LRFD, The USA’s Innovative Bridge

Design Specifications

Firas I. Sheikh Ibrahim, Ph.D., P.E.

Senior Codes & Specifications Engineer

Office of Bridge Technology

Federal Highway Administration
Washington, DC
 Who We Are, at FHWA

A USDOT Agency responsible for

ensuring that America’s roads and
highways continue to be the safest and
most technologically up-to-date.

We provide financial (> $30 Billion/year)

and technical support to States and Local
Governments
 Effect of Federal Aid on
Transportation Structures
All
AllStructures
Structures --Percent
PercentDeficiencies
Deficiencies
Federal Aid has been Determined
Determined byby Number
Number of
ofBridges
Bridges

increasing significantly 40%

40%

($14,257,907,017
($ in 35%
35%
30%
30%
ISTEA To
Deficient
% Deficient
25%
25%

$23,365,688,795 in 20%
20%
15%
15%
TEA21), but
%

10%
10%

deficiencies remain 5%
5%
0%
0%
significant 1992
1992 1993
1993 1994
1994 1995
1995 1996
1996 1997
1997 1998
1998 1999
1999 2000
2000 2001
2001 2002
2002 2003
2003

Year
Year
All
AllDeficiencies
Deficiencies Functionally
FunctionallyObsolete
Obsolete Structurally
StructurallyDeficient
Deficient
 FHWA’s Top Priorities

9Make transportation safer, more

reliable and secure,

9Reduce traffic congestion, and

9Minimize impact on the environment

 F D Accomplishment of Top Priorities
LR

1-Develop and Deploy 9Safer

Reliable and Safer
Specifications, and
increase the Design 9Reduce
congestion
and Service Life
9Minimize
impact on the
environment
 Evolution Of Design Specifications
1931 - First AASHO Specs
Evolved into AASHTO Standard Specs (SLD,
and LFD), and became a patch document with
inconsistencies and gaps

1994 - Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

1998 - 2nd Edition of LRFD

2004 - 3rd Edition of LRFD

 AK
95%

LRFDOC
AASHTO Scoreboard
LRFD Survey
April 2004& Local Governments
LRFD Implementation by States
As of March, 2003

WA MT ND
100% 35% MN
40% ME
100%
OR ID SD WI VT
100% 100% 10% 5%
WY MI NY
IA 50% 0- 24 --10
NH
NE 5% 0- 2-2
MA
PA
60% IL
IN OH 100% RI
NV UT CO 5%
75% KS MO CT 50%
90% WV NJ 100%
50% KY 80%
CA VA
DE 0/2
DE 100%
MD
OK TN NC
AR DC
100%
AZ NM SC
5%
50%
MS AL GA
TX
LA
13%

Federal Lands
FL
100%

PR

„ Full Implementation
HI
100% For updates and inquiries, contact:
Firas I Sheikh Ibrahim, PhD, PE

„ 50-90% Partial Implementation

LRFD Engineer
Federal Highway Administration
Office of Bridge Technology

„ Full Implementation „ 26-50% Partial Implementation

HIBT-10, Room 3203
400 7th. St. SW

„ Partial Implementation „ 11-25% Partial Implementation

Washington, DC 20590
(202)-366-4598 Direct

„ Sample Designs
(202)-366-4589 Main Office

„ 1-10% Partial Implementation

(202)-366-3077 Fax

No/Little Implementation
Firas.Ibrahim@ fhwa .dot. gov

‰ http://www. fhwa .dot. gov /Bridge/

‰ No Implementation
 Service Load DESIGN
Rn
Nominal Load Effect, Qn <
FS
Nominal
Service Load Design (SLD): Resistance
(ft)D + (ft)L ≤ 0.55Fy, or
Rn
1.82(ft)D + 1.82(ft)L ≤ Fy
Q
R
 LFD Design Equation
Σ γi Qi < φRn
where:
γQn φRn
γi = Load factor
γi Qi = Factored load,
required capacity Qn Rn
φ = Resistance factor
φ Rn= Capacity

Load Factor Design (LFD):

1.3[1.0(ft)D + 5/3(ft)L] ≤ φFy, or
1.3(ft)D + 2.17(ft)L ≤ φFy (φ by judgment)
 Design & Service Life for
The Standard Specifications

Design Life is 50 years

Service Life could be less than 50

Innovative LRFD Design Specifications
9 Longer Design Life (75
( years)

9 Allows use of High Performance Material; Service

Life (>75 years)

