Reinforced Concrete Design by Professor Anthony Kwame Danso

Design of Reinforced Concrete Elements
CHAPTER ONE
REINFORCED CONCRETE
1.1 Introduction
One of the greatest engineering achievements over the years is the discovery of reinforced concrete as a
construction material. Reinforced concrete is a composite material consisting of concrete and steel.
Table 1.1 presents a summary of the strength properties of the two materials.
Table 1.1: Comparison of the strength of concrete and steel

Concrete Steel
Strength in tension Poor Good
Strength in compression Good Good but slender bars will buckle
Strength in shear Fair Good
Durability Good Corrode if unprotected
Fire resistance Good Poor − suffers rapid loss of
strength at high temperatures
Table 1.1 reveals that the strengths of the two materials are complimentary. While concrete is strong in
compression but weak in tension, steel is strong in both tension and compression. The tensile strength of
concrete is in fact about 10 per cent of its compressive strength. In view of this, the two materials are
combined to form a composite material so as to take advantage of their strengths. Moreover, the
coefficient of thermal expansion of steel and concrete are so close (i.e. 10 x per for steel and 7-12
x per for concrete) that there exist sufficient bond between the two materials despite differential
expansion over normal temperature ranges.
1.2 Concrete
As we learnt in BT 351: Concrete Technology, concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregates (coarse and
fine aggregates) and water. The water reacts with the cement which hardens and binds the aggregates into
the concrete matrix. Concrete can be specified in two ways: (a) By volume or mix (e.g. 1:2:3−1 part of
cement: 2 part of fine aggregate: 3parts of coarse aggregate) (b) by stating the compressive strength.
Engineers usually specify the strength of the concrete rather than the mix. The onus lies on the site
engineer to come out with an appropriate mix ratio that will give the specified strength.
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The compressive strength of concrete is determined by casting concrete cubes of 150mm or 100mm. The
cubes are allowed to harden and after 28 days they are crushed to determine what we call the cube
strength (denoted by ). Another approach is to form cylindrical shape (150mm diameter by 300mm
high). This gives us the cylinder strength (denoted by ). The cylinder strength is normally used by the
Americans whereas in most parts of Europe, they describe concrete using the cube strength. In Ghana, the
cube strength is normally used. Research has shown that given the same mix, the cylinder strength is
about 78% of the cube strength. A concrete with the specification means it has cube strength of
30N/ and cylinder strength of 24N/ . The higher value is always the cube strength. For more
information refer to BS1881:1983: Methods of Testing Concrete.
1.3. Steel
Steel reinforcement bars are produced in two grades: hot rolled mild steel bars with a yield strength of
250 N/ ; hot rolled or cold worked high yield steel bars having yield strength of 460 N/ . There
is also steel fabric made from cold drawn steel wires welded to form a mesh; it has yield strength of 460
N/ .Mild steel bars are produced as smooth round bar whereas High yield bars are produced as
deformed bars to increase bond stress. Reinforcing bars are produced in the following diameters: 6, 8, 10,
12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 50, and 60mm.
In structural detailing, the symbols R and Y are used to denote mild steel and high yield reinforcement
bars respectively.
1.4. Advantages of Reinforced concrete as a structural member
1. It has considerable compressive strength as compared to most other materials

2. It has great resistance to fire and water. In fact it is the best material available for situations where
water is present.
3. As compared with other materials, it has a very long service life. This is because the strength of
concrete increases with time due to the solidification of the cement paste.
4. It has the ability to be cast into variety of shapes from simply slabs, beams, and columns to great
arches and shells.
5. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for erection as compared to other materials such as
structural steel.
1.5. Disadvantages of Reinforced concrete as a structural member
1. Concrete has a very low tensile strength and hence require the use of tensile reinforcing.
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2. Forms and sometimes shoring are required to hold the concrete in place until it hardens sufficiently.
Formwork is very expensive.
3. Concrete has low strength per unit weight leading to heavy members. This becomes an increasingly
important matter for long – span structures where concrete’s large dead weight has a great effect on
bending moment.
4. The properties of concrete vary widely due to variations in its proportioning and mixing.
Furthermore, the placing and curing of concrete in not a carefully controlled as in the production of
other materials such as structural steel.
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CHAPTER TWO
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
2.1. Introduction
In this chapter we will discuss the various principles underlining the design of reinforced concrete. This
will include the Limit state design concept, the Elastic and Ultimate strength method of design, Factor of
safety, Type of loads in buildings among others.
2.2. Objectives of design

The objectives of structural design include the following
 Safety of the structure under worst loading condition
 The deformation of the structure in service should not impair the appearance , durability and
performance of the structure and
 The structure should be economical
2.3. The Limit State design Philosophy

As discussed above, one of the aims of structural design is to ensure that the structure can sustain safely
the loads and deformations which will occur during construction and in use, and should have adequate
durability during the life of the structure. Assuming you buy for yourself a brand new white shirt, one of
your aims will be to ensure that the shirt last long and does not at any point in time become unfit for use.
In view of this, you will list down the incidences whose occurrence will make the shirt unhealthy to use.
Some of these incidences may include burning of a portion of the shirt, tear of the shirt, soiling of the
shirt with oil etc. These occurrences are referred to as Limit state. If any of these things happen to the
shirt, the shirt is said to have reach a limit state (i.e. it has reach a state where it has become unfit to use).
Now it can be observed that some of these limit states are such that, as soon as they occur, their damage is
irreparable. Thus, you have to throw the shirt away (e.g. if a portion of the shirt burns). These types of
limit states are referred to as Ultimate limit state. For the other group of damages you may still be able to
use the shirt (e.g. soiling of the shirt with oil), however, you wouldn’t feel fine wearing it because of its
appearance. These damages are referred to as Serviceability limit state. The philosophy governing the
design of reinforced concrete structures is not different from the scenario presented above. The limit state
philosophy is aimed at producing a structure which will be able to fulfill the functions or conditions for
which it was designed during its lifetime. The concept employs factors of safety to provide allowance for
the degree of uncertainty in the analysis, material imperfection, extra loading and the quality of the
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construction. There are two categories of limit states: (a) the Ultimate limit state (ULS) and (b) the
Serviceability limit state.
2.3.2 Ultimate limit state
An ultimate limit state is reached when the structure (or part of it) collapses. Collapse may arise from the
rapture, yielding or buckling of some critical sections, loss of stability as a rigid body (overturning), etc.
That is to say the building should have adequate strength, should be stable and robust. To ensure adequate
strength, the loads are combined in such a way that the structure can carry the worst loading condition.
Moreover, safety factors are applied to the loads and material strengths to allow for the uncertainties in
the estimation of loads and in the performance of materials. For stability and robustness the code specifies
that shear walls, ties (peripheral ties, internal ties and horizontal ties) etc should be introduced in the
building.
2.3.3 Serviceability limit state

The serviceability limit states do not cause the building to collapse but rather make it unfit to use. This
includes excessive deflection, large cracks, vibration of the structure etc. Since structural collapse often
have serious consequences, in design the probability of reaching the ultimate limit state is made very low,
(say 0.000001)
2.4. The Elastic or Modular Ratio method of design
There are two (2) methods use in reinforced concrete design: (a) the Elastic method also known as the
Modular ratio method and (b) the Ultimate or Load factor method of design and analysis. The elastic
method was the first to be used before the ultimate strength method was introduced.
The Elastic method is concerned with setting a limit on the amount of stresses which should be allowed to
occur in a structure. The building is then designed to ensure that those permissible stresses are not
reached. Usually the yield strength of the material is divided by a factor of safety to arrive at the
permissible stresses. For example, if the yield strength of a material is say 256N/mm2, an appropriate
factor of safety is selected (say 1.6) and the yield strength is then divided by this factor
(i.e. 250/1.6 = 160N/mm2). This 160N/mm2 becomes the maximum amount of stress which will be
allowed to occur in the structure. As stated earlier on the factor of safety is intended to provide allowance
for the imperfection of the material among reasons.
Another important principle upon which the elastic method operates is the assumption that the
Stress – Strain curve of both steel and concrete is linear. That is, the materials act within the Elastic range
(Fig 2.1). Remember, our studies in BT153: Introduction to Strength of Materials revealed that within the
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elastic range, a material will regain its shape once the applied load is removed. At this stage the stress
and strain in the material are proportional and the stress – strain curve is linear as shown in Fig 2.1.
Ultimate strength (stress)

