proper
function analysis shows that there are many more functions than most people originally
think. In addition, when people prepare the FAST diagram they gain a more complete
understanding of what a mousetrap does and how it does it.
Before looking at the following function steps, perhaps you can use the diagram below
to create your own random function identification list and FAST diagram and then compare
your result to the FAST diagram shown here. Use this example as a tool to help you
improve your function analysis skill set.
1. Define Functions. The team performed identification and classification of functions
on the Random Function Identification Worksheet. (Figure E1-2) They organized
function relationships using a FAST diagram. (Figures E1-3 & E1-4)
2. Allocate Resources. The team converted the trap’s costed Bill of Materials to a
costed Bill of Functions using the Function Resource Matrix (Figure E1-5).
3. Prioritize Functions. They selected several high cost functions for the creative phase,
such as Maintain Stability, Store Energy, Stabilize Assembly, and Connect/Hold
Components. The team also selected the function Enable Placement, since this function
is not performed very well. In fact, many mousetrap operators are injured trying to place
a pre-set trap.

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Figure E1-1: Mousetrap Components and Cost

 SECTION E 115

Random Function Identification Worksheet

Subject: Mouse Trap
Basic Function: Deliver Impact (Verb, Noun)
Higher Order Function: Kill Mouse (Verb, Noun)
* Basic, Secondary (Required, Unwanted), Higher Order, Lower Order

Component Description Resource What Does It Do? Function Resource %

(cost, time, etc.) Verb Noun Type* Allocation
Mouse Trap Kill Mouse Higher Order
Mouse Trap Deliver Impact Basic
Striker Bar $0.12 Deliver Impact Basic 20%
Striker Bar Distribute Impact Secondary 30%
Striker Bar Transmit Force Secondary 25%
Striker Bar Resist Environment Secondary 5%
Striker Bar Maintain Stability Secondary 20%
Locking Bar $0.08 Retain Energy Secondary 80%
Locking Bar Release Energy Secondary 20%
Spring $0.07 Store Energy Secondary 75%
Spring Release Energy Secondary 25%
Bait Hook $0.07 Hold Bait Secondary 40%
Bait Hook Retain Energy Secondary 5%
Bait Hook Maintain Stability Secondary 15%
Bait Hook Receive Force Secondary 40%
Wood Base $0.15 Stablize Assembly Secondary 40%
Wood Base Enable Placement Secondary 35%
Wood Base Hold Components Secondary 25%
Paint $0.02 Advertise Manufacturer Secondary 100%
Varnish $0.02 Resist Environment Secondary 100%
Spring Staples $0.02 Connect Components Secondary 100%
Locking Bar Staple $0.01 Connect Components Secondary 100%
Assembly Labor $0.22 Connect Components Secondary 15%
Assembly Labor Maintain Stability Secondary 15%
Assembly Labor Store Energy Secondary 20%
Assembly Labor Enable Rotation Secondary 20%
Assembly Labor Hold Bait Secondary 5%
Assembly Labor Stabilize Assembly Secondary 25%
Mouse Trap Apply Force (Human) Lower Order
Mouse Trap Apply Force (Mouse) Lower Order
Mouse Trap Supply Bait Lower Order
Figure E1-2: Worksheet 1 - Mousetrap Random Function Identification
116 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Two FAST Diagrams (Wrong and Right)

The team used a common example of FAST for a simple product like a mousetrap to
illustrate the best way to construct the diagram. Below are two FAST diagrams. The first is
one that is commonly used, which includes actions of a mousetrap (Figure E1-3). The
second FAST is one that is developed with only abstract and generic functions (Figure E1-
4). Ideally, the reader will understand that the more generic functions in the second FAST
diagram will lead to significantly better results. Some of the key differences are explained.
First, please note that the basic functions are different. While it is possible that Kill
Mouse can be a basic function, that would only be applicable where the project was not to
re-design the mouse trap, but to invent different ways to kill mice. The first FAST has
excessive use of the passive (not active) verb “provide.” It also has Swing Striker and Trip
Catch on the critical path, neither of which are functions. They are actions that a mousetrap
performs. Attract Mouse is not a function that the mousetrap performs. The bait that a person
applies normally performs this function, which means that Hold Bait is not an assumed
function, but is a function performed by the mousetrap and thus needs to be inside the scope
lines.
The second FAST diagram includes functions that are generic and abstract. These
functions have the ability to divert the mind and un-constrain the thinking of team members.
Also note that the spring stores and releases energy, not torque as shown in the top diagram.
Another function to look at is the one time function Package Product in the top FAST
diagram. Obviously, this function is trying to refer to the packaging used when the product
is being shipped, but Package Product is an activity performed by a machine or operator,
not the packaging material. Protect Product would be a better function to describe what the
packing material does.

Figure E1-3 (facing

page): Poor Example of
a FAST Diagram for a
Mousetrap
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Figure E1-4: Good Example of a FAST Diagram for a Mousetrap

 SECTION E 119

Figure E1-5: Worksheet 3 - Mousetrap Function Resource Matrix

120 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Example E2: Combination Microwave-Convection-Broiler

Oven
The exposed view below (Figure E2-1) shows a typical combination microwave-
convection-boiler oven currently in the marketplace today, but generally much more popular
in Europe due to smaller kitchens with limited available counter space. They are usually
built-in above another appliance or cupboard and serve the functionality of three separate
appliances in larger kitchens such as a microwave, a convection oven and a toaster oven.
 SECTION E 121

Figure E2-1: Exposed View of Combination Microwave-Convection-Broiler

Oven

In order to simplify the above picture with 79 different components for this function
guide, the team grouped together many of the components in the attached Random Function
Identification (Worksheet 1), the FAST Diagram (Worksheet 2), and the Function Resource
Matrix (Worksheet 3) to minimize the complexity of these Value Methodology worksheets.

The key components include:

122 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

 45 – Magnetron
 61 – High Voltage Transformer
 71, 6-17, 28, 31, 32, 75 – Control Panel
 1-5, 18-20, 34, 40 – Cavity
 59, 63-68 – Heating Element
 35-39, 41-42, 73, 78 – Door System
 23, 24, & 70 – Turntable and motor
 77 – Cabinet Wrapper
 48, 56 and 69 – Cooling fans & motors
 29, 30, 72 – Clock/Timer Display
 49-55 – Bulb-Socket System
Wire harnesses, the power cord, the user guide and the packaging carton are not shown
in this exploded view above but were added on these worksheets as key components.
The workshop study team performed the following function analysis steps for this
combination microwave-convection-broiler oven:
1. Define functions. Worksheet 1 (Figure E2-2) helped the team randomly identify
and classify the functions of the various component groups for this combination oven.
The basic function was, “Heat Food/Beverage.” The FAST diagram in Worksheet 2
(Figure E2-3) helped the team organize these functions to ensure they addressed all
performance and customer required functions for this product.
2. Allocate resources. The study team then used the Function Resource Matrix
Worksheet 3 (Figure E2-4) to allocate the cost of each of the component groups to the
functions they had a direct relationship with to ensure they allocated all cost to those
functions generated in Worksheet 1.
3. Prioritize functions for value. Once the cost of the functions are allocated,
Worksheet 3 shows the prioritization of these functions from highest cost to lowest as
numbered 1-21 on the second last row. Functions with the most significance cost
included:
 Convert Energy, 20%
 Generate Microwave, 12%
 Select Cycle, 11%
 Activate Molecules, 8%
 SECTION E 123