9 Consistent Reliability and Safety Factors for all

bridges,

9 More Realistic Live Load Model, and Distribution

Factors

9 State of the Art Provisions and Design Procedures

 Basic LRFD Design Equation
Σ ηi γi Qi < φRn = Rr
where: γQn φRn
ηi = ηD ηR ηI
ηi = Load modifier
γi = Load factor Qn Rn
Qi = Nominal force effect
φ = Resistance factor
Rn= Nominal resistance
Rr = Factored resistance = φRn
Sample LRFD Design Equation:
1.25(ft)D + 1.75(ft)L ≤ φFy (φ by calibration)
(new live-load model)
LRFD = More Accurate Live Load Model, HL-93
‹ Design Truck: ⇒

or

‹ Design Tandem: or
Pair of 25.0 KIP axles
spaced 4.0 FT apart
25.0 KIP 25.0 KIP
superimposed on
+
‹ Design Lane Load 0.64 KLF uniformly 0.64 Kip/ft
distributed load
 T ABLE 4.6.2.2.1-1 C OMM ON D ECK S UPERSTRUCTURES C OVERED IN A RTICLES 4.6.2.2.2 AND 4.6.2.2.3.

SUPPORTING COM PONENTS TYPE OF DECK TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION

Steel Beam Cast-in-place concrete slab,

LRFD = precast concrete slab, steel

grid, glued/spiked panels,
stressed wood

More Accurate Closed Steel or Precast Concrete

Boxes
Cast-in-place concrete slab

Live-Load
Distribution Open Steel or Precast Concrete
Boxes
Cast-in-place concrete slab,
precast concrete deck slab

Factors Cast-in-Place Concrete M ulticell M onolithic concrete

Box

Cast-in-Place Concrete Tee Beam M onolithic concrete

Precast Solid, Voided or Cellular Cast-in-place concrete

Concrete Boxes with Shear K eys overlay

Precast Solid, Voided, or Cellular Integral concrete

Concrete Box with Shear Keys and
with or without Transverse
Posttensioning
 Sample Live-Load Distribution Factors
(Moments – Interior Beams)
Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1 Distribution of Live Loads Per Lane for Moment in Interior Beams.

Applicable
Cross-Section
from Table Range of
Type of Beams 4.6.2.2.1-1 Distribution Factors Applicability
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and also One Design Lane Loaded: 3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16.0
Grid, Partially Filled i, j 0.1
20 ≤ L ≤ 240
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ Kg ⎞
0.4 0.3
⎛ S ⎞
Grid, or Unfilled Grid if sufficiently 0.06 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
Deck Composite with connected to ⎝ 14 ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 12.0 Lt s ⎠ 4.5 ≤ t s ≤ 12.0
Reinforced Concrete Slab act as a unit Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: Nb ≥ 4
on Steel or Concrete
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ Kg
0.6 0.2
⎞
0.1
10,000 ≤ K g ≤
Beams; Concrete T- 0.075 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟ 7,000,000
Beams, T- and Double T- ⎝ 9.5 ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 12.0 Lt s ⎠
Sections use lesser of the values obtained from the Nb = 3
equation above with N b = 3 or the lever rule

Notes: 1) Units are in LANES and not WHEELS

2) No multiple presence factor applied (tabulated equations)
 LRFD Calibration is Scientific
& based on performance of prior design specs &
existing bridge inventory
Design Requirement

First use Time-tested satisfactory

performance

Failure

Time
 Reliability and Calibration of
Standard & LRFD Specifications
5
RELIABILITY INDEX

NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED
Q AND R:
4
R-Q
3.5 β=
3
σ +σ
R
2
Q
2

2
LOGNORMALLY DISTRIBUTED
Q AND R
1 ⎛ R⎞
ln⎜ ⎟
0
90 120 200 β= ⎝ Q⎠
00 30
30 60
60 90 120 200
SPAN LENGTH (Feet) VR2 +VQ2
 States’ Experience
with the AASHTO LRFD Design
Specifications

(>2,240 LRFD Bridges – 2004)

Doremus Avenue Viaduct
(Newark, NJ)
Rt. 9, Nacote Creek Bridge (South Jersey)
 Barclay Creek Bridge Site
9 Environmentally sensitive area
9 170 foot span required for hydraulic requirements