C
Stress (σ)
B
Elastic limit
Linear curve Fig 2.1
A Strain (ε)
Elastic Range
Plastic Range
Moreover, the modulus of elasticity (E) for the material is constant. In view of this it can be said that there
will be a fixed ratio between the E value for concrete and steel. This ratio is referred to as the Modular
ratio and it is used to determine the magnitude of the stress in concrete and steel.
2.4.2 Section analysis using the Elastic method
Before we derive the formulas, let us define some important terms:
1) Singly reinforced section: This is a section with only design reinforcement at the tension zone
only. This reinforcement is referred to as tension reinforcement
2) Doubly reinforced section: This is a beam or section with reinforcements design to take up tension
at the tension zone as well as compression at the compression zone. The reinforcement design to
take the compressive stresses is referred to as compression reinforcement.
3) Balanced section: This is the section were the stresses in the steel and concrete reach their
permissible values simultaneously. In practice this section is difficult to achieve.
4) Over– reinforced section: This is a section that contains more reinforcement than is required to
give a balance section. In this case the concrete reaches its permissible stress first before the stress
in the reinforcement develops to its full value. The moment of resistance of this section is based on
the force in the concrete. Failure of this occurs through the crushing of the concrete
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5) Under– reinforced section: This is a section that contains too little reinforcement to permit the
balanced section to be developed. In this case the steel yield first before the stress in the concrete
develops to its full value. The moment of resistance of this section is based on the force in the steel.
Now let us look at the analysis of the section. The analysis is based on the following assumptions:
i. Plane sections remains plane after bending

ii. No tensile stress will develop in the concrete (i.e. concrete cannot take up tensile stresses)
iii. The steel and concrete are both acting within the elastic range such that stress is proportional to
strain.
iv. The tensile stress which is uniform at the section is taken up by the steel alone
v. There is perfect bond (adhesion) between the concrete and steel.
Consider the rectangular concrete beam in Fig 2.2 & 2.3 with breadth b, and depth D reinforced at the
bottom.
LOAD
Concrete taking up compressive stresses
Neutral axis
Steel taking up tensile stresses
Fig 2.2
Area in compression = b dn
b εc fc
dn Fc
d
D la = d –
Fs
εs fs
(a) Cross section (b) Strain diagram (c) Stress diagram
Fig 2.3: Singly reinforced rectangular beam under flexure
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D = the overall depth of the beam
d = the depth to the centroid of the steel reinforcement referred to as the effective depth
= the depth to the neutral axis and = the lever arm
Calculation of the depth to the neutral axis ( )
From Fig 2.3b, because of the assumption that the steel and concrete are each acting within the elastic
range, the strain have a triangular distribution varying from zero at the neutral axis to a maximum of
(for the concrete) and for the steel.
From similar triangles, = » = ……………….. (1)
But strain in concrete, = =
Similarly strain in steel, = =
Substituting the values into equation 1, we have
As explained earlier on, ES/Ec = the modular ratio = e. For ordinary reinforced concrete, e usually
taken to be 15. Therefore
e. =
From above the depth to the neutral axis, = ……………..………… (2)
Moment of resistance of the section
(a) Using the force in concrete (FC)
Total compression force in concrete = area in compression x average compressive stress in concrete
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FC = (b )x( x )= b
Moment of resistance of the section using the concrete force
MC = Force in concrete (FC) x lever arm (la) = { b } x {d – } …………… (3)
(b) Using the force in steel (FS)
Total tension force in steel = area of steel in tension x tensile stress in steel
FS =
Moment of resistance of the section using the force in steel
MS = Force in steel (FS) x lever arm (la) = la = x {d – } ………….. (4)
Example 1: A reinforced concrete rectangular beam has a breadth of 225mm and depth of 400mm and
reinforced with 4No 20mm diameter mild steel bars. If the beam has cover of 25mm, determine (a) the
depth to the neutral axis and (b) the moment of resistance of the section. The permissible stress in the
steel and concrete are 125N/mm2 and 10N/mm2. Take the modular ratio as 15.
b = 225mm
(a) Depth to the neutral axis ( )
From eqn 2, =
D = 400mm d
But effective depth, d = 400 – (cover + bar diameter)
4R20 (Ast = 1257mm2)

d = 400 – (25 + (20) = 365mm
= = = 199.09mm
(b) Moment of resistance
(i) Using concrete force, ={ fC b } x {d – }
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={ x10 x 225 x 199.09} x {365 – } = 66.89kNm
(ii) Using steel force, = Ast x {d – } = 1257 x 125 x {365 – }= 46.92kNm
From the values obtained above, the moment of resistance of the section is 46.92kNm (the smaller of the
two values). In view of this, the beam should be designed in such a way that the maximum moment due to
the load does not exceed 49.kNm.
2.4.3 Limitations of the Elastic method
One of the main criticisms of the elastic method is the assumption of the elastic behavior of the materials.
In the case of steel, if the maximum stress is limited to a value below the yield stress, the assumption
above is accurate. However, for concrete under compression, a linear stress – strain curve can be assumed
provided the stress does not exceed about half of the ultimate compressive strength. Even with this, the
effect of creep does not allow the concrete to truly exhibit the elastic or linear behaviour. In view of this,
CP 114 applies a factor of one – third to the ultimate cube stress to obtain the permissible stress for
concrete under flexure so that the behaviour of concrete gets close to the assumed linear elastic state.
Moreover, the permissible stress in the steel is usually related to the yield stress by a factor of 1.8. The
strain in the reinforcement at this stress is several times that which might be considered as being the
ultimate tensile strain of the concrete surrounding the reinforcement, so that development of the full
permissible stress in the reinforcement implies cracking of the concrete in the tension zone. In order to
control this (i.e. width of the crack), the permissible tensile stress in the steel reinforcement is limited to a
maximum value of 230N/mm2 irrespective of the yield strength of the steel.
Furthermore, the factor of safety used in design is expected to provide a constant ratio between the
working loads and the loads that would cause the collapse of the structure. It has been found that, this is
not true in practice, meaning the design will either have too high a factor of safety, resulting in an
uneconomical structure or one that is too low, resulting in a potentially dangerous structure.
Despite the above, the Code of Practice, CP 114: 1957 is guided by this principle and some designs, e.g.
water retaining structures are still carried out using this method. Today this method is considered as an
alternative method.
2.5. The Ultimate or Load factor method of design and analysis
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In the ultimate or load factor method, the section is analyzed up to the point of failure. The method takes
into account non – linearity in the behaviour of the steel and concrete. This presents the true state of
affairs of the materials’ behaviour than that of the elastic method. With this method, the actual strength of
a section is related to the load causing the failure, with the latter being determined by applying a factor to
the design load. Moreover, the ultimate strength (Fig 2.1) of the materials is used in the calculation.
The deficiency with this method is that, since the technique is concerned with the behaviour of the section
at ultimate load, it is unable to make any assessment of the behaviour of the structure under working load.
For this reason, it cannot be used for the serviceability states of deflection and cracking.
2.6. The Ultimate Strength method (BS 8110)
The ultimate strength method from the British Standard 8110 (BS 8110) is based on the limit state design
philosophy discussed in section 2.3. This method is meant to overcome many of the weakness or
disadvantages of the methods discussed previously. With this method the working loads are multiplied by
partial factor of safety to obtain the ultimate design load. The ultimate strength of the materials is also
divided by partial factor of safety. After this, each structural element (e.g. beams, columns, slabs etc) are
designed for the ultimate limit state (ULS) and checked for the serviceability limit state (SLS).
2.6.2. Section analysis using the Ultimate Strength method (BS 8110)
The analysis is based on the following assumptions (Section 3.4.4.1 of BS 8110 –1: 1997)
i. Plane sections remain plane after bending

ii. The tensile strength of concrete is ignored
iii. The strains in the concrete and the reinforcing steel are directly proportional to the distances from
the neutral axis at which the strain is zero.
iv. The stresses in the reinforcement and the steel are derived from the stress/strain curves in Fig
2.1of this document and Fig. 3.3 of BS 8110 –1 respectively.
b εc k1fcu
k2x
x Fc
d
εs fs
(a) Cross section (b) Strain diagram (c) Parabolic stress block
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Fig 2.4: Strain and stress distribution at failure (From first principles)
Fig 2.5 shows the strain and stress distribution within the plastic range (see Fig 2.1). At this stage the
distribution of stress in the concrete is no more linear as used in the Elastic method of analysis but rather a
parabolic curve. At failure, the value of the maximum stress in the concrete is taken to as k1fcu and the
force in the concrete (Fc) is assumed to act at a distance of k2x from the top of the section (Fig 2.4c). K1 is
the ratio of the average compressive stress in the concrete to the characteristic strength of the concrete
(fcu) and k2 is the ratio of the depth of the centroid of the stress block to the neutral axis depth(x). Due to
the shape of the stress block, it is difficult to develop design equations for the section and hence many
suggestions have been made for an equivalent stress distribution. Among these equivalent stress
distribution is the rectangular stress block from BS 8110 (Fig 2.5).
BS 8110 uses a simplified rectangular stress block of intensity 0.67 extending from the compression
face to a depth of 0.9x. The partial safety factor γm is taken as 1.5 for concrete and 1.05 for steel. The
strain in the concrete is 0.0035.
0.67
b εc = 0.0035
0.9x 0.45x
x Fc
d
Z = (d – 0.45x)
Fs
εs
(a) Cross section (b) Strain diagram (c) Simplified rectangular stress block
Fig 2.5: Stress block at the ultimate limit state (BS 8110)
2.6.2.1 Moment of resistance of section (singly reinforced section)
BS8110 ensures that the reinforcement yields before the concrete crushes. In view of this, the maximum
moment that the section can carry is governed by the force in the concrete. Now
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Total compression force in concrete = (0.9x b) (0.67 ) ………….. But = 1.5
FC = (0.9x b) (0.67 ) = 0.402x b
Moment of resistance of the section using the concrete force
MC = Force in concrete (FC) x lever arm (Z) = 0.402x b (d – 0.45x) ……………. (5)
The code further specifies that the neutral axis depth x, should not exceed 0.5d. This means that from eqn
(5), the ultimate moment of resistance of the single reinforced section in terms of the concrete stress is
given by
Mu = 0.402 (0.5d) b Z = 0.20 bd Z
= 0.20 bd {d – 0.45(0.5d)} = 0.156 b ……… (6)
From equation 6, the effective depth of section required to take any moment (M) is given by
= ……..…………………….. (7) Where k = 0.156
Area of tension steel ( )
Tensile force in concrete, FS = ……………… but γm = 1.05
FS = = 0.95
Moment of resistance of the section using the force in steel,
Ms = Force in steel (Fs) x lever arm (Z) = 0.95 Z ……………. (8)
For the section to be in equilibrium under an external moment M, the internal moment of resistant of the
section (Ms) should be equal to the externally applied moment (M).
That is, =M » 0.95 Z=M = ……………. (9)
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The lever arm (Z)
Depending on the value of the applied moment, the lever arm Z, should calculated using the formula
Z = d {0.5 + } ………………… (10) But Z should not be taken more than 0.95d
K= ………………………………. (11)
2.6.2.2 Moment of resistance of doubly reinforced section
If the applied bending moment M, from the load exceeds the ultimate moment capacity M u, the excess
moment (M – ) is to be resisted by using an area of compression reinforcement (Fig 2.6) such
that the neutral axis depth remains at the maximum permitted value of 0.5d
0.67
b
=
0.9x Fc = (0.9x b) (0.67 )
d
(d – )
=
(a) Cross section