Figure E2-2a: Random Function Identification (Worksheet 1) Combination

O
124 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

 Protect Product, 6%
 Maintain Integrity, 6%
 Connect Circuit, 6%
 Access Product, 4%
 Grill Food, 4%
 Enhance Appearance, 4%
These 10 functions represent 81% of the total cost of the oven. In the Creative Phase,
they brainstormed ideas on these functions starting with the highest cost function first to
investigate alternatives for value improvement.
This prioritization can change on various products if the product has: 1) high warranty
claims or unacceptable quality cost, 2) major manufacturing concerns, 3) a major loss in
market share, etc. In this particular case, the team wanted the 'biggest bang for the buck'
with the time allowed in the study, and there were no other important issues, so they
evaluated alternatives with the highest cost functions first as the remaining 11 functions only
represented 19% of the total product cost.
 SECTION E 125

Figure E2-2b: Random Function Identification (Worksheet 1) Combination

126 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure E2-3: FAST (Worksheet 2) Combination Microwave-Convection-Broiler

SECTION E 127

Oven
 Function Resource* Matrix Worksheet
128

*Resources and/ or performance attributes

Subject: COMBINATION MICROWAVE-CONVECTION-BROILER OVEN

FUNCTION - Active Verb / Measurable Noun

COMPONENT QTY. UNIT COST Generate Circulate Activate Convert Connect Select Grill Generate Generate Receive Illunimate Access Resist Ensure Protect Verify Inform Display Enhance Prevent Ensure Maintain
COST Radiation Air Molecules Energy Circuit Cycle Food Microwave Convection Current Interior Product Environment Safety Product Warranty Customer Time Appearance Injury Reliability Integrity

30% 4% 2% 60% 2% 2%
100% Magnetron 1 1 $38.00

94% 2% 2% 2%
100% High Volt Transformer 1 1 $30.00

2% 78% 5% 10% 5%
100% Control Panel 1 1 $27.00

2% 2% 3% 3% 20% 5% 20% 45%

100% Oven Cavity 1 1 $16.00

45% 6% 2% 45% 2%
100% Heating Element 1 1 $14.00

60% 2% 5% 10% 5% 2% 16%

100% Door System 1 1 $13.10

25% 61% 2% 10% 2%

100% Turntable & Motor 1 1 $11.00

95% 5%
100% Packaging Carton 1 1 $10.75

5% 20% 10% 35% 30%

100% Cabinet Wrapper 1 1 $8.75

46% 4% 2% 46% 2%
100% Cooling Fan & Motor 1 1 $7.00

90% 3% 2% 5%
100% Wire Harness 1 1 $5.50

100%
100% Power Cord 1 1 $3.65

75% 3% 3% 15% 4%
100% Reflector 1 1 $1.50

85% 10% 5%
100% Clock/Timer Display 1 1 $1.10

8% 2% 90%
100% Bulb-Socket System 1 1 $0.75
FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

16% 3% 2% 95%
116% User Guide 1 1 $0.05

TOTALS $188.15 $6.30 $3.54 $14.15 $37.61 $7.51 $21.06 $7.75 $22.80 $3.23 $3.65 $1.16 $7.86 $4.10 $4.01 $11.96 $0.001 $0.58 $0.94 $7.12 $6.92 $4.00 $11.92

Function Ranking Prioritization: 12 17 4 1 7 3 9 2 18 16 19 8 13 14 5 22 21 20 10 11 15 6

FUNCTION - PERCENTAGE: 100.00% 3.35% 1.88% 7.52% 19.99% 3.99% 11.19% 4.12% 12.12% 1.72% 1.94% 0.61% 4.18% 2.18% 2.13% 6.36% 0.0005% 0.31% 0.50% 3.78% 3.68% 2.13% 6.34%

Figure E2-4: Function Resource Matrix (Worksheet 3) Combination Oven

 SECTION E 129

Example E3: Commercial Battery

A leading global commercial battery
manufacturer wanted to utilize the value methodology
to improve their competitiveness in the marketplace.
The current product did not meet all the necessary
customer requirements in performance and did not
meet necessary industry regulations.
The five day workshop followed the SAVE
International® standard job plan. The team
completed all steps of the functional analysis phase. Figure E3-1: View
of Commercial Battery
1. Define functions. The team performed
identification and classification of functions on the Random Function Identification
Worksheet. The basic function of the battery was “Deliver Energy.” The team
organized the function relationships using a FAST diagram.
2. Allocate Resources. The team converted the
Conduct Current 9.79%
battery’s costed Bill of Materials to a costed Bill
Convert Energy 9.19%
of Functions using the Function Resource Matrix
Join shapes 12.48%
(not shown). Five functions had 62.43% of the
Prevent shorts 5.01%
cost as shown in the table at right.
Store energy 25.96%
3. Prioritize functions. Thus, the team was able
to determine which functions had the best
Total 62.43%
opportunity to improve value. While there were
functions that needed improvement for performance and to meet industry regulations,
these same functions were also the high cost functions.
The workshop resulted in a very significant battery redesign. The cost savings achieved
was 17 percent that equals over $11,000,000 in annual savings. Other advantages of the new
design include:
Higher energy density Improved sealing
Reduce maintenance frequency More resilient to the environment
More competitive installation time Improved flame resistor system
Smaller footprint Easier to assemble
Meets customer non-spillable Fewer component parts
requirement
Increased reliability Fewer components for the installer to
handle
Improved flexibility in adapting to Potential to reduce WIP and finished
different customer applications inventory
Lighter weight Reduce internal scrap cost
Installers are less likely to make errors Safer product to manufacture
130 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Manufacturing throughput improvement

 SECTION E 131

Figure E3-2a: Random Function Identification (Worksheet 1) Commercial

B tt
132 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure E3-2b: Random Function Identification (Worksheet 1) Commercial

B tt
 SECTION E 133

Figure E3-3: FAST (Worksheet 2) Commercial Battery

134 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Example E4: Centrifugal Pump

This workshop was near Sydney, Australia. The company wanted a SAVE Inter-
national® Certified Module I workshop; one person took and passed the AVS exam. The
company management selected the centrifugal slurry pump, used in the mining industry, as
the workshop project. See Figure E4-1.
Some key components of the pump are:
 Impeller: The impeller, either elastomer
or high-chrome material, is the main
rotating component which normally has
vanes to impart the centrifugal force to
the liquid.
 Casing: Split outer casing halves of cast
contain the wear liners and provide high
operation pressure capabilities. The
casing shape is generally of semi-volute
or concentric, efficiencies of which are
less than that of the volute type.
 Shaft and Bearing Assembly: A large
diameter shaft with a short overhang minimizes deflection and vibration. Heavy-duty
roller bearing is housed in a removable
bearing cartridge. Figure E4-1: Centrifugal Pump

 Shaft Sleeve: A hardened, heavy-duty corrosion-resistant sleeve with O-ring seals at

both ends protects the shaft. A split fit allows the sleeve to be removed or installed
quickly.
Function analysis followed the steps described earlier in the document, and listed
below:
1. Define functions. The team performed identification and classification of functions
using the random function identification worksheet. The team organized function
relationships using a FAST diagram.
2. Allocate resources. The team converted the pump’s costed Bill of Materials to a
costed Bill of Functions using the Function Resource Matrix.
3. Prioritize functions. The team was able to determine which functions had the best
opportunity to improve value after completing the preceding steps. Since there were not
any functions that had quality or performance issues, they selected high cost functions
 SECTION E 135

for the Creative Phase. NOTE: Many low cost functions are hidden in the Cost Function
Matrix so the chart will display better in this document.
136 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure E4-2a: Random Function Identification (Worksheet 1) Centrifugal