9 HPS 70W
LRFD Bridge
9 174 foot span
length

9 Overall, a
good
experience
 WSDOT Spliced I-Girders
Twisp River Bridge, Twisp, WA
C I
P d
02 ar
20 Aw

Single-span spliced concrete girders spanning 195 ft

 FLDOT
St. George Island Bridge Apalachicola, FL

9 21,542’ long bridge

9 Post-tensioned
bulb-tee girders
 FLDOT
Hathaway Bridge , Panama City, FL
9 3,815’ long
9 330’ typical span
Segmental boxes
 Long Span Bridges in LRFD?
(Great River Bridge, Desha County, AR)

682 ft - 1,520 ft – 682 ft Cable-Stay Bridge

 Long Span Bridges in LRFD?
(Hoover Dam Bypass Project)

Composite
Concrete Deck
Arch Bridge
(~2,000 ft)
 Some State DOT’s Conclusion

9 New Jersey: “.. major step forward ..”

“.. cost savings of up to 8 percent ..”
9 Washington: “.. good experience … was not so difficult..”
“.. comprehensive …. powerful ..”
9 Florida: “.. good experience … was not so difficult..”
“.. comprehensive …. powerful ..”
 SUMMARY
LRFD

9Comprehensive, rational, and powerful specs

9Result in safer and more reliable
transportation structures
9Design Life is 75 years
 c e
t a n THANK YOU
i s AM
s s S
A c le
E E n
R U Firas I. Sheikh Ibrahim, Ph.D., P.E.
F om
fr Senior Codes & Specifications Engineer
Office of Bridge Technology
Federal Highway Administration
HIBT-10, Room 3203
400 7th. St. SW
Washington, DC 20590
(202) 366-4598
[email protected]
 LRFD
Loads and
Loads Distribution

Firas I. Sheikh Ibrahim, Ph.D., P.E.

Federal Highway Administration
Washington, DC
Basic LRFD Design Equation
Σ ηiγiQi ≤ φRn = Rr Eq. (1.3.2.1-1)
where:
ηi = ηD ηR ηI

γi = Load factor
φ = Resistance factor
Qi = Nominal force effect
Rn = Nominal resistance
Rr = Factored resistance = φRn
Load Combinations and Load Factors

Load Combination DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use One of These at a

DD IM CR Time
DW CE SH
EH BR EQ IC CT CV
EV PL
Limit State ES LS
STRENGTH-I γp 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
STRENGTH-II γp 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
STRENGTH-III γp - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
STRENGTH-IV - -
EH, EV, ES, DW γp - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - - - -
DC ONLY 1.5
STRENGTH-V γp 1.35 1.00 0.40 1.00 1.00 0.50/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
EXTREME-I γp γEQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.00 - - -
EXTREME-II γp 0.50 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - - 1.00 1.00 1.00
SERVICE-I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 0.30 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
SERVICE-II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - - - -
SERVICE-III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 γTG γSE - - - -
FATIGUE-LL, IM & CE
ONLY - 0.75 - - - - - - - - - - -
Load Factors for Permanent
Loads, γp
Load Factor
Type of Load Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and 1.25 0.90
Attachments
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces 1.50 0.65
and Utilities
EH: Horizontal Earth
Pressure
• Active 1.50 0.90
• At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EV: Vertical Earth
Pressure
• Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
• Retaining 1.35 1.00
Structure 1.30 0.90
• Rigid Buried
Structure 1.35 0.90
• Rigid Frames 1.95 0.90
 Basic LRFD Design Live Load
HL-93 -- (Article 3.6.1.2.1)
Design Truck: ⇒

or or
Design Tandem:
Pair of 25.0 KIP axles
spaced 4.0 FT apart 25.0 KIP 25.0 KIP

superimposed on +
0.64 Kip/ft
Design Lane Load 0.64 KLF
uniformly distributed load
LRFD Negative Moment Loading
(Article 3.6.1.3.1)
For negative moment (between points of
permanent-load contraflexure) & interior-pier
reactions, check an additional load case:

0.9 x

> 50’-0”
 LRFD Fatigue Load
(Article 3.6.1.4.1)

Design Truck only =>

„ w/ fixed 30-ft rear-
1
axle spacing
„ Placed in a single

lane
TABLE 4.6.2.2.1-1 COMMON DECK SUPERSTRUCTURES COVERED IN ARTICLES 4.6.2.2.2 AND 4.6.2.2.3.

