FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING

CONDITION OF LEARNING ( Robert Gagne’s)

This report is based upon on the book of Robert Gagne’s entitled The Condition of
Learning. Robert Gagné was an American educational psychologist who’s ideas of
conditions of learning and Instructional design implications were first introduced in
19651). Gagné assumed that there are different types of learning outcomes, each of
which is best achieved through its specific Instructional design, but also that there is
a set of steps required in every learning environment. (sometimes also known as the
Gagné Assumption.

Introduction
This theory stimulates that there are different several levels of learning. The
significance of this classifications is that, each different type requires different types
of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information,
intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal
and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for
cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing
new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a
credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a
hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation,
procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule
application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to
identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level.
Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task.
Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
The Five Categories of Learning Outcomes

One of the themes of Gagné’s theory is distinguishing the types of outcomes that
learning has: the categories of learned capabilities – observed as human
performances – that have common characteristics. Gagné describes five categories
of human performance established by learning:

Intellectual skills - (“knowing how” or having procedural knowledge) Intellectual

skills involve the use of symbols such as numbers and language to interact with the
environment. They involve knowing how to do something rather than knowing that
about something. Intellectual skills require an ability to carry out actions. Often they
require the interactions with the environment through symbols such as letters,
numbers, words, or diagrams. When a learner has learned an intellectual skill, he or
she will be able to demonstrate its application to at least one particular instance of
the subject matter learned.

Verbal information - (being able to state ideas, “knowing that”, or having

declarative knowledge)

This refers to the organized bodies of knowledge that we acquire. They may be
classified as names, facts, principles, and generalizations. Verbal information is
referred to as declarative knowledge, or knowing that.

The performance or learning outcome achieved through verbal information is the

ability of being able to state in a meaningful sentence what was learned. Some
examples of acquired verbal information are the ability to define Piaget’s stages of
cognitive development; or, stating the rules for scoring in a tennis match.

Cognitive strategies - (having certain techniques of thinking, ways of analyzing

problems, and having approaches to solving problems)

Cognitive strategies refer to the process that learners guide their learning,
remembering, and thinking. Where intellectual skills are oriented toward aspects of
the environment by dealing with numbers, words, and symbols that are external,
cognitive strategies govern our processes of dealing with the environment by
influencing internal processes. A learner uses cognitive strategies in thinking about
what was learned and in solving problems. They are the ways a learner manages the
processes of learning, remembering, and thinking. The performance or learning
outcome achieved through cognitive strategies is having the ability to create
something new such as creating an efficient system for cataloging computer discs.

Motor skills - (executing movements in a number of organized motor acts such as

playing sports or driving a car)

Motor skills are the precise, smooth, and accurately timed execution of movements
involving the use of muscles. They are a distinct type of learning outcome and
necessary to the understanding of the range of possible human performances.
Learning situations that involve motor skills are learning to write, playing a musical
instrument, playing sports, and driving a car. The timing and smoothness of
executing motor skills indicates that these performances have a high degree of
internal organization.

Attitudes - (mental states that influence the choices of personal actions)

Another distinct category of learning outcomes is attitudes, the internal state that
influences the choices of personal actions made by an individual towards some class
of things, persons, or events. Choices of action (behaviors) made by individuals are
influenced significantly by attitudes. For example, an attitude towards the disposal of
trash will influence how a person disposes of pop cans, food containers, organics,
etc. An attitude towards music will influence the choice of music an individual will
listen to.

The five categories of learning outcomes provide the foundation for describing how
the conditions of learning apply to each category.

Gagné (1985) postulates that if the five categories of learning outcomes and the
ways of analyzing learning requirements are combined in a rational and systematic
manner, then it will be possible to describe a set of ideas that make up a theory of
instruction (p. 243). He adds that a theory of instruction should attempt to relate the
external events of instruction to the outcomes of learning by showing how these
events lead to appropriate support or enhancement of internal learning processes (p.
244).
To relate the external events of instruction to the outcomes of learning by showing
how these events lead to the enhancement of internal learning processes (p. 244).
Gagné emphasizes that the purpose of an instructional theory is to propose a
rationally based relationship between instructional events, their effects on learning
processes, and the learning outcomes that occur as a result (p. 244).