 SECTION E 137

Figure E4-2b: Random Function Identification (Worksheet 1) Centrifugal

Pump
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Figure E4-2c: Random Function Identification (Worksheet 1) Centrifugal

Pump
 SECTION E 139

Figure E4-3: FAST (Worksheet 2) Centrifugal Pump

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FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure E4-4: Function Resource Matrix (Worksheet 3) Centrifugal Pump

NOTE: Many low cost functions are hidden in the Cost Function Matrix so the chart will display better in this document.
 WORKSHOP PROJECT:
Function Resource Matrix Worksheet
Subject: Centrifugal Pump
Resource Type (cost, time, weight, etc.): Cost Australian dollars
* Percent of Resource Allocation
FUNCTION - Active Verb / Measurable Noun
COMPONENT QTY UM UNIT TOTAL Collect Distribute Distributes Enable Increase Maintain Prevent Reduce Reduce Seal Support Transfer Transfer Withstand Withstand
Water Load Water Serviceability Efficiency Seal Corrosion Friction Wear Chamber Weight Force Torque Load Pressure

100% Bearing Assembly 1 EA 2,622.00 2,622.00

4% 18% 19%

100% 2 pc gland 1 EA 85.22 85.22

10%

100% Gland bolts 2 EA 41.41 82.82

100% Shaft sleeve 1 EA 277.00 277.00

80% 5%

100% Stuffing Box 1 EA 187.54 187.54

5% 30%

100% Seal guard bottom 1 EA 155.55 155.55

2%

100% Packing ring 1 EA 90.95 90.95

100% Seal guard top 2 EA 157.90 315.80

100% Frame plate insert liner 1 EA 288.56 288.56

10% 50% 5% 5%

100% Keeper plate 3 EA 20.67 62.00

100% Throatbush 1 EA 424.28 424.28

8% 45% 5% 5%

100% Volute liner 1 EA 908.82 908.82

0% 50% 15% 8%

100% Impellar 5VC 1 EA 594.27 594.27

5% 5% 30% 2%

100% Volute liner seal 2 EA 49.72 99.43

SECTION E

100% Base 1 EA 975.65 975.65

2% 70%

100% Cover plate 1 EA 688.74 688.74

19%

100% Cover plate bolt 6 EA 33.93 203.58

100% Frame plate 1 EA 1,122.58 1,122.58

14%

100% Cotter 2 EA 26.00 52.00

100% Impellar Release Collar 1 EA 522.65 522.65

RESOURCE TOTALS 10,137.35 3.11 18.40 15.44 62.80 29.71 8.52 4.82 134.59 1,198.87 171.97 0.00 505.32 510.07 970.98 164.61

FUNCTION - PERCENTAGE: 1.00 0.03% 0.18% 0.15% 0.62% 0.29% 0.08% 0.05% 1.33% 11.83% 1.70% 0.00% 4.98% 5.03% 9.58% 1.62%
141
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SECTION F
PROCESS APPLICATION

This section provides case study examples of function analysis for process applications.
These include a VM Module I Workshop Process and an Over-molded Insert Injection
Molding Process. Each example follows the function analysis elements described in the
earlier sections, and uses the function analysis templates (see Appendix).

Example F1: VM Module I Workshop Process

The example shown next is for a SAVE International® Certified Module I Workshop
based on the guidelines described in the SAVE International® Workshops and Seminar
Manual in 2015. Certified workshops must be a minimum of 40 hours and must cover
specific subject matter for specific amounts of time. The specific subjects are:

History, Definition, Job Plan Evaluation/Implementation

Function, FAST, Function Cost Development

Creativity Project time

People topics Optional/Administrative

Cost

The SAVE International® Workshops and Seminar Manual explains these requirements
in detail.
This example also uses the six-step job plan as described in the SAVE VM Standard.
These steps or phases are:
 Information Phase (includes pre-workshop functions)
 Function Analysis Phase
 Creative Phase
 Evaluation Phase
 Development Phase
 Presentation Phase

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Since the certified workshop must satisfy a time duration of 40 hours, the resource
allocation worksheet shows how that time is distributed across the functions that are
performed in each of the subject matter areas.
Function analysis followed the steps described earlier in the document, and listed
below:
1. Define functions. The team performed identification and classification of functions
using the random function identification worksheet Figure F1-1. The team organized
function relationships using a FAST diagram Figure F1-2.
2. Allocate resources. The team converted the times required for each of the training
subject matter areas to an allocation of time to each Function using the Function
Resource Matrix Figure F1-3.
3. Prioritize functions. The team was able to determine which functions had the best
opportunity to improve value after completing the preceding steps. The following
functions had the highest time allocation.

VM Module I Function: Time Allocation:

Generate Ideas 14.7%

Organize Functions 12.5%

Allocate Resources 8.5%

Identify Functions 8.3%

Figure F1-1a (facing page):

Random Function Identification
(Worksheet 1) VM Module I Workshop
SECTION F 145
146 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure F1-1b: Random Function Identification (Worksheet 1) VM Module I

Workshop

Figure F1-2 (facing page):

FAST (Worksheet 2) VM Module I Workshop
SECTION F 147
148 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure F1-3: Function

Resource Matrix
(Worksheet 3) Module I
Workshop
 SECTION F 149

Example F2: Over-molded Insert Injection Molding Process

Figure F2-1 below shows a typical D-Ring currently used in the front seatbelt system
of most vehicles today attached with a bolt (not shown) through the hole to the B pillar or
the structural member immediately behind the front door of the vehicle. This D-Ring is
almost always an insert molded steel
component with some type of colored plastic
molded around it to match the aesthetics of the
interior of the vehicle. In many vehicles the D-
Ring may instead be attached to the height
adjuster in the front seating positions which
allows the seat belt at the B-pillar to be moved
up or down to match the height of the front seat
occupant. In this case the height adjuster is
attached directly to the B-pillar. The process to
make this D-ring is a combination stamping
process for the steel part followed by an
injection molding process to mold the plastic
around the steel part (called an insert because it
is inserted into the mold of the injection Figure F2-1: Typical D Ring
molding machine). The attached case study for Seatbelt
shows the process of injection molding the D-
Ring which is a stamped steel part and the various process steps involved to manufacture
this insert injection molded assembly. Assembly or labor time for each of the processes is
included on the Random Function Identification Worksheet Figure F2-2. Sketches for
stamping and injection molding process along with the dies, molds, and other support
equipment are readily available on the internet so they are not illustrated in this guide.
The workshop study team performed the following function analysis steps for this insert
injection molding process:
1. Identify and classify functions: Worksheet 1 (Figure F2-2) helped the team
randomly identify and classify the functions of the various process groups for this insert
injection molding process.
2. Organize functions: The FAST diagram in Worksheet 2 (Figure F2-3) helped the
team organize these functions to ensure all performance and customer required functions
were addressed for this process.
3. Allocate resources: The study team then used the resource allocation Worksheet 3
(Figure F2-4) to allocate the cost of each of the process groups to the functions they had
150 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

a directly relationship with to ensure all cost was allocated to those functions generated
in Worksheet 1.
4. Prioritize functions for value: Once the cost of the functions are allocated,
Worksheet 3 shows the prioritization of these functions from highest cost to lowest as
numbered 1-20 on the second last row. Functions with the most significant cost
included:
• Deliver Material 43.75%
• Form Shape, 16.07%
• Convert Energy, 8.6%
• Store Material, 5.47%
• Maintain Equipment, 4.69%
• Protect Product, 3.21%
• Transfer Material, 3.08%
These 7 of 20 functions represent 84.7% of the total cost of the insert injection molding
process. The team then in the creativity phase, brainstormed ideas on these functions starting
with the highest cost function first to investigate alternatives for value improvement.
This prioritization can change on various processes if the process has: 1) high downtime
or unacceptable quality cost, 2) major manufacturing concerns, 3) a major process control
issue, etc. In this particular case, the team wanted the 'biggest bang for the buck' with the
time allowed in the study and there were no other important issues, so they evaluated
alternatives with the highest cost functions first for the process as the remaining 13 functions
only represented 15.3% of the total product cost. The fact that the Deliver Material, which
includes the cost of the raw steel and plastic, was almost half of the total cost of the insert
injection molding process is not surprising, as normally injection molding processes are
roughly half material cost and half process or labor cost.
SECTION F 151