SUPPORTING COMPONENTS TYPE OF DECK TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION

Steel Beam Cast-in-place concrete slab,

precast concrete slab, steel
grid, glued/spiked panels,
stressed wood

Closed Steel or Precast Concrete Cast-in-place concrete slab

Boxes

Open Steel or Precast Concrete Cast-in-place concrete slab,

Boxes precast concrete deck slab

Cast-in-Place Concrete Multicell Monolithic concrete

Box

Cast-in-Place Concrete Tee Beam Monolithic concrete

Precast Solid, Voided or Cellular Cast-in-place concrete

Concrete Boxes with Shear Keys overlay

Precast Solid, Voided, or Cellular Integral concrete

Concrete Box with Shear Keys and
with or without Transverse
Posttensioning
 Live-Load Distribution Factors
Moments – Interior Beams
Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1 Distribution of Live Loads Per Lane for Moment in Interior Beams.

Applicable
Cross-Section
from Table Range of
Type of Beams 4.6.2.2.1-1 Distribution Factors Applicability
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and also One Design Lane Loaded: 3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16.0
Grid, Partially Filled i, j 0.1
20 ≤ L ≤ 240
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ Kg ⎞
0.4 0.3

Grid, or Unfilled Grid if sufficiently 0.06 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟

Deck Composite with connected to ⎝ 14 ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 12.0 Lts ⎠ 4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12.0
Reinforced Concrete Slab act as a unit Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: Nb ≥ 4
on Steel or Concrete
⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ S ⎞ ⎛ Kg ⎞
0.6 0.2 0.1
10,000 ≤ Kg ≤
Beams; Concrete T- 0.075 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟ 7,000,000
Beams, T- and Double T- ⎝ 9.5 ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 12.0 Lts ⎠
Sections use lesser of the values obtained from the Nb = 3
equation above with Nb = 3 or the lever rule

Notes: 1) Units are in LANES and not WHEELS!

2) No multiple presence factor applied (tabulated equations)
3) May be Different for Positive and Negative Flexure Locations!
 Live-Load Distribution Factors
Shear – Interior Beams
Table 4.6.2.2.3a-1 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams.

Applicable
Cross-Section
Type of from Table One Design Lane Two or More Design Lanes Range of
Superstructure 4.6.2.2.1-1 Loaded Loaded Applicability
Concrete Deck, a, e, k and also S S ⎛ S ⎞
2.0 3.5 ≤ S ≤ 16.0
Filled Grid, i, j if 0.36 + 0.2 + − ⎜ ⎟
25.0 12 ⎝ 35 ⎠ 20 ≤ L ≤ 240
Partially Filled sufficiently
Grid, or Unfilled connected to 4.5 ≤ ts ≤ 12.0
Grid Deck act as a unit Nb ≥ 4
Composite with
Reinforced
Concrete Slab on
Steel or Concrete
Beams; Concrete Lever Rule Lever Rule Nb = 3
T-Beams, T-and
Double T-Sections
Notes: Same for Positive and Negative Flexure Locations!
 Live-Load Distribution Factors
Moments – Exterior Beams
Table 4.6.2.2.2d-1 Distribution of Live Loads Per Lane for Moment in Exterior Longitudinal Beams.

Applicable Cross- Two or More

Section from Table One Design Lane Design Lanes Range of
Type of Superstructure 4.6.2.2.1-1 Loaded Loaded Applicability
Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, a, e, k and Lever Rule =
g e ginterior -1.0 < de < 5.5
Partially Filled Grid, or also i, j e = 0.77 +
de
Unfilled Grid Deck Composite if sufficiently connected 9.1
with Reinforced Concrete Slab to act as a unit
on Steel or Concrete Beams;
Concrete T-Beams, T- and
Double T- Sections use lesser of the Nb = 3
values obtained
from the equation
above with Nb = 3
or the lever rule

Notes: distribution factor for the exterior beam shall not be taken to be less
than that which would be obtained by assuming that the cross-section deflects
and rotates as a rigid cross-section (SPECIAL ANALYSIS).

NLX ext ∑ NL e
R= +
Nb ∑ Nb x 2
 Live-Load Distribution Factors
Shear – Exterior Beams
Table 4.6.2.2.3b-1 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams.