The following is a list and a brief summary of each of Gagné’s nine events of
instruction summarized from Gagné

1. Gaining attention (reception)

2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

1. Gaining Attention
The first event of instruction is to gain the attention of students so they are
alert for the reception of stimuli. An instructor can achieve this by introducing
a rapid stimulus change either by gesturing or by suddenly changing the tone
or volume of their voice. Another way of stimulating alertness is by visual or
auditory stimuli related to the subject matter. The stimulus chosen for gaining
attention will work equally well for all categories of learning outcomes.

2. Informing Learners of the Objective

The second event of instruction is to inform the learner of the purpose and
expected outcomes of the learning material. This will provide them with an
expectancy that will persist during the time learning is taking place. Feedback
at the end of the lesson will provide the learner with confirmation of learning.
 An important part of this event of instruction is to provide learners with
motivation if learner motivation is not apparent. An instructor can achieve
learner motivation by relating an interesting career field to the learning
material.

Instructional techniques that will inform the learner of objectives for all five
categories of learning outcomes are described below.

Intellectual Skills: Instructors can demonstrate the activity to which the

concept, rule, or procedure applies.

Cognitive Strategy: Instructor describes or demonstrates the strategy

Verbal Information: Instructor describes what the learner will be expected to

state.

Attitude: The learner encounters attitude later in the process. (This occurs
through instructor demonstration or modeling during instructional event five,
providing learning guidance.

Motor Skills: Instructor demonstrates the expected performance.

Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning

3. Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning

The third event of instruction asks the instructor to recall skills or knowledge
learners have previously learned. The best kind of recall should naturally
relate to the subject matter being learned. The instructional technique for
stimulating recall will be different for the different learning outcomes as
described below.

Intellectual Skills: Instructor recalls prerequisite rules and concepts

Cognitive Strategy: Instructor recalls simple prerequisite rules and concepts

Verbal Information: Instructor recalls well organized bodies of knowledge
 Attitude: Instructor recalls a situation and action involved in personal choice.
He or she reminds learner of the human model and model’s characteristics.

Motor Skills: Instructor recalls the “executive subroutine” (the procedure that
constitutes the active framework within which the motor skill is executed,
practiced, and refined), and part-skills (the different parts of the procedure), if
appropriate.

4. Presenting the Stimulus

The fourth event of instruction is presenting a stimulus that is related to the

subject matter. The content of the stimulus should be specific to the learning
outcome. For example, if the stimulus is verbal information, printed prose
such as a chapter in a textbook or an audio tape will achieve the learning
objective. If the stimulus is an intellectual skill, the instructor can display the
object and/or symbols that require a concept or rule; or, he or she can present
the problem learners need to solve.

The instructor must present the stimulus as an initial phase of learning, so

clear indication of stimulus features such as underlining, bold print,
highlighting, pointing, or using a change in tone of voice to emphasize major
themes is helpful.

The instructional techniques for presenting the stimulus to different learning

outcomes are as follows:

Intellectual Skills: Instructor delineates features or the objects and symbols

that require defining as a concept or a rule

Cognitive Strategies: Instructor describes the problem and shows what the
strategy accomplishes
 Verbal Information: Instructor displays text or audio statements, showing or
highlighting the distinctive features

Motor Skills: instructor displays the situation at the initiation of the skilled
performance, and then demonstrates the procedure

Attitude: Instructor presents a human model that describes the general nature
of the choice that learners will be required to make.

5. Providing Learning Guidance

The fifth event of instruction, providing learning guidance requires the

instructor to make the stimulus as meaningful as possible. There are several
ways to achieve this, depending upon the learning outcome expected. An
instructor can enhance meaningfulness by using concrete examples of
abstract terms and concepts, and elaborating ideas by relating them to others
already in memory.

