Chapter 22

Network layer
Delivery, Forwarding and
Routing

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 1

 Network layer

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 2

 Direct and indirect delivery

Dr. Gihan Naguib 3

 FORWARDING
Forwarding means to place the packet in its route to
its destination
destination.. Forwarding requires a host or a
router to have a routing table
table.. When a host has a
packet to send or when a router has received a
packet to be forwarded, it looks at this table to find
the route to the final destination
destination..
Topics discussed in this section:
Forwarding Techniques
Forwarding Process
Routing Table

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 Route method versus next-hop method

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 Host-specific versus network-specific method

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 Host-specific routing

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 Default method

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Simplified forwarding module in classless address

Note
In classless addressing, we need at least
four columns in a routing table.

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Example 1: Make a routing table for router R1, using the
following configuration

m3

(/0) (0.0.0.0)
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 Example
Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives at R1
with the destination address 180.70.65.140.

Routing table for R1:

(/0) (0.0.0.0)

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Solution:
The router performs the following steps:
1. The first mask (/26) is applied to the destination address.
The result is 180.70.65.128, which does not match the
corresponding network address.
2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the destination
address. The result is 180.70.65.128, which matches the
corresponding network address. The next-hop address
and the interface number m0 are passed to ARP for
further processing .

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Example
Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives at R1
in with the destination address 201.4.22.35.
Solution: The router performs the following steps:
1. The first mask (/26) is applied to the destination
address. The result is 201.4.22.0, which does not
match the corresponding network address.
2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the destination
address. The result is 201.4.22.0, which does not match
the corresponding network address (row 2).
3. The third mask (/24) is applied to the destination
address. The result is 201.4.22.0, which matches the
corresponding network address. The destination
address of the packet and the interface number m3
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 Example
Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives at R1
in Figure 22.6 with the destination address 18.24.32.78.

Solution
This time all masks are applied, one by one, to the
destination address, but no matching network address
is found. When it reaches the end of the table, the
module gives the next-hop address 180.70.65.200 and
interface number m2 to ARP. This is probably an
outgoing package that needs to be sent, via the default
router, to someplace else in the Internet.

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 Routing
Packet go from source to destination via routers.
 Routing means to place the packet in its route to its
destination.

 Routing requires a host or a router to have a routing

table. When a host has a packet to send or when a
router has received a packet to be forwarded, it looks
at this table to find the route to the final destination

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking 15

 Routing Table
Static :
does not change automatically (manual entries)
Dynamic:
Updated automatically when there is change in the Internet.
For instance, they need to be updated when a router is down, and
they need to be updated whenever a better route has been found
 Routing protocols are needed to create the routing tables
dynamically.
 A routing protocol is a combination of rules and procedures
that:
 Lets routers in the internet inform one another of changes.
 Allows routers to share whatever they know about the
internet or their neighbourhood.
Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking 16
 Unicast Routing

 In unicast routing, there is only one source and

only one destination.
 When a router receives a packet, it forwards the
packet through only one of its ports (the one
belonging to the optimum path) as defined in
routing table.
 Discard the packet, if there is no route.
Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking 17
 Autonomous systems
 Autonomous System (AS): Group of networks and
routers under the authority of a single administration.
 Routers inside an autonomous system is referred to as
interior routing (Intradomain).
 Routing between autonomous systems is referred to as
exterior routing (Interdomain).

 Solid lines show the

communication between
routers that use interior
routing protocols.
 Broken lines show the
communication between
routers that use an exterior
routing protocols.

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking 18

 Interior and Exterior routing protocols
 Each AS can choose one or more
intradomain(interior) routing protocol to handle
routing inside the AS such as RIP and OSPF
 One interdomain (exterior) routing protocol is usually
chosen to handle routing between ASs ; BGP

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 19

 Metric of different protocols
 Metric is the cost assigned for passing through a
network.
 The total metric of a particular router is equal to the sum
of the metrics of networks that comprise the route.
 A router chooses the route with smallest metric.

 The metric assigned to each network depends on the type

of protocol

 RIP (Routing Information Protocol): “Shortest distance”

 Cost of passing each network is same; it is one hop count.

 If a packet passes through 10 networks to reach the

destination, the total cost is 10 hop counts.

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking 20

 Metric of different protocols

 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First):

 Administrator can assign cost for passing a network
based on type of service required such as :
throughput, delay,..etc.

 OSPF allows each router to have more than one routing

table based on required type of service

BGP (Border Gateway Protocol):

 Criterion is the policy, which is set by the administrator.