Applicable Cross-
Section from Table One Design Lane Two or More Design Range of
Type of Superstructure 4.6.2.2.1-1 Loaded Lanes Loaded Applicability
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and Lever Rule g = e ginterior -1.0 < de < 5.5
Grid, Partially Filled also i, j d
Grid, or Unfilled Grid if sufficiently connected e = 0.6 + e
10
Deck Composite with to act as a unit
Reinforced Concrete Slab
on Steel or Concrete Lever Rule Nb = 3
Beams; Concrete T-

Notes: distribution factor for the exterior beam shall not be taken to be less
than that which would be obtained by assuming that the cross-section deflects
and rotates as a rigid cross-section (SPECIAL ANALYSIS)

NL X ext ∑ NL e
R= +
Nb ∑ Nb x 2
Live-Load Distribution Factors
Exterior Girder – Lever Rule
 Live-Load Distribution Factors
Exterior Girder - Special Analysis

NLX ext ∑ NL e
R= + Eq. (C4.6.2.2.2d-1)
Nb ∑ Nb x 2

R = reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes

NL = number of loaded lanes under consideration
e = eccentricity of a lane from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders (ft)
x = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to each
girder (ft)
Xext = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to the
exterior girder (ft)
Nb = number of beams or girders
QUESTIONS?
 Unified Straight and Curved
Steel Girder Design Specifications
 Introduction
Unified Steel Specifications
Straight
Curved
One Specs!
 Fundamentals
9 Primary-Strength Flexural & Shear Effects
9 Lateral Flange Effects
9 Differential Deflection Effects
9 Torsion Effects
9 Lateral Force Effects
9 Second-Order Effects
9 Cross Frame Forces
 6.10.8 Flexural Resistance - Composite I
Sections
FLB and LTB
B a s i c F oinr m o f Negative
A l l F L B Flexure
& LTB & Eqs
Noncomposite I Sections ⎡
- ⎤ (cont’d)
⎛ Fyr ⎞ ⎛ Lb − Lp ⎞
Fnc = Cb ⎢1 − ⎜1 − ⎟⎜ ⎟⎥ R bR hFyc ≤ R bR hFyc
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ R hFyc ⎟ ⎜ Lr − Lp ⎟⎥
Fn or M n A n c h o r p o in t 1 ⎠⎝ ⎠⎦
Fnc =RbRhFyc ⎡ ⎛ Fyr ⎞ ⎛ λ f − λ pf ⎞⎤
F m ax o r
M Fnc = ⎢1− ⎜1− ⎟⎜ ⎟⎥ RbRhFyc
M m axm ax ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ R h Fyc ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ λrf − λpf ⎟⎥
⎠⎦
A n c h o r p o in t 2

Mr r
Fr or M

com pact noncom pact

Fnc = Fcr ≤ RbRhFyc C bR b π 2 E
2
( in e la s t ic b u c k lin g )
⎛ Lb ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ r ⎟
n o n s le n d e r s le n d e r ⎝ t ⎠
( e l a s t ic b u c k lin g )

L p oλ
r pλ p f L r λo rr λ r f L b o r b fc / 2 t fc
 Post Web Buckling Strength
f bu
≤ φ f F yf ⇒ f bu ≤ φ f R b R h F yf
Rb R h
Buckled Web Sheds Stress to the
Dc Compression Flange Reducing
Flange Yielding Moment

Tension
Moment First Yield with Buckled Web
Flange Rb = ≤ 1.0
M y = Fy S
⎛ awc ⎞⎛ 2 Dc ⎞
Rb = 1 − ⎜ ⎟⎜ − λ rw ⎟ ≤ 1.0
⎝ 1200 + 300 awc ⎠⎝ tw ⎠
 Fundamentals

9 Primary Flexural & Shear Effects

9 Lateral Flange Effects
9 Differential Deflection Effects
9 Torsion Effects
9 Lateral Force Effects
9 Second-Order Effects
9 Cross Frame Forces
 Fundamentals

9 Primary Flexural & Shear Effects

9 Lateral Flange Effects
9 Differential Deflection Effects
9 Torsion Effects
9 Lateral Force Effects
9 Second-Order Effects
9 Cross Frame Forces
 Differential Load/Deflection Effects

• Outside girder carries L1 L2 OUTSIDE

GIRDER
more load
• Vertical Deflection is not
equal between adjacent PIER

girders A BUT AB
UT

=> Torsional Effects on PLAN VIEW INSIDE

GIRDER
Girders, Lateral Flange
Bending, and Affects fit-
up during construction
 Fundamentals

9 Primary Flexural & Shear Effects

9 Lateral Flange Effects
9 Differential Deflection Effects
9 Torsion Effects
9 Lateral Force Effects
9 Second-Order Effects
9 Cross Frame Forces
 Torsion Effects