Figure F2-2 (facing page): Random

Function Identification (Worksheet 1)
Molding Process
152 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE
 SECTION F 153

Figure F2-3: FAST (Worksheet 2) Molding Process

154 FUNCTION ANALYSIS GUIDE

Figure F2-4a: Function Resource Matrix (Worksheet 3) Stamping Process

 SECTION F 155

Figure F2-4b: Function Resource Matrix (Worksheet 3) Stamping

APPENDICES
A. Frequently Asked Questions

B. Value Definitions

C. References

D. Function Analysis Toolkit

APPENDIX A: FREQUENTLY ASKED
QUESTIONS OR COMMON PROBLEMS

Function Analysis Basics

1.) People struggle with the basic English language. They do not know the difference
between a verb and an adjective or a noun and an adverb.
QUESTION: What is the difference between a verb, noun, adjective, and adverb?
ANSWER: The internet provides many resources to provide definitions and examples
of these elements of the English language and grammar. Following sites:
http://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/verbs.htm
Another good web resource that explains the difference between active and passive
verbs:
http://study.com/academy/lesson/active-verbs-definition-examples-quiz.html
For verb-noun function statements, see the Function iTool on the Lawrence D. Miles
Value Foundation Website at the following link:
www.valuefoundation.org
The SAVE International Website at the link below is a good source to read and
understand the use of active verbs and measurable nouns:
http://www.value-eng.org/pdf_docs/monographs/funcmono.pdf
Definitions for creating function statements
Active verb: There are many ways to construct a function statement but in many cases,
the best way to convey meaning in a succinct and clear manner is to use verbs correctly.
An active verb is a word that shows action. The heart of a function statement is the
verb. The verb can be further broken down into active or passive. An active verb
clearly reflects action and not a state of being. For function statements, DO NOT use a
passive verb as it does not convey clear meaning to the description of the function; it
requires more words to describe the passive action. As an active verb example,
“FASTEN” is an active verb describing the action to “FASTEN,” “ATTACH,” or
“CONNECT,” to “PARTS” (PARTS being the noun and object of the function
statement). Notice that it does not matter what the type “PART” we are referring to as
this may constrain the function statement to a specific subject part. There may be
numerous other ways to “FASTEN PARTS” than if we specify what the PART is.
Measurable noun: Is a word in the function statement that is the name of subject or
object of a verb. These nouns should always be quantifiable in the form of labor,
material, or time. Using the “FASTEN PARTS” example, the noun “PARTS” is
quantifiable in the form of its materials; labor to make the part, or time it takes to make
or build the part. If, as in the example above, there are many different parts, adding a
third word clarifying the specific part may helpful, although this can sometimes add
confusion. Function statements should always clearly articulate understanding for the
VM team.
Adjective: Is a word or phrase modifying or describing a noun. The adjective is the
third word clarifier in the examples above, “GLASS” or “DOOR.” Naming the part in
certain cases, where many “PARTS” are involved, is advisable. For example,
“FASTEN (DOOR) HINGE” and “FASTEN (GLASS) PANEL” utilizes a third word
clarifier in parenthesis as the specific object of the function statement (i.e. the verb acts
upon the object). This can help the teams correspond and associate the specific parts of
a project, product, or process in the form of function statements, and more clearly
associate cost to function.
TIP: However, this use of adding a third word clarifier (adjective) to the function
statements may be an indication that can lead to even a better function statement. As
an example, the function “STABILIZE ASSEMBLY” is a function statement that
may refer to many parts in a product. Therefore, knowing which specific part in the
“STABILIZE ASSEMBLY” FUNCTION may be helpful for the team.
In the case of a computer where a Power Supply is involved as well as other parts
where “STABILIZE ASSEMBLY” applies, one can insert the third word adjective
into the function statement, “STABILIZE (POWER SUPPLY) ASSEMBLY” versus
a “STABILIZE (MOTHER BOARD) ASSEMBLY.” Another way to resolve this
conflict is to change the Verb-Noun to “STABILIZE POWER SUPPLY” and
“STABILIZE MOTHERBOARD.” However, the better function statements may be
“PREVENT VIBRATION” or “CUSHION IMPACT,” or “RESTRICT
MOVEMENT.” To describe the meaning of “STABILIZE ASSEMBLY,” these
VERB-NOUNS appear more appropriate. As an alternative, these functions might
be organized as “SECONDARY” functions as part of “STABILIZE ASSEMBLY.”
Therefore, as a critical path function in a FAST Diagram, other functions support
“STABILIZE ASSEMBLY.” When you “STABILIZE ASSEMBLY,” you
“PREVENT VIBRATION,” RESTRICT MOVEMENT,” and “CUSHION
IMPACT.”

ADVERB: An adverb is a word that modifies anything other than a noun, usually a
verb. Adverbs typically express manner, place, and time. Never use Adverbs in
function analysis where the goal is to focus on the active verb and measurable noun.
 TIP: Adverbs can introduce confusion with the team, and if the team is leaning
toward using adverbs around a particular function, then this indicates a better or
more effective verb or function statement exists.
TIP: See Section B, under “Define and Identify Functions.”

2.) People do not know how to identify a function.

QUESTION: How do I identify functions?
ANSWER: Functions can be easy or difficult to identify depending on the scope of the
VM Study and whether one is dealing with a project, product, or process. Ask what the
product is supposed to do and how it works. What does the customer want or expect?
These questions can lead to making up a list of function statements or searching other
resources to help one with identification of function.
Remember Larry Miles statement: “If I can’t have the product, how do I get the
function.” Looking at the functions at the highest order of what the customer wants
typically leads to more alternatives to find a variety of solutions to obtain the customer
desired function.
TIP: The best way to help identify functions is to use tools such as Random
Function Worksheets. See examples in Section B.

3.) People use very cursory functions (improve efficiency) instead of specific functions
(reduce consumption).
QUESTION: Are functions such as “improve efficiency” rather than specific functions
such as “reduce consumption” ok to use?
ANSWER: Goal objective verb-noun statements, not functions, such as “improve
efficiency” or “reduce consumption” classify a different function type. Place these verb-
noun statements on a FAST diagram as Goal Objective verb-noun statements. In the
evaluation phase, consider these sorts of function statements for evaluation criteria.
However, it is not the typical practice.
TIP: It is best to work or consult with a seasoned CVS® to address specific issues
and challenges such as these.