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking 21

 Routing Algorithm classification
Routing algorithms can be:
1. distance vector algorithms:
 router knows physically-connected neighbors, link
costs to neighbors, iterative process of computation,
exchange of partial information with neighbors.
 The least cost between any two nodes is the route with
minimum distance
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an
implementation of this approach
2. link state algorithms:
 all routers have complete topology, link cost
information
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an implementation
of this approach.
Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 22
 Distance Vector Routing

Each node( router) maintains a set of triples (table):

Destination, Cost and Next Hop
 Node knows the cost to each neighbor (the distance between
itself and its immediate neighbors)
 Directly connected neighbors exchange updates
 periodically (on the order of several seconds -30s)
 whenever table changes (called triggered update)
 Each update is a list of pairs: Destination, Cost
Update local table if receive a “better” rout (smaller cost)

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 Distance vector routing
Initialization of tables in distance vector routing:
infinite ∞ ( unreachable).
Think the node as the cities and the lines as the roads connecting
them

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 24

 Distance vector routing

Sharing: Updating in distance vector routing

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 Distance vector routing
 The least cost route between any two nodes is the route with min distance.
 Each node maintains a table which contains : Destination, Cost, Next hop

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 26

 Distance vector routing
1. Each router shares its entire routing table with its
neighbours.
2. Sharing:
 periodically update :on the order of several seconds -30s-
 Triggered update: The change can result from the
following:
 A node receives a table from a neighbor, resulting in changes in its
own table after updating.
 A node detects some failure in the neighboring links which results in a
distance change to infinity ∞

3. Each update is a list of pairs: Destination, Cost

(two column routing table)

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 27

 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
RIP is based on Distance vector routing:
RIP implement Distance vector routing with some considerations:
 Destination in the routing table is a network (first column defines
network address)
 Metric(distance) is Hop count : is the number of networks
that a packet encounters to reach its final destination
 Infinity is defined as value of 16 .
 Therefore, the Max limited of hops is 15
 suitable for small networks (local area environments)
 Router sends update message to neighbors every 30 sec.
 If router does not receive update message from neighbor X within this
limit, it assumes the link to X has failed and sets the corresponding
minimum cost to 16 (infinity).

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 28

 Note

In distance vector routing, each node

shares its routing table with its
immediate neighbors periodically and when
there is a change.

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 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Routing table
 Has one entry for each destination network of which the router is aware.
 Each entry has destination network address, the shortest distance to
reach the destination in hop count, and next router to which the packet
should be delivered to reach its final destination.

Hop Next
Destination Other information
Count Router

163.5.0.0 7 172.6.23.4

197.5.13.0 5 176.3.6.17

189.45.0.0 4 200.5.1.6

115.0.0.0 6 131.4.7.19

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 30

 Example Internetwork

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 Initial routing tables in a small autonomous system

 When a router is added to a network, it initializes a

routing table for itself, using its configuration file.
 The table consists only the directly attached networks
and the hop counts, which are initialized to 1.
 The next-hop field, which identifies the next router, is
empty.
Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 32
 Updating Routing Table for Router A

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 Final routing tables

 Each routing table is updated upon receipt of RIP

messages using the RIP updating algorithm.
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 RIP Updating Algorithm
Receive: a response RIP message(significant portion of its
routing table)
11. Add one hop to the hop count for each advertised
destination.
2 Repeat the following steps for each advertised destination:
2.
1. If (destination not in the routing table)
1. Add the advertised information to the table.
2. Else
1. If (next-hop field is the same)
1. Replace entry in the table with the advertised one.
2. Else
1.. If (advertised hop count smaller than one in the table)
1. Replace entry in the routing table.
3 Return.
3.
Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 35
 Example of updating a routing table

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 36

 Example of a domain using RIP

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 37

 Open Shortest Path First :OSPF
 OSPF Based on Link state Routing
 OSPF divides an autonomous system into areas.

Special routers called autonomous system boundary routers

are responsible for dissipating information about other
autonomous systems into the current system
Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 38
 Areas in an Autonomous System
 Area is a collection of networks, hosts, and routers all
contained within an autonomous system.
 Routers inside an area flood the area with routing
information.
 Area border routers: Summarize the information about the
area and send it to other routers.
 Backbone area [Primary area]: All the areas inside an
autonomous system must be connected to the backbone.
Routers in this area are called as backbone routers. This
area identification number is 0.
 If, due to some problem, the connectivity between a
backbone and an area is broken, a virtual link between
routers must be created by the administration to allow
continuity of the functions of the backbone as the primary
area.

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 39

 OSPF
 Each router should have the exact topology of the
internet at every moment.
 From this topology, a router can calculate the shortest
path between itself and each network using Dijkstra
algorithm

Types of Links

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 40

 Types of Links

1. Point-to-point
 Connects two routers without any other router or
host in between.
 Directly connected routers using serial line.
 Only one neighbour.
 No need to assign a network address to this type of
link
 The metrics are the same at the two ends

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 41

 Types of Links

2. Transient link
 A network with several routers attached to it.
 Each router has many neighbours.

3. Stub
A network that is connected to only one router. The
data packets enter the network through this single
router and leave the network through this same router.

4. Virtual
When the link between two routers is broken, the administration
may create a virtual link between them, using a longer path that
probably goes through several routers.
Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 42
 Example of an internet & Graphical representation

 Point to point : between A_D and B-E

 Stub: N5, N4 and N2
 Transient : N1 and N3

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 43

 Link State Routing
 Each node in the domain has the entire topology of the
domain.
 Analogous to a city map.
 Each node uses the same topology to create a routing
table.