9 Deformations

9 Stresses
 Torsion Deformations
9 Twisting

9 Warping

=> Affect fit-up during construction

 Torsion Stresses
• St. Venant
id ng
en
• Warping
e B
ng
Fla
ra l
at e
L

XX
Normal Stresses Shear Stresses
 Fundamentals

9 Primary Flexural & Shear Effects

9 Lateral Flange Effects
9 Differential Deflection Effects
9 Torsion Effects
9 Lateral Force Effects
9 Second-Order Effects
9 Cross Frame Forces
 Lateral Force Effects

f bu f bu ± ? f l ≤ Fr
Bending stress due to
vertical loads
fl
flange lateral bending stress
due to wind, skew, or
curvature
=> Lateral Force Effects & “One-Third” Rule

1
f bu + f l ≤ φ f Fnc
3
1
f bu f bu + f l ≤ φ f F yt
Bending stress due to
3
vertical loads
fl
flange lateral bending stress
due to wind, skew, or
curvature
 Implementation of “One-Third” Rule
1
f bu + f l ≤ Fr Strength Limit State, Constructibility-Compression
Discretely Braced Flanges

3
1
M u + f l S x ≤ M r Strength Limit State – Compact Straight
3
f bu + f l ≤ Fr 1
Constructibility Yielding ⇒1
3
1 1 1
f bu + f l ≤ Fr Service Limit State ⇒
2 3 2
Braced Flanges
Continuously

f bu ≤ Fr ALL L.S., Continuously Braced Flanges, f l = 0

 Implementation of “One-Third” Rule
1
f bu + f l ≤ Fr Strength Limit State, Constructibility-Compression
Discretely Braced Flanges

3
1
M u + f l S x ≤ M r Strength Limit State – Compact Straight
3
f bu + f l ≤ Fr 1
Constructibility Yielding ⇒1
3
1 1 1
f bu + f l ≤ Fr Service Limit State ⇒
2 3 2
Braced Flanges
Continuously

f bu ≤ Fr ALL L.S., Continuously Braced Flanges, f l = 0

 Implementation of “One-Third” Rule
1
f bu + f l ≤ Fr Strength Limit State, Constructibility-Compression
Discretely Braced Flanges

3
1
M u + f l S x ≤ M r Strength Limit State – Compact Straight
3
f bu + f l ≤ Fr 1
Constructibility Yielding ⇒1
3
1 1 1
f bu + f l ≤ Fr Service Limit State ⇒
2 3 2
Braced Flanges
Continuously

f bu ≤ Fr ALL L.S., Continuously Braced Flanges, f l = 0

 Implementation of “One-Third” Rule
1
f bu + f l ≤ Fr Strength Limit State & Constructibility-Compression
Discretely Braced Flanges

3
1
M u + f l S x ≤ M r Strength Limit State – Compact Straight
3
f bu + f l ≤ Fr 1
Constructibility Yielding ⇒1
3
1 1 1
f bu + f l ≤ Fr Service Limit State ⇒
2 3 2
Braced Flanges
Continuously

f bu ≤ Fr ALL L.S., Continuously Braced Flanges, f l = 0

 Implementation of “One-Third” Rule
1
f bu + f l ≤ Fr Strength Limit State, Constructibility-Compression
Discretely Braced Flanges

3
1
M u + f l S x ≤ M r Strength Limit State – Compact Straight
3
f bu + f l ≤ Fr 1
Constructibility Yielding ⇒1
3
1 1 1
f bu + f l ≤ Fr Service Limit State ⇒
2 3 2
Braced Flanges
Continuously

f bu ≤ Fr ALL L.S., Continuously Braced Flanges, f l = 0

 Fundamentals

9 Primary Flexural & Shear Effects

9 Lateral Flange Effects
9 Differential Deflection Effects
9 Torsion Effects
9 Lateral Force Effects
9 Second-Order Effects
9 Cross Frame Forces (Primary Members)
 Second-Order Effects (Art. 6.10.1.6)

Cb Rb
z If Lb > 1.2 L p
f bu Fyc

Second-order compression-flange lateral bending stresses

may be approximated by amplifying first-order value:

⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0.85 ⎟f ≥ f Cb Rbπ 2 E
fl = Fcr =
⎜ f bu ⎟ l1 l1
⎛ Lb ⎞
2
⎜1 − F ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
cr
⎝ rt ⎠
 Fundamentals