4.) People have trouble distinguishing between functions and activities and objectives.
QUESTION: As a beginning practitioner, how do I address challenges distinguishing
between functions, activities, and objectives?
 ANSWER: Learning through experience by the most seasoned practitioners will help
address this challenge. As you obtain experience, function types will become obvious.
However, a few simple questions surrounding a function statement might help
distinguish it or categorize it. Remember, a function statement is a Verb and Noun that
describes what the project, product, or process does. Using our hammer example in the
guide, “Deliver Force” is the function the hammer does or performs to drive a nail. For
example, “Swing Hammer” is an activity, not a function, and “Deliver Force” is the
basic function of a Hammer.
TIP: The facilitator and team should identify the most abstract verb-noun function
statement to change or broaden their viewpoint.

TIP: The facilitator and team should not feel compelled to accept the first function
statement offered by a team member. Instead, they should look for the function
statement that best represents the project, product, or process. During random
function identification, it is ok to brainstorm many functions that may describe a
particular part or piece of the project, product, or process; and then select the
function statement that best represents that aspect of the project, product, or process.

5.) People do not use functions during the Creative Phase.

QUESTION: Why use functions during the Creative Phase?
ANSWER: VM Practitioners, whether using basic function analysis or FAST, should
always use functions during brainstorming to identify opportunities for value
improvement. VM practitioners facilitating a VM study should be able to quickly see
where there are opportunities for improvement on the basis of 80% of the cost is in 20%
of the functions, or 80% of the opportunities to value improve a project, product, or
process is in 20% of the functions. Determining costs to function is the best way to
narrow down where opportunities exist. Otherwise, use other criteria such as
identification of issues with functions where 80% of the issues are in 20% of the
functions. The team should focus brainstorming wherever the 80%-20% exists.

TIP: If it is not obvious where value improvement might be gained from brain-
storming, it is ok to inquire of the team where they believe opportunities exist to
value improve a project, product, or process.

TIP: If there is no clear function or sets of functions to brainstorm value

improvement, then in some cases, brainstorming by each critical path function of a
FAST diagram, or the simplified method of Function-Cost worksheet, will result in a
variety of alternatives to consider.
 TIP: In lieu of using the method of brainstorming based on the 80-20 rule, the team
may apply the method of brainstorming at the Higher Order Functions to lead to
many creative alternatives.

Function Analysis System Techniques (FAST)

1.) People get confused about the different types of FAST models (technical, classic,
customer, etc.).
QUESTION: I am confused as to the different FAST diagrams and which one to use?
ANSWER: It is ok to pick one diagram technique and stick with it. Most experienced
practitioners have selected a style or variation of the diagram techniques that works best
for them. All the difference variations of FAST use generally the same logic
conventions. For the purposes of this guide, you will find there is no preconceived
technique applied. It is simply to convey the basics without prejudicing or biasing a
certain technical orientation of FAST.
TIP: VM and Quality practitioners may select Customer FAST as a preferred tool
when dealing with customer driven products and where “Voice of the Customer” is
an imperative. This guide focuses on basic FAST, not on advanced FAST
techniques.
TIP: Do not be intimidated by FAST Diagramming. For beginners it can be difficult
to grasp the concept and application of this technique. However, persistence is the
key to becoming proficient. Remember the saying, “Practice makes perfect.”
TIP: When preparing your first diagrams, try to co-facilitate with a seasoned
professional to learn from them. Otherwise, it is highly encouraged to have an
advisor review your work and provide constructive feedback to ensure you are
learning and applying the technique for optimal team results.
TIP: Remember the FAST diagram is a product of the team. There may be a better
diagram, but again, it is up to the team to embrace what they believe best represents
their project, product, or process.
TIP: It is typically easier to create a FAST diagram for a product than a project or
process, as projects and processes involve activities. It is best to work with your
team to generate a meaningful FAST Diagram that helps produce a product suitable
to solve their specific VM Study objectives. It is incumbent on the facilitator to
challenge the team to stay in the function statement realm. If there is resistance from
the team, remember you can always use another 3M Post-it oriented next to a
function statement that describes the function in more than two words.
2.) People do not know the proper labels for all the parts of the FAST diagram and the
reason for their location.
QUESTION: What are the proper labels for all parts of the FAST diagram and the
reason for their location?
ANSWER: The overall purpose of the labels and conventions is to organize the
functions and to provide a visual aide in building and reviewing the FAST diagram.
Refer to Section C of this guide for specific purposes labels and conventions. As an
example, the label “How” on the upper left side of the diagram and the “Why” on the
upper right side of the diagram reminds the VM team to ask “How” and “Why” when
reading function logic statements left to right and then right to left. Another example are
the scope lines that delineate functions within the scope of study, and what functions are
higher order and lower order that lie outside the scope of the study.
TIP: Use this guide or make a small template for yourself and your team to
remember the labels and conventions.

3.) People do not know the conventions (if there are any) for connecting functions in
the FAST diagram.
QUESTION: What are the conventions for connecting functions in a FAST Diagram?
ANSWER: Refer to Section C of this guide for conventions such as “and” and “or”
gates and examples of how to connect them.
TIP: Building your first few diagrams will be challenging, so seek advice from a
CVS® experienced in FAST.

4.) People think “When” refers to time in a FAST diagram.

QUESTION: Why does “WHEN” in a FAST Diagram not refer to time?
ANSWER: “WHEN” only means a causative, or caused by, function occurs.
Essentially, another function is associated as a secondary support to that particular
function. Using the multimedia projector example; “WHEN” you “Display Image,” or
“Project Image,” you also “Focus Image.” “Focus Image” happens concurrently
“WHEN” you “Project Image.”
TIP: See examples of connections in Section C and example applications in
Sections D, E and F.

5.) Many people believe that function analysis and FAST diagramming are
synonymous; you must always do a FAST diagram to have done function analysis.
QUESTION: Do we always need to prepare a FAST diagram when performing function
analysis?
 ANSWER: Using basic function analysis is acceptable, and a FAST diagram is not
required. However, this guide strongly recommends building a FAST diagram. FAST
will typically reveal greater opportunities for improvement beyond basic function
analysis.
6.) People struggle with making the how-why logic of a FAST diagram work.
QUESTION: As a new practitioner, I struggle with the HOW-WHY Logic. What is the
best way to understand and perfect the use of this sort of logic?

ANSWER: HOW-WHY logic is actually easier than one might think. However, it does
take practice. When asking a question of HOW, you can characterize the question as
“HOW do I perform this function” and then answer the question moving to the right
“BY doing or performing the next function.” The “WHY” question is your logic check
to make sure the functions logically relate. You can then ask, “WHY do I perform this
function?” ….“TO” perform the function to the left of this function. If the answer to the
logic question does not fit (a function logic mismatch), then the team should choose a
better function for the logic to make sense.

TIP: Logic checks right to left and left to right are important to ensure the integrity
of the logic relationship between functions. If the logic relationship does not make
sense to you or your team members, then a search for the right combination should
continue.

TIP: It is always a good idea to strawman a FAST logic diagram ahead of a team
study so you as the facilitating VM practitioner have an idea of what the FAST
diagram might look like. It can also help you better understand the project, product,
or process.

TIP: SAVE Module I 40 hour training course teaches the basics of FAST
diagramming, but is not enough for the new practitioner to become proficient in
FAST Diagramming. Therefore, consider taking a course in FAST Diagramming or
ensure you have a seasoned CVS® professional who can help guide you through
your learning experience.