(b) Forces
Fig 2.6: Doubly reinforced section
Area of compression reinforcement ( )
The excess external moment = (M – )
Moment of resistance of the compression reinforcement = Force in compression steel ( ) x lever arm
= x (d – ) = 0.95 (d – )
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Equating the above additional resistant moment to the excess moment, we have
0.95 (d – ) = (M – )
But from eqn (6) = bd2 where = 0.156. Similarly, let us write M = K bd2
» 0.95 (d – ) = (K b – b )
0.95 (d – ) = (K – ) b
Area of compression reinforcement, = ............................. (12)
Area of tension reinforcement ( )

For the section to be in equilibrium the total tensile force should be equal to the total compressive force
That is = +
= + (0.9x b) (0.67 ) ……………. = 1.05 and x = 0.5d
0.95 = 0.95 + 0.2 bd
From equation (6) it can be observed that 0.2 bd = /Z.
This implies that 0.95 = 0.95 + /Z
Area of tension reinforcement, = + OR ( = b )
= + ……….…………….. (13)
Where, = 0.156.
NB: All the formulas (equations 6–13) can also be found at section 3.4.4.4 of BS8110 – 1:1997
2.7. Characteristic loads
These are the basic loads that may be applied to a particular member or structure. They are
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a) Characteristic dead load, This is the weight of the structure complete with finishes, permanent
fixtures and partition. The word ―characteristic‖ means that the value of the load has an acceptable
probability of not being exceeded during the life of the structure. For instance if the for a certain
slab is 15kN/m2. It means that if the building will last for say 100yeras, we are 95% sure that the
value of the dead load will not exceed 15kN/m2.
b) Characteristic imposed load, This is the load of the occupant or users of the building and other
non permanent fixture on the building. Taking our classroom for instance, the imposed load
comprises of the weight of the students, the tables and chairs, lighting fittings and fixtures, air
conditioners etc.
c) Characteristic wind load, This is the wind load acting on the structure.
Below is a schedule of weight of some materials
Table 2.1: Weight of building materials
(based on BS 648 :1964)
Material description Weight
Asphalt— Roofing 2 layers (19mm thick) 0.412 kN/m²
Damp – proofing (19mm thick) 0.412 kN/m²
Bitumen and roofing felts – Mineral surfaced 0.034 kN/m²
bitumen per layer
Blockwork – Solid per 25mm thick, stone 0.539 kN/m²
aggregate
Aerated per 25mm thick 0.147 kN/m²
Brickwork– Clay, solid per 25mm thick 0.539 kN/m²
Concrete, solid per 25mm thick 0.578 kN/m²
Concrete–Natural aggregate 24 kN/m³
Lightweight aggregate 17.248 kN/m³
Reinforced concrete 24 kN/m³
Rendering (Cement : sand (1:3) 13mm thick) 0.294 kN/m²
Screeding (Cement : sand (1:3) 13mm thick) 0.294 kN/m²
Plastics sheeting (corrugated) 0.044 kN/m²
Terrazzo (25mm thick) 0.529 kN/m²
Plywood (per mm thick) 0.007 kN/m²
Timber – Softwood 5.782kN/m³
Hardwood 12.25 kN/m³
Water 9.82kN/m³
Steel (corrugated roofing sheet per mm thick) 0.098 kN/m²
2.7.1 Load combination
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The loads discussed above can be combined in various ways for design purpose to obtain the ultimate
design load. This can be found on Table 2.1 of BS 8110 – 1:1997 reproduced in this manual as Table 2.2
Table 2.2– Load combinations and values of for the ultimate limit state (Table 2.1: BS 8110 – 1:1997)
Load combination Dead load Imposed load Earth and Wind
Adverse Beneficial Adverse Beneficial water Load
pressure
1. Dead and imposed (and 1.4 1.0 1.6 0 1.4 —
earth and water pressure)
2. Dead and wind (and 1.4 1.0 — — 1.4 1.4
earth and water pressure)
3.Dead and imposed and 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
wind (and earth and water
pressure)
CHAPTER THREE
SLABS
3.1 Introduction
A slab is a horizontal plate element forming floors and roofs in a frame structure which normally
carry uniformly distributed loads. Slabs may be simply supported or continuous over one or more
supports. They are designed like other structural elements to carry their self weight and other loads
imposed on them. Slabs can be classified into three types:
(a) Flat slabs: These are slabs carried on columns and edge beams or walls with no interior beams.
BS8110: Part 1, clause 1.2.2.1; also define it as a slab with or without drops, supported
generally without beams by columns with or without column heads. The slab may be solid or
have recesses formed on the soffit to give a waffle slab. Example can be found at the old
Main library of KNUST (the part of the library close to the Royal Parade ground).
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Fig 3.1: (a) Slab without drop panel; (b) slab with drop panel and flared column head.
(b) Waffle or Ribbed slabs: These slabs have recesses formed on the soffit. This creates ribs which run
either in one or two directions. The first floor slab (near Focus FM) of the Great Hall of KNUST is a
typical example.
Fig 3.2 Waffle slab
(c) Solid slab: Solid slabs have uniform thickness and are carried on beams (edge and interior)
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Fig3.3 Solid slab
The analysis of any of the slabs discussed above may be carried out using any of the following methods.
1. Elastic analysis. This covers three techniques:
i. Idealization into strips of beams of 1m width spanning one way or a grid with the strips spanning
two ways
ii. Elastic plate analysis
iii. Finite element analysis − the best method for irregularly shaped slabs or slabs with non-uniform
loads
2. Method of design coefficients. With this, use is made of moment and shear coefficients given in the
Code of Practice (e.g. Table 3.14 of BS 8110 – 1) and
3. The yield line and Hillerborg strip methods
In this manual, we focus on the design of solid slabs.
3.2. Solid slabs

The slabs are supported by beams on the sides. The beams divide the floor into panels. Two or more
panels in a row forms a bay (Fig. 3.4). For design purpose, solid slabs can be classified based on (a) the
mode of load transfer and (b) the location of the panels.
Fig 3.4
3.2.1 Classification of slabs (panel) based on the mode of load transfer

Based on how the panels transfer their load to the supporting beams, or in other words how the slabs are
supported, we can classify solid slabs into: One –way and Two− way slabs. The primary factor in
determining this is the ratio of the long span ( ) and short span ( ) of the panel.
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i. One – way slabs: When the ratio of the long span and short span (i.e. / ) is more than 2, the
panel is classified as One –way slab. The implication is that, the slab is designed to span between the
short span (Fig 3.6 b). Thus the main reinforcement bars are placed in the short span. The slab
enclosed by gridlines A – B and 1− 3 in Fig 3.4 above is an example of one –way slab.
= 2m
Distribution bars
(Top bar)
= 8m
Main reinforcement
(Bottom bar)
Fig 3.5
The ratio, = = 4 > 2. The slab is designed as strips of rectangular beams of 1m width and spanning
between the beams on gridline A and B (Fig 3.6b). The moment resulting from this analysis is used to
determine the spacing of the main bars. Minimum reinforcement is provided for the long span as
distribution
bars.
Fig 3.6: Transfer of load from slab to beam.
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ii. Two – way slabs: This is where the ratio of the long span and short span (i.e. / ) is less than or
equal to 2. In this case, the strips are designed to span in both direction (Fig 3.6a). Reinforcement has
to be designed to take up the moments from both spans. Taking the slab enclosed by gridlines C – D
and 1− 2 (Fig 3.4) the ratio, = = 1.25 < 2; this makes it a Two – way slab. Reinforcements have to
be designed to span between gridlines C – D as well as 1− 2.
3.2.2 Classification of slabs (panel) based on the location