9 Primary Flexural & Shear Effects

9 Lateral Flange Effects
9 Differential Deflection Effects
9 Torsion Effects
9 Lateral Force Effects
9 Second-Order Effects
9 Cross Frame Forces (Primary Members)
 SUMMARY
Unified Steel Specifications
Straight
Curved
One Specs!
Enough Said!
 Shear Design
Based on
Sectional Model/Modified Compression
Field Theory
Traditional Shear Design Method

1 - Before Cracking 2 - After Cracking

V A
d
450 s
s

d
As f y
Vs = d
s
 Modified Compression Theory
Diagonal Compression, Tension in Cracked Concrete
Variable Angle Truss Analogy

ε2 ε
f 2 = f2 max [ 2( ) − ( '2 ) 2 ]
ε'c εc
f2 max 1
= ≤ 1. 0
fc' 0.8 + 170 ε 1
 5.8.3.3 Nominal Shear Resistance

Vn = Vc + Vs + V p (5.8.3.3-1)

Vn = 0.25 f c′bv d v + V p (5.8.3.3-2)

where:
V c = 0.0316 β f c′ b v d v (5.8.3.3-3)

f 1 cot θ
β= ≤ limit
'
f c

Av f y d v (cot θ + cot α) sin α

Vs = (5.8.3.3-4)
s
 Factors for Determining β and θ
(vu and εx)

V −φ
Vuu − φV
Vpp
vuu ==
V (5.8.2.9-1)
φφbvv dvv
bv = effective web width
dv = effective shear depth; distance between the
resultants of the tensile and compressive forces due to
flexure > the greater of 0.9 de or 0.72h
φ = resistance factor for shear specified in Article
5.5.4.2
 Strain εx in Tension Chord
If the section contains at least the
minimum transverse reinforcement:
0
εt + εc
εx =
2
⎛ Mu ⎞
⎜ + 0.5 Nu + 0.5(Vu − Vp ) cot θ − Aps f po ⎟
εx = ⎝ dv ⎠ (5.8.3.4.2-1)
2( Es As + E p Aps )

where:
As ,Aps = area of non-prestressed, and
prestressing steel on the flexural tension
side of the member
 5.8.3.4 Determination of β and θ
Table 5.8.3.4.2-1
Values of θ and β for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement

vu εx × 1,000
f c′
< - 0.20 < - 0.10 < - 0.05 <0 <0.125 <0.25 <0.50 <0.75 <1.00
<0.075 22.3 20.4 21.0 21.8 24.3 26.6 30.5 33.7 36.4
6.32 4.75 4.10 3.75 3.24 2.94 2.59 2.38 2.23
<0.100 18.1 20.4 21.4 22.5 24.9 27.1 30.8 34.0 36.7
3.79 3.38 3.24 3.14 2.91 2.75 2.50 2.32 2.18
<0.125 19.9 21.9 22.8 23.7 25.9 27.9 31.4 34.4 37.0
3.18 2.99 2.94 2.87 2.74 2.62 2.42 2.26 2.13
<0.150 21.6 23.3 24.2 25.0 26.9 28.8 32.1 34.9 37.3
2.88 2.79 2.78 2.72 2.60 2.52 2.36 2.21 2.08
<0.175 23.2 24.7 25.5 26.2 28.0 29.7 32.7 35.2 36.8
2.73 2.66 2.65 2.60 2.52 2.44 2.28 2.14 1.96
<0.200 24.7 26.1 26.7 27.4 29.0 30.6 32.8 34.5 36.1
2.63 2.59 2.52 2.51 2.43 2.37 2.14 1.94 1.79
<0.225 26.1 27.3 27.9 28.5 30.0 30.8 32.3 34.0 35.7
2.53 2.45 2.42 2.40 2.34 2.14 1.86 1.73 1.64
<0.250 27.5 28.6 29.1 29.7 30.6 31.3 32.8 34.3 35.8
2.39 2.39 2.33 2.33 2.12 1.93 1.70 1.58 1.50
 Additional Longitudinal Reinforcement to
Resist Shear
Mu Nu ⎛ Vu ⎞
As f y + Aps f ps ≥ + 0.5 + ⎜ − 0.5Vs − Vp ⎟ cot θ (5.8.3.5-1)
dv φ f φc ⎝ φv ⎠