7.) People do not understand the difference between project (design) objectives, one-
time functions, and all-the-time functions.

QUESTION: What is the difference between project/design objectives, one-time

functions, and all time functions?

ANSWER: Project/Design Objective is a function like “Attract User,” or “Facilitate

Portability.” A One-Time Function is something that occurs only once, and an All-Time
 Function is a function like “Assure Quality” or “Ensure Safety.” All-Time Functions
happen anywhere in the diagram.

TIP: Classifying and organizing functions takes practice. If in doubt, always consult
your advisor or seasoned CVS® professional for help or advice.

TIP: Consider using the random function identification worksheet or make such a
worksheet for your projects.

TIP: Classify function statements such as “Reduce Cost” or “Improve Value” as

Goal Objectives of the VM Study. Depicting of these function statements on the
FAST diagram is acceptable, but not required.

8.) People have a misunderstanding of how to allocate costs to functions.

QUESTION: How do I allocate Costs (or other resources) to Functions?
ANSWER: Functions can include a variety of costs. Relating costs to function can be
particularly tricky. As an example, if we consider an office building as a scope of study,
the function of “CONDITION SPACE” will not only include the costs of the Air
Conditioning and Heating equipment, but also the entire mechanical system such as
duct work. It will also include all the electrical service required to make the
“CONDITION SPACE” function. This includes low and high voltage electrical service,
relays, and wiring to make the system operate.
TIP: It is highly advisable to include in the study team a cost estimator, budget
analyst, or finance specialist who understands the costs or cost estimates of a project,
product, or process. Sometimes process functions can be difficult to cost. In these
cases, it may take additional time or expertise to use industrial engineering tools
such as time – motion study, etc. to obtain a measure of cost. In other cases, using
average costs or rates may be another method to consider.
TIP: Seek seasoned CVS® professional advisors to help with figuring out how to
associate cost to function. As with other aspects of becoming a VM professional,
this aspect of VM takes time and practice.
TIP: During the Pre-Event phase of a VM Study, always obtain current project,
product, or process costs. It is always best to secure cost data ahead of the study and
to have a presentation of project, product, or process costs as part of the Information
Phase. The VM practitioner facilitating the study may also strawman functions and
costs ahead of the study to show the team examples of function cost and possible
combinations of function cost relationships.

9.) As a CVS® facilitator, do I override the team when they disagree with my point of
view relative to their FAST Diagram?
 ANSWER: No, because taking ownership to override a Team or forcing your point of
view makes the FAST diagram your product and not theirs.
TIP: Teams confront the CVS® facilitator, and at times pressure them, to
characterize the team-determined functions on FAST Diagrams the way the team
members deem appropriate and necessary to convey their project, product, or
process. However, the CVS® facilitator should be careful not to over-rule the team
or intimidate the team into accepting his or her FAST diagram version of the project,
product, or process. After all, the building of a diagram should be through consensus
with the objective to build a team invested in producing the best outcome from the
VM study. If the VM practitioner facilitating the team believes they have a better
product to depict the functions and/or their orientation in a FAST diagram, offer it to
the team. Let them decide to accept or reject it. Do not interpret this as a fault or
deficiency of the CVS® facilitator. Remember, the FAST diagram is the product of
the team, and it should be meaningful for them.

Supplemental Frequently Asked Questions/Common

Problems:
1.) Why bother using Function Analysis or Function Analysis System Technique?
ANSWER: Function Analysis is the heart of the Value Methodology Job Plan. It is
what differentiates VM from all other methods, tools, and techniques. Function
Analysis helps concisely define functions of a project, product, or process, and helps
develop a commonality of understanding among all VM team members. It becomes
their communication tool for sharing their project, product, or process scope of study in
a logical manner. Most importantly, it helps the VM team identify duplicate, unwanted,
or low value functions that they can change by creatively generating alternatives for
function improvement.
2.) How many ways are there to perform Function Analysis and which should I use?
ANSWER: There are two generally accepted practices to perform Function Analysis:
2.1) Function Analysis uses a basic form of identifying the basic and secondary
functions, such as an Architectural/Engineering design of a building or bridge; or
parts of a product. As an example, for a building, the functions can be broken down
simply into concise functions statements such as “House Occupants,” “Condition
Space,” “Secure Space,” “Enhance Aesthetics,” “Support Structure,” “Supply
Power,” etc. Then the team decides which ones are basic and secondary. A Cost
Engineer or Estimator can supply the cost breakdowns by function to arrive at a cost
function relationship. The team can then apply the Pareto Principle, 80% of the cost
is in 20% of the functions, to focus their creative brainstorming.
 TIP: Typically, use basic function analysis when teams are time constrained and
where the scope is very narrow. As an example, a building or bridge design, a
key chain, ballpoint pen, etc. A FAST Diagram may be helpful, but in some cases
not necessary. However, do not avoid a FAST diagram because you perceive it is
difficult to prepare.

2.2) Function Analysis System Technique (FAST), is a diagramming methodology

that is very useful for a variety of projects, products, and processes. Although used
on any scale of project, product, or process, it is best to apply FAST for larger scale
or projects that are more complex, products, or processes. This technique is powerful
and can help significantly enhance the team results of a VM study. It further
enhances the picture of how and why functions logically relate so that the diagram
will expose issues, redundancies, where temporary functions have become
permanent, and discover low value or non-value added function.
TIP: The FAST diagram is like a medical X-Ray or MRI. It will help diagnose
what functions can be fixed, improved, removed, combined or optimized for a
project, product, or process. Do not underestimate the power of FAST
diagramming.

3.) What results can I and my team expect from performing Function Analysis or using
Function Analysis System Technique?
ANSWER: Generally, you will discover areas to add functions for value improvement,
change or remove unnecessary functions, re-organize functions in a different way, or
simply find alternatives to perform the same or similar functions for better overall value
to the customer. Accomplished CVS® professionals have learned that performing this
important step will bring the team guaranteed results and success. Function Analysis is
the point of departure into the Creative Phase of the VM job plan to generate
alternatives and/or solutions for your VM scope of study. Applied with reasonable
precision, you and your teams will discover the hidden power of Function Analysis and
FAST.
TIP: Resist the temptation to use this tool and technique merely to reduce cost.
Although if used as a cost reduction tool, one should never jeopardize cheapening
function that may affect quality, safety, maintainability, reliability criteria, or overall
value to the customer or user of the project, product, or process. The goal should
always focus on “Value Improvement.”
TIP: During the Presentation Phase, FAST diagrams can be a very impressive and
effective visual mechanism to communicate to management or others the scope of
study as well as proposed function and value improvements. The FAST diagram can
create a visual representation of the current configuration of the project, product, or
 process and then depict the comparison of the proposed function innovations and
improvements.

4.) How long does it take to be proficient using Function Analysis and FAST?
ANSWER: To master the simple form of Function Analysis usually takes less time than
mastering FAST. However, mastering the thought process to simplify projects,
products, or processes into function statements is a common challenge no matter which
technique is used. Therefore, VM practitioners new to VM should use a function
statement worksheet or the Lawrence D. Miles Value Foundation function iTool
(available at www.valuefoundation.org) for guidance to generate function statements.
It does take time and practice to become proficient, and new practitioners are
encouraged to be patient when working to learn these techniques. Typically, for most
new practitioners it may take many months, several VM Studies, or working close with
an advisor to become competent and confident when applying Function Analysis and/or
FAST with a VM project team.
TIP: Practitioners new to VM and application of Function Analysis and FAST are
highly encouraged to work with a Certified Value Specialist advisor skilled in both
techniques.