Based on the location, Table 3.14 of BS 8110 – 1 has the following classifications
1. Interior panel: This is a panel which is continuous (i.e. surrounded by slabs) on all the four sides.
See panel A of Fig 3.7
2. One short edge discontinuous: For this panel one of the short edges is not bordered by any slab.
That edge is said to be discontinuous. For example Panel B (Fig 3.7) has one of the short edges (i.e.
the 3m side) is not borded by any slab)
3. One long edge discontinuous: e.g. Panel C
4. Two adjacent edges discontinuous. This is usually found at the corner of a floor (see panel D)
5. Two short edges discontinuous: For this type of panel, all the two short edges are discontinuous
(panel E). Note, we use the dimensions to determine which edge is short or long
6. Two long edges discontinuous: e.g. Panel F
7. Three edges discontinuous (one long edge continuous): That is only one of the long edges is
bordered by slab. The other three edges are discontinuous (see panel G). The void created by the
stair makes the edge discontinuous.
8. Three edges discontinuous (one long edge continuous): e.g. panel H. The void created by the stair
makes the edge discontinuous.
21
9. Four edges discontinuous: e.g. panel K. In our domestic homes, the slab of most of the polytank
Stand has all the four edges discontinuous.
Fig 3.7
3.2.3 Design procedure

1. Decide on the layout of the beams
As we are all aware, the role of architects is to design buildings by determining the arrangement and
layout of the building to meet the client’s requirements. Based on these drawing, the structural engineer
then designs the various structural elements (i.e. the slabs, beams, columns, stairs, foundation etc) to bring
the architect’s concept into being. The first thing he (structural engineer) has to do at the preliminary
stage is to decide on where to place the various columns and beams. This is the most critical decision to
take since it has a huge bearing on the overall design process. The positions of the beams divide the floor
into panels. The panels should not be too large to avoid excessive deflection.
22
2. Determine the initial dimension

At this stage the structural engineer decides on the thickness (depth) of the slab. His choice is influence
by two main factors: (a) the need to control excessive deflection and (b) bending. Since at this stage the
magnitude of bending is not known, he has to use deflection as the criteria to select the depth of the slab,
calculate the maximum bending moment and check (step 5) the adequacy of the section (depth) to the
maximum moment. BS 8110−1 Table 3.9 (reproduce as Table 3.1) provides a guideline on the ratio of the
span of a slab and its effective depth (d).
Table 3.1
Support Conditions Ratio
Cantilever 7
Simply supported 20 d D
Continuous 26
Fig 3.8
Effective depth, d ≥ …………………… (1)
Overall depth, D = d + (bar size) + cover to reinforcement ………………. (2)
3. Load Estimation
All the dead loads ( ) and imposed loads ( ) the slab is likely to be subjected to during its life span are
calculated. As discussed in section 2.7, dead load comprises of the self weight of the slab complete with
finishes, permanent fixtures and partitions. The imposed load on the other hand is the weight of the
occupants of the building and all live (non permanent) load on the slab. A factor of safety of 1.4 and 1.6
are applied to the dead and imposed loads respectively to serve as allowance for the degree of uncertainty
in the analysis, material imperfection, extra loading and the quality of construction.
4. Moment and shear analysis

The moment and shear force at the critical sections are calculated using any methods of structural analysis
we learnt in BT 353: Elementary theory of structures (i.e. Method of Moment distribution, Slope –
deflection equation, Three Moments theorem etc). As an alternative the following tables and formulas in
BS 8110 – 1: 1997 can also be used.
Table 3.5……………… Moment and shear for Beams
23
Table 3.12……………. Moment and shear for one – way spanning slabs
Table 3.14 and 3.15 …… Moment and shear co –efficient for two – way spanning slabs
5. Adequacy of section
As this stage check if the trial depth of the slab selected at step 2 above can take the maximum moment.
The effective depth of slab required to take up the maximum moment is given by
= ………………………. (3) Where K = 0.156 and b = 1m
If the depth required ( ) is more than the initial effective depth, the design has to be revised by using
the as the new depth.
6. Calculate the area of steel required to take the moment using the following formulas
K= ………………………. (4)
and = 0.156.
If K ≤ , there is no need to put reinforcement at the compression side of the section
Area of tension reinforcement, = ……………. (5)
Z = d {0.5 + } ………………… (6)
But Z should not be taken more than 0.95d
If K ≥ , compression reinforcement is required at the compression side of the section
Area of compression reinforcement, = ............................. (7)
Area of tension reinforcement, = + ……….…………….. (8)
The formulas can also be found at section 3.4.4.4 of BS8110 – 1:1997
24
7. Detailing
The output of the design calculations are presented in a detailed drawing giving the general
arrangement and overall layout of the structure. The drawing must show the sizes, arrangement,
spacing, and cut-off points for the reinforcing bars at the various sections of the elements. The
Bending schedule should also be prepared.
8. Checks
Check the section against Deflection, shear, cracking among others.
Table 3.2a: Cross sectional area of bars per metre ( /m)

Bar spacing (mm)
Bar
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
size
6 565 377 283 226 188 162 141 126 113 103 94
8 1005 670 503 402 335 287 251 223 201 183 168
10 1571 1047 785 628 524 449 393 349 314 286 262
12 2262 1508 1131 905 754 646 565 503 452 411 377
16 4021 2681 2011 1608 1340 1149 1005 894 804 731 670
20 6283 4189 3142 2513 2094 1795 1571 1396 1257 1142 1047
25 9817 6545 4909 3927 3272 2805 2454 2182 1963 1785 1636
32 − 10723 8042 6434 5362 4596 4021 3574 3217 2925 2681
40 − − 12566 10053 8378 7181 6283 5585 5027 4570 4189
50 − − 19635 15708 13090 11220 9817 8727 7854 7140 6545
In some cases, two bars are combined and treated as a single bar. In such a case Table 3.2b is used in
selecting the area of steel.
Table 3.2b: Cross sectional area of bars in pair per metre ( /m)
Bar spacing (mm)
Bar
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
size
6 1131 754 565 452 377 323 283 251 226 206 188
8 2011 1340 1005 804 670 574 503 447 402 366 335
10 3142 2094 1571 1257 1047 898 785 698 628 571 524
12 4524 3016 2262 1810 1508 1293 1131 1005 905 823 754
16 5362 4021 3217 2681 2298 2011 1787 1608 1462 1340
20 8378 6283 5027 4189 3590 3142 2793 2513 2285 2094
25 9817 7854 6545 5610 4909 4363 3927 3570 3272
32 12868 10723 9191 8042 7149 6434 5849 5362
40 16755 14362 12566 11170 10053 9139 8378
25
3.2.4 Design of Two – way slabs
For moment and shear force analysis, a two – way slab (panel) is divided into four (4) strips (Fig 3.9 of
BS 8110 –1: 1997)
4 1, 3 4
Fig 3.9: Division of slab into middle and edge strips
Strip 1 and 3 are middle strips. These two strips are subjected to positive bending and reinforced at the
bottom. Strips 2 and 4 are edge strips and would be subjected to negative bending. They are reinforced at
the top. The reinforcements at the various strips are usually given the following names:
Strip 1: Short span midspan reinforcement; Strip 2: Short span continuous edge reinforcement;
Strip 3: Long span midspan reinforcement; Strip 4: Long span continuous edge reinforcement;
Let us look at the illustration below.
Bar mark 4 is placed over the support (i.e. where the beam is) and it should extend at least 0.75m from the
centre of the beam into the slab on both ends. In view of this, the total length of the bar should be a
minimum of 1.5m (i.e. 0.75 + 0.75 = 1.5m). Similarly, bar mark 2 should extend 0.5m both ways giving a
total length of 1.0m. The moments at the various strips are calculated using the formulas below:
Short span moment, = n ……………… (1)
Long span moment, = n ……………… (2)
Where and are the short span and load span moment coefficients obtained from table 3.14 of BS
8110. n= the total design ultimate load per unit area (1.4 + 1.6 )
26
= 6m
2 0.5m
4 3 1 4 3m
= 4m
2 0.5m
0.75m 4.5m 0.75m
Plan
Negative bending at support
4 4
3
1 1
1
Beam
Section Positive bending at midspan