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 Building Routing table

1. Creation link state packet (LSP)

2. LSP is a tabular representation of the topology
of the internet
3. Every router in the same area has the same LSP
4. Flooding LSP to every other router
5. Formation of shortest path tree for each node
(router) using Dijkstra algorithm
6. Calculation of routing table.

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 Building Routing table
1. Link state knowledge

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 Building Routing table

2. Flooding

X A X A

C B D C B D

(a) (b)

X A X A

C B D C B D

(c) (d)

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 Building Routing table

3. Sharing when there is a change; Only to its

neighbours.

4. The node can use Dijkstra Algorithm to

build a routing table using metric

Metric:
Administrator can assign the cost to each route. Based
on type of service (minimum delay, maximum
throughput, and so on).

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 48

 Dijkstra algorithm
 Calculates the shortest path between two points on a network, using
a graph made up of nodes and edges.
 Algorithm divides the nodes into two sets: tentative and permanent.
It chooses nodes, makes them tentative, examines them, and if they
pass the criteria, makes them permanent.
Dijkstra Algorithm
1. Start with the local node (router): the root of the tree.
2 Assign a cost of 0 to this node and make it the first permanent node.
2.
3. Examine each neighbor node of the node that was the last permanent
node.
4 Assign a cumulative cost to each node and make it tentative.
4.
5 Among the list of tentative nodes
5.
1. Find the node with the smallest cumulative cost and make it
permanent.
2. If a node can be reached from more than one direction. Select the
direction with the shortest cumulative cost.
6 Repeat steps 3 to 5 until every node becomes permanent.
6.

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 49

 Examples of formation of shortest path tree
usingDijkstra algorithm
Example 1:

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 50

 Examples of formation of shortest path tree
usingDijkstra algorithm
Example 1:
Routing table for node A

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 51

 Shortest-path calculation using Dijkstra

Example 2:

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 52

Example 2: Shortest-path calculation using Dijkstra

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 53

Example 2: Shortest-path calculation using Dijkstra

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 54

Example 2: Shortest-path calculation using Dijkstra

Routing Table for Router A

92 permanent
66 permanent

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 55

 Shortest-path calculation using Dijkstra

Example 3:

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 56

 Shortest-path calculation

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 57

 Shortest-path calculation

Next
Network Cost
Router

N1 5 ----

N2 7 C

N3 10 D

N4 11 B

N5 15 D

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 58

 OSPF
Reaction to Failure
If a link fails,
 Router sets link distance to infinity & floods the network
with an update packet
 All routers immediately update their link database &
recalculate their shortest paths
 Recovery very quick
NOTE:
 OSPF differs from RIP in that each router knows the exact
topology of the network
 OSPF reduces routing bandwidth usage
 OSPF is faster than RIP.

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 59

 Path Vector Routing
 Path vector routing proved to be useful for
interdomain routing.
 we assume that there is one node in each
autonomous system that acts on behalf of the entire
autonomous system. This nod is called a speaker
node.
 Only speaker nodes in each AS can communicate
with each other.
 A speaker node advertises the path, not the metric of
the nodes.

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 60

 Path Vector Routing
 Path vector includes tow phases:
 Initialization:
 Each speaker node can know only the reachability
of nodes inside its autonomous system.
 Sharing:
 A speaker in an autonomous system shares its table
with immediate neighbors.
 Updating
 When a speaker node receives a two-column table
from a neighbor, it updates its own table by:
 adding the nodes that are not in its routing table.

 adding its own autonomous system and the

autonomous system that sent the table.
Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 61
 Initial routing tables in path vector routing

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 62

 Stabilized tables for three autonomous systems

Note : path from AS4 to AS1 Can be :

AS4-AS3-AS2-AS1 OR AS4-AS3-AS1.

 Here we chose the one that had the smallest number of AS

 other criteria such as security, safety, and reliability can be applied

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 63

 Optimum path
 Path to destination that is the best for the organization that
runs the autonomous system.
 Each AS that is included in the path may use a different
criterion for the metric
 One may use internally RIP(hop count as the metric )
another may use OSPF( with min delay as the metric)
The optimum path is the path fits the organization
Each AS have more than path to destination.
Smallest number of AS, security, safety, and reliability can be
applied to chose the path

Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 64

 Multicasting and Broadcasting

 In multicast communication, there is one source and a group of

destinations.
 The relationship is one-to-many.
 In this type of communication, the source address is a unicast address,
but the destination address is a group address, which defines one or
more destinations.
Dr. Gihan Naguib Behrouz A. Forouzan “Data communication and Networking” 65
  In unicasting, the router forwards the received
packet through only one of its interfaces
 In multicasting, the router may forward the
received packet through several of its interfaces.

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 Broadcasting
 In broadcast communication, the relationship
between the source and the destination is one-to-all.

 There is only one source, but all the other hosts are
the destinations.

 The Internet doesn’t explicitly support broadcating

because of the huge amount of traffic it would create

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 Reading from the text book

Chapter 22 from 4th edition:

 Section 22.1

 Section 22.2 until page 652 (example 22.3 only)

 Section 22.3 until page 676 except Two-Node Loop

Instability and Three-Node Loop Instability)
 Section 22.4 until page680 (Broadcasting)

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