The instructional techniques for providing learning guidance to different

learning outcomes are as follows:

Intellectual Skills: Instructor provides varied concrete examples of the

concept or rule

Cognitive Strategies: Instructor provides a verbal description of the strategy,

followed by an example

Verbal Information: Instructor elaborates content by relating to larger bodies

of knowledge; uses images and/or mnemonics

Attitude: Instructor uses the human model and describes or demonstrates an

action choice, followed by observation of reinforcement of model’s behaviour
 Motor Skill: Continue practicing procedure, focusing on precision and
accurately timed execution of movements

6. Eliciting Performance

The sixth instructional event eliciting performance asks a learner to

demonstrate the newly learned capability. This may be verbal information,
intellectual skills, cognitive strategy, attitude, or motor skill. The learner of
verbal information will have the ability to “tell it.” The learner of a new concept
or rule (intellectual skills) will have the ability to demonstrate its applicability to
a new situation not previously encountered during learning. The learner of a
cognitive strategy of problem solving will solve an unfamiliar problem whose
solution may use the strategy. The learner of a motor skill demonstrates the
learned performance. The learner demonstrates the new attitude in the
choices the learner makes.

7. Providing Feedback

The seventh instructional event, providing feedback, asks the instructor to

reinforce the newly acquired learning. An instructor can accomplish this
through informative feedback where the instructor informs the learner of the
degree of correctness or incorrectness of the performance. This feedback
may be verbal or written.

8. Assessing Performance

The eighth instructional event, assessing performance, consists of

assessments to verify that learning has occurred. In order to assure that
learning is stable, an instructor will require additional instances of the
performance.
 The instructor assesses performance through testing the learner. The purpose
of testing is to establish that the learned capacity is stable, and to provide
additional practice to assist in consolidating the learned material.

9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer

The ninth instructional event, enhancing retention and transfer, refers to

retaining the learned capability over a long period of time and transferring it
into new situations outside of the learning environment. Practice ensures
retention, especially with verbal information, intellectual skills, and motor
skills.

These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and
serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne,
Briggs & Wager, 1992).

While Gagne’s theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the
theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of
instruction in all domains (Gagner & Driscoll, 1988). In its original formulation
(Gagne, 1 962), special attention was given to military training settings. Gagne
(1987) addresses the role of instructional technology in learning.

Gagne (1985, chapter 12) provides examples of events for each category of
learning

 Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

 Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the
conditions of learning.
 The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different
for each different type of learning outcome.
  Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and
a sequence of instruction.

References :

 Bloom, Benjamin S.; Engelhart, Max D.; Furst, Edward J.; Hill, Walker H.;
& Krathwohl, David R. (Eds.). (1956). Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives – The Classification of Educational Goals – Handbook 1:
Cognitive Domain. London, WI: Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd.
 Gagné, Robert M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning and Theory of
Instruction (4th Edition). New York: CBS College Publishing.
 Gagné, Robert M., & Driscoll, Marcy Perkins (1988). Essentials of
Learning for Instruction (2nd Edition). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
 Wager, Walter Ed D. (n.d.). Legacy of Robert M. Gagné. Retrieved from
Florida State University Department of Education on August 7, 2009 at:
http://www.mailer.fsu.edu/~wwager/gagne.doc
 Gagne, R. (1962). Military training and principles of learning. American
Psychologist, 17, 263-276.
 Gagne, R. (1985). The Conditions of Learning (4th Ed.). New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
 Gagne, R. (1987). Instructional Technology Foundations. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
 Gagne, R. & Driscoll, M. (1988). Essentials of Learning for Instruction (2 nd
Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
 Gagne, R., Briggs, L. & Wager, W. (1992). Principles of Instructional
Design (4th Ed.). Fort Worth, TX: HBJ College Publishers