Fig 3.10
Bar mark 4 is placed over the support (i.e. where the beam is) and it should extend at least 0.75m from the
centre of the beam into the slab on both ends. In view of this, the total length of the bar should be a
minimum of 1.5m (i.e. 0.75 + 0.75 = 1.5m). Similarly, bar mark 2 should extend 0.5m both ways giving a
total length of 1.0m. The moments at the various strips are calculated using the formulas below:
Short span moment, = n ……………… (1)
Long span moment, = n ……………… (2)
Where and are the short span and load span moment coefficients obtained from table 3.14 of BS
8110. n= the total design ultimate load per unit area (1.4 + 1.6 ).
The Shear is given by the following formulas:
27
= n ……………… (1)
= n ……………… (2)
Where and are the short span and load span shear coefficients obtained from table 3.15 of
BS 8110.
Example: Fig 3.11 shows the first floor plan of a proposed 3storey office building. Using the ultimate
strength method (BS 8110), design and detail the slabs enclosed by gridlines A− B and 1− 3. The beams
lie on the main gridlines. Use steel grade 250 and concrete grade 30.
Fig 3.11 First floor plan
Solution
Step 1: Layout of panels
The layout of the panels enclosed by gridlines A− B and 1− 3 is shown below.
28
5200
X Y
4400 4800
Fig 3. 12a
The panels have been labeled X and Y. Each of them is a two− way slab. From Table 3.14 of
BS 8110 − 1, Panel X = Two adjacent edges discontinuous (i.e. the side on gridlines A and 1 are not
bordered by slab) Panel Y = One short edge discontinuous (i.e. the short side on gridline A is not
bordered by slab)
We shall use the following data to design the panels:
 Cover to reinforcement = 25mm
 Diameter of bars = 12mm
 Concrete grade, = 30N/
 Steel grade = 250N/
Comment: The choice of cover depends on factors such as, (a) the degree of exposure of the
reinforcement to moisture (b) the expected duration of fire resistance (c) the location of the element,
whether below or above ground level etc.
Step 2: Initial dimension
In order to control deflection,
Effective depth, d ≥
The panels are continuous and hence from table 2.1 (or Table 2.9 of the Code) the ratio is 26. The span of
a slab refers to its short dimension. In view of this, the span of panel X and Y are 4.4m and 4.8m
respectively. Moreover, despite the fact that their spans are not the same, they must have uniform
thickness. To do this, we use the panel with the longest span (i.e. panel Y) to determine the depth.
29
Effective depth, d ≥ = = 184.62
d D
Overall depth, D ≥ d + (bar size) + Cover
D ≥ 184.62 + (12) + 25 = 216mm 25mm Cover
Fig 3.13b
That is from above the overall depth of the slab should be 216mm. In slabs, the reinforcement offers more
additional resistance to deflection it is therefore always advisable to reduce the thickness obtained above.
Therefore select the overall depth, D = 150mm.
Step 3: Load Estimation
Dead load
i. Self weight of slab= Depth x Conc. Density = (0.15m x 24kN/ ) = 3.6kN/

ii. Finishes: Porcelain floor tiles including 25mm screed as backing = 0.80kN/
iii. Allowance for light partition (assumed) = 1.5kN/
iv. Fittings and Fixtures (assumed) = 0.44kN/
Characteristic dead load, = 6.34kN/
Imposed load: Use Characteristic imposed load, = 3.5kN/
Ultimate design load, n = 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4(6.34) + 1.6(3.5) = 14.48kN/
Comment: If there is any other load you deem necessary, it can be added. Moreover, the load is always
estimated per unit area (i.e. kN/ ) for two – way slabs and kN/m for one – way slabs and beams.
Step 4: Moment and shear analysis
Moment: The moments at the various strips are calculated using the formulas below:
Short span moment, = n
30
Long span moment, = n
Where and are the short span and long span moment coefficients obtained from Table 3.14 of
BS 8110. n = the total design ultimate load per unit area (1.4 + 1.6 ) = 14.48kN/
Table 3.3: Bending Moment
Panel Span Moment at Continuous Moment at Midspan

Edge (− ve) (+ve)
Two adjacent Short span 0.063 x 14.48 x 0.047 x 14.48 x
edges = 17.66kNm = 13.18kNm
discontinuous (X)
Long span 0.045 x 14.48 x 0.034 x 14.48 x
= = 1.2 = 12.61kNm = 9.53kNm
One short edge Short span 0.044 x 14.48 x 0.033 x 14.48 x

discontinuous (Y) = 14.68kNm = 11.01kNm
= = 1.1 Long span 0.037 x 14.48 x 0.028 x 14.48 x

= 12.34kNm = 9.34kNm
How to pick the coefficients: The moment coefficients are in bold. For each panel calculate the ratio
.This is used to select the coefficients for the short span. Starting with panel Y, the ratio gives us 1.1.
Go to Table 3.14 of BS 8110 – 1 and read under the ratio 1.1. You will find two values: 0.044 and 0.033.
Short span coefficients Long span

coefficients
1.1
One short edge
Discontinuous (Y)
Negative moment 0.044 0.037
Positive moment 0.033 0.028
Fig 3.14
The top value (i.e. 0.044) is the short span coefficient for the continuous edge which is negative. The
other value, 0.033 is the midspan (positive) coefficient. When you trace each of the rows to the right, you
31
would find their corresponding long span coefficients (0.037 and 0.028) at the last column of the table.
Now multiply each coefficient by the ultimate design load, n =14.48kN/ and the square of the short
span. Follow the same procedure and calculate the moments for panel X
Shear: The shear coefficients can be obtained from Table 3.15 of BS8110 and used to determine the
shear force as follows:
Short span, = n Long span, = n
Table 3.4: Shear force

Panel Span Shear at Continuous Shear at Discontinuous
Edge Edge
Two adjacent Short span 0.45 x 14.48 x 4.4 0.31 x 14.48 x 4.4
edges = 28.67kN = 19.75kN
discontinuous (X)
Long span 0.40 x 14.48 x 4.4 0.26 x 14.48 x 4.4
= = 1.2 = 25.48kN = 16.57kN
One short edge Short span 0.39 x 14.48 x 4.8 0 x 14.48 x 4.8
discontinuous (Y) = 27.11kN =0
= = 1.1 Long span 0.36 x 14.48 x 4.8 0.24 x 14.48 x 4.8

= 25.02kN = 16.68kN
Step 5: Adequacy of the section to take the maximum moment.
The depth of slab required to take the maximum moment (17.66kNm) from Table 3.3 is given by
= ……………….. Where K = 0.156 = 0.156 x 30 = 4.68N/ and b = 1m. Remember
as mentioned earlier on, slabs are designed as strips of rectangular beams of 1m (1000mm) width.
= = = 61.43mm
Overall depth required,
= + (bar size) + Cover = 61.43 + (12) + 25 = 92.43mm Fig 3.15
We require just 92.43mm depth of slab to take the maximum moment; however at the initial stage, we
selected 150mm which is more than the required. This implies that our initial overall depth of 160mm is
ok or satisfactory in terms of deflection and moment.
32
Step 6: Area of steel
D = 150mm
Fig 3.16
=depth to the centroid of the short span reinforcement (i.e. the main bars)
=depth to the centroid of the long span reinforcement (i.e. the distribution bars)
= D – (Cover + bar size) = 150 – {25 + (12)} = 119mm
= – (Bar size) = 119 – (12) = 107mm
Let us take each panel and moment, one after the other:
Panel X: Short Span: Moment for the continuous edge, M = − 17.66kNm (Table 2.2). The negative
moment means that the concrete at the top of the section is under tension and hence the reinforcement
should be placed at this position.
K= = = 0.042
Since K < (0.042< 0.156), there is no need to put reinforcement at the compression side of the section
Lever arm, Z = d {0.5 + } = d {0.5 + } = 0.95d
Always remember not to take Z more than 0.95d. Z = 0.95d = 0.95 x 119 = 113.05mm
Area of tension reinforcement required, = = = 657.74 /m.
For steel grade 250 (i.e. mild steel) in slab, the minimum area of steel that has to be provided is given by
33
= 0.24% b D = x (1000 x 150) = 375 /m. (See Table 3.25 of the Code for more details)
Now, from the steel chart (Table 2.2a), read under bar size 12 and select an area of steel which is slightly
more than the area of steel required (i.e. 657.74 /m). That area is 754 /m. The bar spacing which
corresponds with this area is 150mm. See the illustration below.
Cross sectional area of bars per metre ( /m)
Bar spacing (mm)

Bar size 150
12 754
Fig 3.17
At the continuous edge R12 bars @ 150mm spacing ( = 754 /m) at the top of the section.
The meaning of this statement is that, if you pick 1m of the slab at the continuous edge, the total cross
sectional area of all the bars should be at least 754 . To achieve this, the bars should be spaced at
150mm giving a total of about 7 bars
150 mm
175 175
1m
Fig 2.18
For the other sections take the lever arm to be 0.95d.
Every short span reinforcement use Z = 0.95 = 0.95 (119) = 113.05mm
√ Long span reinforcement Z = 0.95 = 0.95 (107) = 101.65mm
The area of steel required and provided for the other sections are shown in Table 3.5.
34
Table 3.5: Area of Steel
Panel Span Continuous Edge Midspan