Figure C5.8.3.5-2 Force Variation in Longitudinal Reinforcement Near

Maximum Moment Locations.
Figure C5.8.3.4.2-5 Flow
Chart for Shear Design of
Section Containing at Least
Minimum Transverse
Reinforcement.
THANK YOU!
Strut-and-Tie Model
 5.8 SHEAR AND TORSION
5.8.1 Design Procedures
5.8.1.2 Regions Near Discontinuities
Where the plane sections assumption of flexural theory is
not valid, regions of members shall be designed for shear
and torsion using the strut-and-tie model as specified in
Article 5.6.3. The provisions of Article 5.13.2 shall apply.
 D & B - Regions
Dapped Beam

D B D D B D

bf Tee Beam bf bf

D B D B D
bf bf

D = Disturbed B = Bending
Discontinuity Beam
Deep Beam Bernoulli
 Basic Concepts
•Visualize flow of stresses and sketch a strut-tie model to transfer load to the
supports, where:
•Compressive forces are resisted by concrete “struts”
•Tensile forces are resisted by steel “ties”
•Struts and ties meet at “nodes”
•For best serviceability, the model should follow the elastic flow of forces

P
Strut
C C
Fill Fill
Fill
C C
T T
Nodal
P Tie P
Zones
2 2
 Examples of Good and Poor
Strut-and-Tie Models

1. Shortest & stiffest path to supports

2. Minimum release of energy (min cracks)
 STM Procedures
1. Visualize flow of stresses
2. Sketch an idealized strut-
and-tie model
3. Select area of ties
4. Check nodal zone stresses
5. Check strength of struts
6. Provide adequate
anchorage for ties
7. Provide crack control
reinforcement

Figure C5.6.3.2-1
Strut-and-Tie Model for a Deep Beam
 Strength Limit State for STM
Pr = φPn (5.6.3.2-1)
where:
Pr = Factored resistance of strut or tie
Pn = Nominal resistance of strut or tie
φ = Resistance factor for tension or compression (5.5.4.2)
For compression in strut-and-tie models….0.70
For compression in anchorage zones:
normal weight concrete……………….0.80
lightweight concrete……………………0.65
For tension in steel in anchorage zones…...1.00
For tension of reinforced concrete………….0.90
For tension of prestressed concrete.………1.00
5.6.3.3 Proportioning of Compressive Struts
5.6.3.3.1 Strength of Unreinforced Strut

Pn = f cu Acs (5.6.3.3.1-1)

5.6.3.3.4 Reinforced Strut

Pn = f cu Acs + f y Ass (5.6.3.3.4-1)

where:
fcu = limiting compressive stress as specified in
Article 5.6.3.3.3
Acs = effective cross-sectional area of strut as
specified in Article 5.6.3.3.2
Ass = area of reinforcement in the strut
 Factors Affecting Size of Strut

Width of the strut is affected by:

• Location and distribution of reinforcement (tie)
and its anchorage
• Size and location of bearing
 Figure 5.6.3.3.2-1
Influence of Anchorage Conditions on Effective Cross-Sectional Area of Strut
5.6.3.3.3 Limiting Compressive Stress in Strut

f c′
f cu = ≤ 0.85 f c′ (5.6.3.3.3-1)
0.8 + 170 ε1
ε1
ε1 = ε s + ( ε s + 0.002 ) cot α s (5.6.3.3.3-2)
2

where:

f′c = specified compressive strength

εs = the tensile strain in the concrete in
the direction of the tension tie
αs = the smallest angle between the
αs
compressive strut and adjoining
tension ties (°)
 5.6.3.4.1 Strength of Tie

Pn = f y Ast + Aps ⎡⎣ f pe + f y ⎤⎦ (5.6.3.4.1-1)

where

fy = yield strength of mild steel longitudinal

reinforcement
Ast = total area of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement
in the tie
Aps = area of prestressing steel
fpe = stress in prestressing steel due to prestress after
losses
 5.6.3.5 Proportioning of Node Regions

The concrete compressive

stress in the node regions of
the strut shall not exceed:

• For node regions bounded by

compressive struts and
bearing areas: ……….0.85 φ f′c

• For node regions anchoring a

one-direction tension tie:
………..………..……….0.75 φ f′c

• For node regions anchoring

tension ties in more than one
direction:..…..…………0.65 φ f′c
Figure C5.6.3.2-1
Strut-and-Tie Model for a Deep Beam
 5.6.3.6 Crack Control Reinforcement

z Provide orthogonal grid of reinforcement

near each face of D-Region
z Maximum Bar Spacing = 12 in.
z Ratio As / Ag ≥ 0.003 in each of the
orthogonal directions
z Crack control reinforcement, located
within tie, maybe considered as part of tie
Questions?