5.) How much time should a VM practitioner allocate to build a FAST Diagram?
ANSWER: Depending on the scope and complexity of the VM Study, It can take as
little as 15 – 30 minutes to several days to build a meaningful diagram.
TIP: It is typically best to build the diagram with your team’s participation. If you
have time constraints and need to build a FAST diagram, consider building a
strawman ahead of your team study. When you meet with the team, spend your
Function Analysis agenda time to validate and improve the diagram. Another
alternative is to build the diagram with a smaller team as part of your Pre-Event
information gathering ahead of the full team workshop sessions.
TIP: ALWAYS view the diagram as a product of the team and NOT the facilitator.
TIP: If you run out of time to complete a diagram during a team session, offer to
help the team by finishing it after hours, on breaks, or during the development phase
as they are writing up proposals. Between development and presentation phase, you
can spend a few minutes asking their help to validate the diagram.
TIP: Work with an experienced CVS® advisor to give guidance as to allocating
agenda time to build a FAST diagram.

6.) Should the VM practitioner facilitating a VM study always build or help build a
FAST Diagram?
 ANSWER: No, not always. If you have an experienced VM team, it is best they make
an attempt building it. The CVS® facilitator can step in to guide them. However,
depending on the scope and complexity of the VM Study, and experience of the VM
team, it may be necessary for the CVS® facilitator to help build the FAST diagram
product with input and validation from the team.

TIP: Time has become an ever-greater commodity for companies and managers to
agree committing a team to a multi-day VM study. Therefore, it is incumbent on the
facilitating practitioner to gauge an effective agenda to obtain a quality product for
the customer. Therefore, avoid the pressures and temptations to short cut the process
as well as application of the VM tools and techniques. If a FAST diagram will bring
a better quality result, then consider doing a draft for the team or use a smaller team
during the pre-event phase ahead of the study. There are many ways to get through
the VM job plan without jeopardizing the process and risking poor VM study
results.

APPENDIX B: VALUE DEFINITIONS

Allocate Resources – This element correlates resources (time, space, money, etc.) to
functions.
“AND” Gates – A logic gate that satisfies the answer of “HOW” a function is performed
moving from left to right, along the critical function logic path, resulting in two functions.
The two functions should also address the answer “WHY” those two functions are necessary
to satisfy the adjoining function when working the logic questions from right to left. See
Section C for further explanation and examples.
Change of Viewpoint – A change of viewpoint occurs when a value study team member
considers the functions of a project, product, or process rather than what it is. The change
involves a dramatic broadening of the mental “imagery” of the problem solver. In a properly
structured study, the mental images have few boundaries. There are many advantages of this
functional approach, which broadens the viewpoint of the team members, in turn resulting in
a far broader range of practical alternatives. The “focus on function” approach was the heart
of Miles’ original system, illustrated by his quote: “In search for, and selection of
alternatives, attention must be constantly focused on function and not on a material, part, or
device as such.”
TIP: We must remember that the function analysis phase is the heart and soul of the
Value Methodology. In fact, if the value study team overlooks function analysis,
then it is simply NOT VM.
TIP: Properly performing function analysis requires care and patience. An
experienced CVS® professional with excellent facilitation skills will support the
proper application of function analysis. It is important to ask, “Did the definition of
function change your viewpoint?” Every CVS® VM facilitator needs to remind the
team members of this and ensure that it happens.

Function Analysis – “A customer wants something done, such as wanting something

enclosed, held, moved, separated, cleaned, heated, cooled, or whatever under certain
conditions; and, within certain limits, wants a shape, a color, an aroma, a texture, a sound, a
precious material, or whatever brings pleasure to him or herself. Thus, the language of
function is the heart of VM.”
Function Analysis System Technique (FAST) – Developed by Charles W. Bytheway,
FAST is a diagramming tool applying structured precedent logic to model a project, product,
or process. The diagram helps to identify and analyze functions to stimulate creativity and
innovative thinking. It is a visual aide for the team as they brainstorm or explore alternatives
to evaluate and analyze functions. The logic technique forces the brain to think differently
resulting in changing the viewpoint and broadening how one views a project, product, or
process.
Function Analysis Phase – This is the second phase of the Job Plan after the Information
Phase. The purpose of this phase is to:
• Create Understanding
• Expand Knowledge
• Stimulate Conversation
• Change Viewpoint
• Identify Opportunities (Note: Identification of opportunities while in the function
analysis phase does not exempt the team from performing brainstorming in the
Creative Phase.)
TIP: Ahead of formal brainstorming in the Creative Phase, the CVS® VM team
facilitator(s) encourages team members to write down ideas, or use a flip chart as
a parking lot list of ideas, when generating ideas during the Function Analysis
Phase and the Information Phase. We commonly refer to the flip chart parking lot
list as “Memories” or “Memory Ideas,” and use it to help the team remember the
 idea. Use the parking lot list of ideas in the Evaluation Phase in conjunction with
the ideas collected when brainstorming during the Creative Phase.