(Top reinforcement) (Bottom reinforcement)
Two adjacent Short 657.74 /m R12 bars @ 490.89 /m R12 bars @

edges 150mm 200mm
discontinuous (754 /m) (565 /m)
(X)
Long 522.33 /m R12 bars @ 394.75 /m R12 bars @
150mm 200mm
(754 /m) (565 /m
One short Short 546.75 /m R12 bars @ 410.07 /m R12 bars @
edge 150mm 200mm
discontinuous (754 /m) (565 /m
(Y)
Long 511.15 /m R12 bars @ 386.88 /m R12 bars @
150mm 200mm
(754 /m) (565 /m
NB: All the area of steel provided, should be more than the minimum requirement
(i.e. 375 /m). The area to select is a matter of choice. However as much as possible try to maintain
uniformity in the spacing of the bars to speed up construction. From above all the top bars are spaced at
150mm whereas the bottom bars are at 200mm centres.
The arrangement of the reinforcements in the slab is shown in Fig 2.16.
Step 7: Checks
(a) Shear: In slabs check for shear is not very necessary.
(b) Cracking: Clear distance
In order to control cracking,

d =119 mm
Clear distance between bars < 3 d
200 200 Fig 3.19
35
From Fig 3.19, Clear distance = 200 – 2 ( x bar size) = 200 – 2 ( x 12) = 188mm
Since 188 < 3 d= 3x 119 = 357mm, there will be no cracking.
Always use the maximum spacing to calculate the clear distance.
36
Fig 3.20: Detailing of panels.
(c) Deflection
Check deflection for only the short span. Moreover, since the short span of panel Y has the higher value
(i.e. 4.8m) we shall perform the check on that span.
Actual deflection = = = 40.34
Allowable deflection = Ratio x modification factor = 26 x modification factor
The tension reinforcement at the short span (midspan) offers additional resistance to deflection. In view of
this we always modify the basic span to depth ratio (i.e. 26) with a factor to arrive at the allowable
deflection.
Service stress in steel = / = (250 x 410.07)/ 565 = 182
Modification factor = 0.55 + ( )≤2
= 0.55 + ( ) = 2.05. Use modification factor of 2.
Allowable deflection = 26 x 2 = 52
Since the actual deflection (40.34) is less than the allowable deflection (52), deflection is satisfactory.
3.3. Detailing
The important stage of the structural engineer’s design process is the detailing. This is where the outputs
of the design calculations are presented in a detail drawing giving the general arrangement and overall
layout of the reinforcement in the slab. It is important to note that any mistake at this stage renders the
whole design process useless. The contractor uses to this drawing to construct the building; slightest
mistake will result in the collapse of the building.
37
In this section, we will look at some principles regarding detailing, how to prepare Bending Schedule
among other things. We will use Fig 2.16 to explain the concepts.
The following are some key points to take note when detailing:
1. The letter R and Y are used to denote mild steel and high yield reinforcement bars respectively.
2. The description should indicate the bar type, bars size, the spacing and the number of bars. It should
also state whether it is a top or bottom bar. If a bar has the description: 30 R1202@150 . It
means the total number of such a bar is 30. The R12 stand for mild steel bar of 12mm diameter. Each
bar is given a number. For this bar, the 02 after the R12 is the bar number. Sometimes the bar number
is written in a circle as used in Fig 2.16. Moreover, it is spaced at 150mm centres. means it is the
first bottom (B) bar. T is used for top bar and TD means top down bar. In other words, when counting
from the top, it is the second bar.
3. Arrows are used to demarcate the position of each bar on the slab and the number of bars in each
range is written. For instance bar mark 3 has the description 22 + 24−R12@ 200 . This means
that at a spacing of 200mm, there be 22 number of bars arranged between gridlines 1and 2. Similarly,
24 bars will be arranged between gridlines 2 and 3. This gives a total of 46 bars.
4. Normally, at the discontinuous edge of a slab, the bars are bent to serve as top and bottom bar.
Example is bar mark 1 and 3
5. The standard length of reinforcement bars in the market is 9m. In view of this no single bar should
have a total length in excess of 9m. The detailing should try as much as possible to reduce cutting
waste during construction.
Bending schedule
It is always required of the designer to prepare a bending schedule for the bars. It schedule identifies the
various bar sizes, their shape and length, the total number etc. This facilitates the cutting on site. A typical
bending schedule has the format of Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Slab Bending Schedule
Bar mark Diameter Quantity Length Shape

650
R1201 12 26 6450 100
5700
550
R1203 12 46 5550 100
4900
R1205 12 68 1200 Straight 38

CHAPTER FOUR
STAIRCASE
4.1 Introduction
A staircase is a set of steps or flights (including the surrounding structure) leading from one floor to
another. It is the most common means of access between the floors of a storey building. It is constructed
with materials such as timber, concrete (reinforced), steel etc. In this chapter, we will look at the design of
reinforced concrete stair.
4.2 Definition of terms
a. Step: Consecutive tread and rise forms a step.

b. Rise: The rise of a step is the vertical distance between the tops of two conservative treads
c. Going or Tread: The going of a step is the horizontal distance between the faces of two consecutive
risers. One of the ways of proportioning the step is :
Going + 2 x Rise = 580 to 700mm

For instance if going is 300mm and rise is 150mm then 300 + 2(150) = 600mm or given 250mm
going and 175mm rise we will get 250 + 2(175) = 600mm. The 300mm going and 150mm rise is
commonly used for public stairs. Moreover, it is important to note that treads and risers should
have their dimensions constant throughout each flight or the entire stair.
d. Flight: A set of steps constitute a flight
e. Landing: For comfortable usage, the number of steps for a flight is limited to 16. In view of this a
level area (slab) is introduced between the flights of the stair. It can also be found at the top of a
staircase.
f. Line of nosing or Pitch line: This is an imaginary line connecting the nosing of all the treads of a
flight.
g. Balustrade: This is the protecting structure at the sides of the flight. It comprises of vertical
members called balusters and horizontal or slanted members referred to as handrail (top) or rail
(middle). An optimum handrail height above the line of nosing of the stair is 840mm.
39
Fig 4.1
4.3 Types of Stairs
There are various types of stair. Their choice in a structure is influenced by factors such as (a)
1. Straight Flight Stair: This is a stair with a single flight spanning between the two floors to be
assessed without intermediate landing.
2. Half – turn (180) Stair: The stair has two flights between the two floors with an intermediate
landing known as half landing. The stair is also known as dogleg stair. The stair to the office of the
College of Architecture and planning is an example
3. Quarter – turn (open well) Stair: The stair has three (3) flights between the two floors with two
intervening landing. An opening is created between the first and third flights hence the name open
well stair. An example is the stair leading to our Building Technology department office.
4. Free Standing or Scissor Stair: This is similar to half– turn but the landing is suspended. The
landing of this stair gets its support from the two flights. A typical example is the staircase leading to
Focus FM at the Great Hall of KNUST where the Moslems normally pray.
5. Helical stair: It has a single flight which turns as it rises into a helix shape from floor to floor. This
type of stair occur less space than straight flight.
6. Cantilever Stair: In this type of stair, there is a central reinforced concrete spine wall where each of
the steps cantilevers out of it. The various landings are designed as cantilever about a beam that in
40
turn cantilevers out of the central spine wall. Examples include the external stair of the Studio Block
(i.e. the location of the Exhibition Hall and BT classroom) and The New Block (i.e. the Architecture
Block) of College of Architecture and Planning (CAP). Others include the eternal stair of the
Examination Hall (near the Shuttle ranch) of KNUST.
Another form of a cantilever stair is that cantilevering from a central spine beam. The spine beam is
stepped and the steps (usually precast) are bolted to the horizontal surface (treads) of the spine beam.
Examples can be found at the following halls of KNUST: Independence Hall, University Hall
(Katanga), Republic Hall and Queens Hall. The stairs lead to the Administrative offices of each hall.
7. Spiral Stair: This stair is the most economical in terms of space utilization and cost. It consists of
several cantilever steps jotting out like leaves from a central circular column. Each of the steps is
designed as a cantilever and usually the steps taper at the end (i.e. it becomes wider at the free end).
The steps are precast with a central hole of the same diameter (with some clearance) as the central
column. The steps are arranged to form a spiral around the central column. The final landing is
designed to span the central column and the adjoining walls. Example of this stair can be found at the
Studio Block of CAP, KNUST.
41
Fig 4.2
4.4. Methods of Design

Stairs are designed either longitudinally or transversely.
4.4.1 Longitudinal design
Longitudinal design, the stairs are designed like slabs with the waist of the flight as the depth (D). The
stairs designed in this way includes Straight flight stair, Half–turn and Quarter turn stairs, helical stair and
Free Standing stair.
The flight of the stair may span between two beams, two landings (or floors) or a beam and landing. The
effective span (L) is given by (section 3.10.1.3 BS 8110 – 1: 1997)
42
L= + + ……………………………….. (1)
Where, = the clear horizontal distance between the supporting members
= the breadth (width) of the supporting member at one end or 1.8m, whichever is lesser,
= the breadth (width) of the supporting member at other end or 1.8m, whichever is lesser.
≤ 1.8m ≤ 1.8m
Landing or Floor
Moment, M =
Landing or Floor
(a)Flight supported by two landings (floors)
Landing or floor
Moment, M =
Ground Floor (GF)
GF Beam ≤ 1.8m
(b)Flight supported by beam and landing (floor)
Floor Beam
Moment, M =
Ground Floor (GF)
GF Beam L 43
(c)Flight supported by two beams
When the flight spans between two beams (Fig 4.3c) or a beam and landing (Fig 4.3b), the moment is
calculated as M = 0.125 and when it spans between two landings designed orthogonal ( ) to the
direction of the flights (Fig. 4.3a), M = 0.1 , where w is the load of the flight and L, the effective span.
In the load estimation, any incline load (e.g. waist of flight and its finishes) should be multiply by the
slope factor, F = , where R is the rise and T the going. This is aimed at converting the inclined
loads to their actual values.
4.4.1.1 Design procedure
i. Design the first flight. This involves the following

(a) Load estimation (always assume a thickness for the waist of the flight)
(b) Determine the effective span (L) and calculate the moment
(c) Area of steel
(d) Check for deflection
ii. Design the second flight following steps (b) to (c)
iii. Design the landing following steps (a) to (d)
iv. Detailing
4.4.2 Transverse design
In traverse design, each step is designed separately. Stairs in this category include spiral stair, cantilever
stair and steps spanning between beams or walls. The step is designed as a rectangular beam with width, b
equal to the going of the step and depth, D equal to the waist. Where the steps are disjointed as in
cantilever steps, the rise may be taken as the depth, D
Example 1: Half –turn stair where the landing is continuous with the stair flight
With reference to Fig 4.4 design and detail the stair enclosed by gridlines E – F and 2 – 3. Use concrete
grade C30 and steel grade 250. The room height is 3m.
Solution
44
Step 1: Design of 1St flight
Because the flight and the landing span in the same direction, the design of the flight is deem to include
the landing.
E F
10 Equal treads @ 300mm
= 3000mm
2 2
2000 1200
100
2300
1100
3 3
9 Equal treads @ 300mm = 2700mm
6425
E F
Notes: Rise = 150mm. The spans

150 waist of the flights are indicated with
double arrows. ( )
Fig 4.4
(a) Load Estimation
Slope factor = ,= = 1.12
Dead load
i. Step: (0.15m x 24kN/ ) = 1.8kN/ …… … (0.15m is the rise)
ii. Finishes to step (assumed) = 0.5kN/
45
iii. 150mm waist : (0.15m x 24kN/ ) x 1.12 = 4.04kN/ (on plan)

iv. Finishes to waist (assumed) = 0.5kN/ x 1.12 = 0.56kN/ (on plan)
Imposed load:
Use Characteristic imposed load, = 1.50kN/
Ultimate design load, w = 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4(6.9) + 1.6(1.5) = 12.06kN/
(b) Bending moment analysis
Effective span, L = 2700 + (landing width) = 2700 + (1200) = 3300mm
W = 12.06 kN/
Fig 4.5 (a): The load of the flight is taken to
be the same as the landing and distributed
3.3m
across the whole span.
Midspan of
landing
Ground beam
W =12.06kN/
Fig 4.5 (b): The load of the flight and landing
( ) are treated separately. The 2.7m is the
2.7m 0.6m
span of the flight only and the 0.6m is half of
Midspan of the landing width.
landing
Ground beam
.
Fig 4.5a & b present two ways of distributing the load on the span. If one wish to carry out the design as
accurate as possible Fig 4.5b should be used. However, for the sake of time and since the maximum
moment in the two cases does not vary significantly, one can always use Fig 4.5a.
From Fig 4.5a, maximum moment, M = ……………because, it is supported by a beam and landing
M= = 16.42kNm per meter width
46
(c) Area of steel
Assuming 12mm diameter bars and 25mm cover, effective depth d = 150 – (0.5x12 + 25) = 119mm. By
inspection the lever arm will be more than 0.95d.
Hence take Z = 0.95d = 0.95 (119) = 113.05mm
Area or steel required, = = = 611.56 /m
Provide R12 bars at 175mm ( = 646 /m) as main bars
Distribution bars: Minimum area of steel = 0.24% b D = 0.24% (1000 x 150) = 360 /m. Therefore
provide R10 bars at 200mm ( = 393 /m) as distribution bars
(d) Check for deflection
Allowable deflection = 20 x modification factor.
Modification factor = 0.55 + ( ) = 0.55 + ( ) = 1.47
Actual deflection = 20 x 1.47 = 29.4
Since the actual deflection (29.2) is less than the allowable deflection (29.4), the 150mm waist is ok.
Step 2: Design of 2nd flight
(a) Bending moment analysis
Effective span, L = 3m + (landing width) + (floor width) = 3+ (1.2) + (1.8) = 4.5m.
Note: the floor width of 2.0m exceeds the limit of 1.8m; hence the width is taken as 1.8m.
47
Maximum moment, M = ……………because, it is continuous over two landings (floors)
(b) Area of steel
Provide R16 bars at 175mm ( = 1149 /m) as main bars. For distribution bars use the say
as for the first flight.
Step 3: Detailing
Fig 4.6a Detailing on plan
48
Fig 4.6b Detailing of stair & bending schedule
Example 2: Half –turn stair where the landing spans orthogonal to the flight
E 10 Equal treads @ 300mm = 3000mm F
2 2
2000 1200
100
2400
1100
Landing
3 3
9 Equal treads @ 300mm = 2700mm
6425
E F
Fig 4.7
This time from Fig 4.7 the landing will be designed separately from the flights. The landing spans
between (receive its support from) the beams on gridlines (2) and (3). The flights in turn receive part of
their support from the landing (i.e. the flights transfer part of their load to the landing). We will use the
same information for question 1.
Step 1: Design of 1st flight
49
(a) Load Estimation : From question (1) the ultimate design load, w = 12.06kN/
(b) Bending moment analysis
W =12.06kN/ is the load transferred from the flight to the

landing. Similarly is the load received by the
2.7m 0.6m ground beam.
Fig 4.8a
This time, the load of the flight covers only the 2.7m span because the landing is not continuous with the
flight. Calculating for the reactions,
∑ = 0: 3.3 − (12.06 x 2.7) (0.6 + x 2.7) = 0 = 19.24kN (
∑ = 0: + = (12.06 x 2.7) = 32.56 – 19.24 = 13.32 kN (
This means that the flight will transfer 13.32kN of its load to the landing and 19.24kN to the ground
beam.
W =12.06kN/
Fig 4.8b
x
= 19.24kN = 13.32kN
From Fig 4.8b, let the maximum moment occur at a distance x from B. At this point shear force is equal
to zero. After going through the calculations,
x= = 1.60m …………… (Please take your time to do the calculations and confirm this answer)
Moment at this point, M = 19.24 (1.6) – (12.06 x 1.6) ( x 1.6) = 15.35kNm
(c). Area of steel
Effective depth d = 119mm and Z = 0.95d =113.05mm (from example 1).
50
Provide R12 bars at 175mm ( = 646 /m) as main bars.
Note, when detailing the stair at the landing area, these bars should lie on top of the main bars for the
landing so as to transfer the 13.32kN load to the landing.
Distribution bars: Minimum area of steel = 0.24% b D = 0.24% (1000 x 150) = 360 /m. Therefore
provide R10 bars at 200mm ( = 393 /m) as distribution bars
(c) Deflection check: Please follow example 1 and check for deflection.
(a) Moment analysis
W = 12.06kN/
0.9m 3m 0.6m
Fig 4.9a
4.5m
is the load transferred from the flight to the 1st floor and is that received by the landing.
∑ = 0: 4.5 − (12.06 x 3) (0.6 + x 3) = 0 = 16.88kN (
∑ = 0: + = (12.06 x 3) = 36.18 – 16.88 = 19.30 kN (
Hence 16.88kN of load is transferred to the 1st floor and 19.30kN to the landing.
W = 12.06kN/
0.9m x Fig 4.9b
= 16.88kN = 19.30kN
Maximum deflection occurs a few distance (x) into the span of the distributed load. Again at this point
shear force is equal to zero. By inspection,
x= = 1.40m …………… (Please take your time to do the calculations and confirm this answer)
51
This means that maximum deflection occurs at = 0.9 + 1.4 = 2.3m from . At this point
M = 16.88 (2.3) – (12.06 x 1.4) ( x 1.4) = 27.01kNm
(b) Area of steel
Provide R16 bars at 175mm ( = 1149 /m) as main bars. For distribution bars use the say
as for the first flight.
(d) Deflection: Please follow example 1 and check for deflection.
Step 3: Design of Half landing
(a) Load estimation
Dead load
i. Self weight (assume 150mm thickness): (0.15m x 24kN/ ) = 1.8kN/

ii. Finishes (assumed) = 0.55kN/
Imposed load: Characteristic imposed load, = 1.50kN/
Ultimate design load, = 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4(2.35) + 1.6(1.5) = 5.69kN/
Load per meter width of landing = 5.69kN/ x 1.2m = 6.83kN
Add: Load of flight (2nd flight) = 19.30kN (the maximum value)
Total load per meter width 26.13kN
Note: the 1st and 2nd flights transferred 13.32kN and 19.3kN of their load respectively to the landing. In
design we use the higher value and add it to the load per meter width of the landing.
(b) Moment analysis
Effective span, L = 2.4m ………………………. Centre to centre of beams.
52
W = 26.13 kN/m
Fig 4.10
2.4m
Beam on gridline (3) Beam on gridline (2)
Maximum moment, M = ……………because, it is simply supported by two beams
M= = 18.81kNm
(c) Area of steel
Hence take Z = 0.95d = 0.95 (119) = 113.05mm
Distribution bars: Provide minimum area of steel. That is, R10 bars at 200mm
( = 393 /m) as distribution bars
Note: It is a good practice to limit the minimum bar size (main bars) to 12mm at a maximum spacing of
200mm
(d) Detailing
The detailing of the stair is similar to that of example 1 (Fig 4.6). However, this time at the landing area,
the main bars for the flights (i.e. bar marks 2, 8 & 7) will be the second bottom bar. Bar mark 3 will be the
first bottom bar. This way, the flights will receive their support partly from the landing as the design
calculations were carried out.
Example 3: Quarter – turn stair
53
With reference to Fig 4.12, design and detail the stair enclosed by gridlines F− G and 7−8. Use steel grade
250 and concrete C30. Rise = 250mm, waist = 150mm
SOLUTION
The proportioning of the stair is shown in Fig 4.11.
Note: The 1st flight spans between the ground beam and the beam on gridline 8
The 3rd flight spans between the beam on gridline 8 and the landing at the first floor level.
The 2nd flight spans between the beams on gridline line F and G
The landing is designed as part of the flight. The load of the landing is assumed be divided equally
between the intersecting flights. (E.g. the 1st and 2nd flight will share the load of the first landing)
F G
200
7
7
1100
Up 1500
Down
OPEN 7 Equal treads @