This phase is very important to help the team participants understand all project, product, or
process functions, their interrelationships, and sets the foundation for the Creative Phase.
Function Analysis Worksheet – A spreadsheet used to correlate various types of
information to help teams organize function statements associated with elements or parts of
a project, product, or process.
Function Resource Matrix Worksheet – A matrix spreadsheet that contains the name or
description of components or elements of a project, product, or process, the component or
element cost, list of component or element functions, and identification of function types.
Functions, Aesthetic – A function desired by a customer or function to attract a
customer/user to a project, product, or process. Typically, “aesthetic” function is associated
with a project or product. However, it can also be a function involving a process. Sometimes
these functions attract a customer to purchase a product, use a facility as a result of
construction project, or use features of a process (e.g. software product.)
Functions, All-the-Time – These functions happen all-the-time anywhere in the
performance of the project, product, or process. Examples are, “ASSURE SAFETY,”
“ASSURE QUALITY,” “ASSURE DEPENDABILITY,” etc. Place these functions in the
upper right corner of the FAST diagram.
Functions, Classify – The key techniques of classification are the same as the first step.
Classify each identified function as basic or secondary.
Functions, Define – Focuses on identifying, classifying, and organizing functions. A CVS®
facilitator may perform these steps together or in sequence, based upon the various
techniques used.
Functions, Critical Function Logic Path – One of the set of basic and dependent required
secondary functions that meet the “how” and “why” logic on a FAST diagram forming a
path of essential function without which the project, product, or process would not perform.
Functions, Design Objective – Similar and interchangeable with “project objectives,” these
functions express specific design objectives of the project, product, or process. Place these
in the upper left hand area of a FAST Diagram. As an example, design objectives may
include “OBTAIN COMPLIANCE,” “SATISFY STAKEHOLDERS,” “SATISFY
SPECIFICATIONS,” “OPTIMIZE DESIGN,” “IMPROVE ASTHETICS,” etc.
Functions, Esteem – See aesthetic function.
Functions, Higher Order – A function that is a goal rather than an objective, or an
objective rather than a task, which the customer expects or needs fulfilled. This function is
the output from or result of the basic function. As an example, the basic function of a
multimedia projector is to “PROJECT IMAGE.” Why does the projector ““PROJECT
IMAGE?” The projector “PROJECTS IMAGE” so that that the user can “COMMUNICATE
INFORMATION.” “COMMUNICATE INFORMATION” is the higher order function.
Functions, Lower Order – Lower-order functions describe functions that lie far right
beyond the scope of the study. They describe required inputs for a project, product, or
process, but are not part of scope.
Functions, One-Time – A secondary function that occurs only once.
Functions, Organize – To ensure that the study team has identified all functions, FAST is
commonly used and is highly recommended. FAST is a powerful precedent (How-Why)
logic, analytical diagramming tool further described in Section C. Identification of all
functions is difficult without a logic diagram via the FAST method. When applying the
basic form of function analysis, and when FAST is not used, the team may organize
functions using the Function Resource Matrix Worksheet.
Functions, Prioritize – The goal of associating resources to functions (eg. Cost), as well as
applying the 80-20 rule, provides targets of opportunity to improve value. Other common
techniques to prioritize functions include: 1) high cost, 2) high life cycle cost, 3) schedule
risk, 4) high risk, 5) sustainability, 6) customer concern/problem, 7) value team judgment.
Functions, Project Objectives – Similar to design objectives, these functions express
specific objectives of the project, product, or process. Place these in the upper left hand area
of a FAST Diagram. As an example, project objectives for a project may include
“MINIMIZE RISK,” “OPTIMIZE SCHEDULE,” “MANAGE SCHEDULE,” etc.
Functions, Secondary – Secondary functions answer the question “What else does it do?”
Secondary functions may support the basic function(s) and required secondary functions
along the critical function logic path. They usually result from a particular design
configuration or approach. Generally, secondary functions contribute greatly to cost, and
may not be essential to the performance of the basic function or required secondary function
along the critical function logic path. We consider these functions “WHEN” a required
secondary function is essential to support the basic or other required secondary functions.
See Functions, “WHEN” for additional explanation.
Functions, Required Secondary – Required secondary functions are those functions which
are necessary in a project, product, or process to perform the basic function. Required
secondary functions may or may not add value. However, they may be essential and
necessary so that the basic function logic is satisfied.
 TIP: To validate a required secondary function, remove it from its position as
located on the critical function logic path of the FAST Diagram. If the function logic
cannot support the logic path by satisfying the “HOW” and “WHY” questions
between the next required secondary function and its relationship between other
required secondary functions or the basic function, it is required and must be left in
place. As an example, using the multimedia projector example in section C, the
required secondary function “GENERATE LIGHT” must occur to satisfy the basic
function “PROJECT IMAGE.” Removing the “GENERATE LIGHT” function, the
multimedia projector product cannot “PROJECT IMAGE.”

Functions, Sell – See Aesthetic function

Functions, Unwanted – A negative function caused by the method used to achieve the basic
function, [i.e.; such as heat generated from lighting which requires cooling].
Functions, “WHEN” – A secondary function caused by a Required Secondary Function
along the Critical Function Logic Path. As an example, “WHEN” the function “CONVERT
ENERGY,” from operating a Personal Computer projector, the secondary functions
“GENERATE HEAT,” “GENERATE NOISE,” and “DISSIPATE HEAT” occur. The word
“WHEN” is not to be confused with time.
Functions, Work – Supports the basic function. This function helps the product, process,
or project work. These are typically the “Required Secondary Functions.”
Levels of Abstraction – A logical progressive movement between functions aligned to form
a horizontal critical function logic path, which addresses questions of “HOW” one performs
or accomplishes a function and answering the question with the next logical question. The
next logical function statement is placed to the right of the function for which the “HOW”
question was asked. Traversing in the horizontal opposite direction, right to left, the logic is
checked when asking “WHY” a function is performed or accomplished. Asking “WHY” the
function is performed to the immediate left from which this question is asked should satisfy
the logic question. If it does not satisfy the question, then there is a logic mismatch. In that
case, select another function statement that makes logical sense to satisfy “WHY.” The
Lower Order Function is the lowest order function on a diagram and is essentially the input
function that triggers the series of logical functions from right to left answering “WHY” a
particular function is performed or needed. The last function to the far left is the Higher
Order Function. This is the output of the basic and required secondary functions along the
critical function logic path. “Level of Abstraction” is the progression of basic and required
secondary functions from the Lower Order to Higher Order Functions.
“OR” gates – A logic gate that satisfies the answer of “HOW” a function is performed
moving from left to right, along the critical function logic path, resulting in one or the other
of two functions. The two functions should also address the answer “WHY” those two
functions are necessary to satisfy the adjoining function when working the logic questions
from right to left. See Section C for further explanation and examples.
Pareto Principle – (also known as the 80–20 rule, the law of the vital few, and the
principle of factor sparsity) states that, for many events, roughly 80% of the effects come
from 20% of the causes. Management and quality consultant Joseph M. Juran suggested the
principle and named it after Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto, who, while at the University
of Lausanne in 1896, published his first paper “Cours d'Economie Politique.” Essentially,
Pareto showed that approximately 20% of the population owned 80% of the land in Italy.
Pareto developed the principle by observing that 20% of the peapods in his garden contained
80% of the peas.
It is a common rule of thumb in business: e.g., “80% of your sales come from 20% of your
clients.” Mathematically, the 80–20 rule follows the power law distribution (also known as a
Pareto distribution) for a particular set of parameters. In VM, we use this distribution to
target value opportunities whereby 80% of the resources (time, cost, schedule, risk, etc.) are
in 20% of the functions.
Random Function Identification – A method used to create function statements for various
aspects or parts of a project, product, or process.
Random Function Identification Worksheet – A worksheet used to collect function
statements for elements or parts of a project, product or process when teams randomly
brainstorm functions.
Scope of Study – Functions located between the Lower Order and Higher Order function.
These start with the basic function and all required secondary functions, and move left to
right, down to the Lower Order function. See FAST Diagram Guidelines and Graphics in
Section C.
Value Methodology – The Value Methodology (VM) is a systematic process used by a
multi-disciplinary team to improve the value of a project, product, or process through the
analysis of functions.

APPENDIX C: REFERENCES

Circular A-131, Office of Management and Budget, US Federal Government

Value Methodology, A Pocket Guide to Reduce Cost and Improve Value Through Function
Analysis, SAVE International® Value Methodology Body of Knowledge (VMBOK), Miles
Value Foundation, Goal/QPC, 2008.
Techniques of Value Analysis and Engineering, 2nd Edition, Lawrence D. Miles, McGraw
Hill, 1972.
FAST Creativity & Innovation, Charles W. Bytheway, J. Ross Publishing, 2007.
Publications Catalog, SAVE International®
Describes textbooks and educational materials on the Value Methodology and
related programs. Includes videotapes and information on Value World, SAVE
International’s technical journal.
SAVE International® Annual Conference Proceedings
Includes all presentations given at each annual conference. Also available is a VM
Bibliography, a compilation of all presentations since 1980, and articles from Value
World. Each presentation shows Title, Author, Abstract, and Source. Papers can be
individually ordered from SAVE International®.
“Standard Practice for Performing Value Analysis (VA) of Buildings and Building
Systems,” American Society for Testing and Materials, (ASTM) Publication E1699-13.
SAVE International® Workshops and Seminar Manual
SAVE International® Value Methodology Certification Manuals:
Certification Manual
Recertification Manual
Seminar/Workshop Manual
Certification Examination Study Guide
Internet Web Site: http://www.value-eng.com
Lawrence D. Miles Value Foundation Internet Web Site: http://www.valuefoundation.org

APPENDIX D: FACILITATOR TOOLKIT

The following three worksheets are recommended to support function analysis.