WELL 300 = 2100mm
4900
1st Landing 1100

2nd Landing
8 8
4 Equal treads @
300 = 1200mm
Fig 4.11
3600
F G
Step 1: Design of 1st flight
54
(a) Load Estimation
Flight: From example 1, the ultimate design load for flight, = 12.06kN/
Landing:
Dead load
i. Self weight (assume 150mm thickness): (0.15m x 24kN/ ) = 1.8kN/

ii. Finishes (assumed) = 0.55kN/
Imposed load: Characteristic imposed load, = 1.5 kN/
Ultimate design load, = 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4(2.35) + 1.6(1.5) = 5.69kN/
(b) Moment Analysis
Effective span, L = 2.1 + landing width + beam width = 2.1 + 1.1 + 0.5 (0.2) = 3.3m
NB: The flight spans between the centres of the ground beam and the beam on gridline 8
=12.06kN/
= 2.85kN/ Half of the landing load is
applied on the span.
2.1m 1.2m (I.e. x 5.69 = 2.85kN/ )
Fig 4.12a
Ground beam Beam on gridline 8
∑ = 0: 3.3 − (12.06 x 2.1) (1.2 + x 2.1) − (12.06 x 1.2) ( x 1.2) = 0 = 19.90kN (
∑ = 0: + = (12.06 x 2.1) + (2.85 x 1.2) = 28.75 – 19.9 = 8.85 kN (
=12.06kN/
= 2.85kN/
55
x
= 19.9kN = 8.85kN
Maximum deflection occurs at a distance say x from RGB where shear force is equal to zero. By inspection
x= = 1.65m. ……………………… You can draw the Shear force diagram to confirm the answer.
Maximum moment, M = 19.9 (1.65) – (12.06 x 1.65) (0.5 x 1.65) = 16.42kNm.
Alternatively, we can also assume the load of the flight to be distributed on the whole span so that the
maximum moment,
M= = = 16.42kNm. Since the two approaches give almost the same result, you can
adopt the second approach for the sake of time though the first approach is more accurate.
(c)Area of steel
Hence take Z = 0.95d = 0.95 (119) = 113.05mm
Area or steel required, = = = 611 /m
Distribution bars: Provide minimum area of steel. That is, R10 bars at 200mm
Step 2: Design of 3rd flight
Effective span, L = beam width + 1.1 + 2.1 + (landing width) = (0.2) + 3.3 + (1.5) = 4.15m
NB: It spans between the centre of the beam on gridline 7 and the first floor. Assuming the load of the
flight is distributed on the whole span,
56
Maximum moment, M = …………… It spans between beam and landing (floor)
(b) Area of steel
Provide R16 bars at 175mm ( = 1149 /m) as main bars and R10 bars at 200mm
Effective span, L = 3.6m (It spans between the centres of the beams on gridline F and G.
=12.06kN/
= 2.85kN/ = 2.85kN/
1.2 1.2 1.2
= 10.66kN = 10.66kN
Fig 4.13
The other half of the landing load is applied on the 2nd flight.
Maximum moment occurs at midspan and it is given by
M = 10.66 (1.8) – (2.85 x 1.2) (0.6 + x 1.2) – (12.06 x 0.6) ( x 0.6) = 12.91kNm
(b) Area of steel
Provide R12 bars at 200mm ( = 565 /m) as main bars and R10 bars at 200mm
57
(c) Detailing
Fig 4.14a
58
Fig 4.14b
Fig 4.14c
59
Fig 4.14d
Example 4: Cantilever with central spine wall

With reference to Fig 4.15 design and detail the stair enclosed by gridlines A– B and 4 – 3. Use concrete
grade C30 and steel grade 250. The rise is 150mm and 300mm going. Waist = 125mm
6 4
1200 10 Equal treads 1200

@ 300 = 3000
A A
Landing/
Floor
1900 300 mm concrete wall
800 1st
Landing
B B
9 Equal treads @
300 = 2700
6 4
Solution Fig 4. 15 a
This is an example of traverse design where each is designed in isolation. The main reinforcement for
each step which should be at least 2No of bars is placed at the top of the tread. Light mesh is provided at
the waist to serve as temperature reinforcement. The mains bars must be continued into the wall at least a
60
distance not less than the clear span of the step. The 1st landing is supported by a beam which cantilevers
from the spine wall.
Dead load
i. Step: Rise x tread x Conc. density = (0.15 x 0.3) x 24kN/ = 1.08kN/m
ii. Waist : (Rise x tread x Conc. Density = (0.15 x 0.3) x 24kN/ = 0.54kN/m
iii. Finishes (assumed) = 0.60kN/m

Characteristic dead load, = 2.22kN/m
Imposed load:
Characteristic imposed load, = Imposed load constant x Tread = 1.5 kN/ x 0.3m = 0.45kN/m
Ultimate design load, = 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4(2.22) + 1.6(0.45) = 3.83kN/m
Step 2: Moment analysis
Effective span, L = 800 + (wall width) = 800 + (300) = 950mm
W = 3.83kN/m The loading is treated as a cantilever with the

maximum moment at the center of the spine wall.
0.95m
(Fig 4.16)
Fig 4.15b
Maximum moment = = = 1.73kNm
The step is designed as a rectangular beam with width b the going (i.e. 300mm) and Depth, D equal to the
waist (125mm). Using 12mm diameter bar and 25mm cover,
Effective depth, d = 125 − (25 + x 12) = 94mm
61
K= = = 0.02 Z = 0.95d = 0.95 (94) = 89.3mm
Provide 2−R12 bars ( = 226 ) as main bars and R10 bars at 175mm
( = 449 /m) as distribution bars at the top of the step. Moreover, provide mesh reinforcement
at the bottom of the waist.
Step 4: Detailing
(a)
(b)
62
Fig 4.16
CHAPTER FIVE
BEAMS
5.1. Introduction
Beams form integral part of the structural framework of a building. Beams can be classified as either
flanged beam or rectangular beam. Flanged beams are those beams which are cast monolithically with the
floor or roof slab. The slab becomes the flange and the beam forms the web. Flange beam may have the
shape of Tee and hence refer to as T − beam or Lee which is also called L− beam.
Roof beams and lintels come under the category of rectangular beams. These beams are isolated from
slab. Beams are either simply supported or continuous over several supports.
(a) Elevation of Reinforced concrete building
Fig 5.1
63
5.2 Effective span of Beams

The effective span of a simply-
supported beam may be taken as the
smaller of the distance between the
centres of bearings, or the clear
(b) Section
distance between A−A:
supports (c) Section B−B:
plus the effective depth. (d) L− beam
T − beam Roof beam
The effective span of a continuous member should be taken as the distance between centres of supports.
For cantilever beams, the effective span is taken as its length to the face of the support plus half its
effective depth except where it forms the end of a continuous beam where the length to the centre of the
support should be used.
Fig 5.2a Simply supported beam
Effective span is the smaller of:

= distance between the centres of bearings = 4500mm (the smaller)
= Clear distance between supports + Effective depth = 4300 + (380) = 4680mm
Fig 5.2b: Continuous beam

Effective span = the distance between centres of supports = 5200mm (the longest)
64
Fig 5.3(a) Cantilever beam
Effective span = its length to the face of the support + half its effective depth = 1.8 + (0.24) = 1.92m
Fig 5.3b: Cantilever beam which forms the end of a continuous beam
Effective span = the length to the centre of the support = 1.9m.
5.3. Effective width of flanged beam (
(a) L− Beam Fig 5.4 (b) T − Beam
a) For T-beams :( = web width + or actual flange width if less;
b) For L-beams: :( = web width + or actual flange width if less;
Where, = the distance between points of zero moment
For a continuous beam take = 0.7 x Effective span
65
5.4 Load on beams supporting slab
Fig 5.5a illustrates the distribution of slab load among the supporting beams. An angle of is drawn at
all the corners of the panels. The area of slab load supported by each beam is determined from it.
A D E
1.9m
2.2m
4.4m
1.9m
0.8m
1.9m 2.2m 2.2m
B C F
3.8m 5.2m
Fig 5.5 a
Beam
4.4m
0.6m
D
1.9m 2.2m Fig 5.5 b
ABCD and CDEF are the panels (slabs) with the supporting beams at the edges. The following statements
are true:
(a) When the angle is drawn,
the corners at the short span meet first. If you take panel ABCD for instance, the angles drawn at A
and D will intersect whereas those of B and C also meet. A line is then drawn to link the two points.
(b) The closer corners intersect
at half of the short span. The angle at A and D intersect an x 3.8 = 1.9m.
66
(c) The area of load on the

beams will either be triangular or trapezoidal. Fig 5.5b shows the area of load supported by the beam
CD from the two panels.
Total area on CD = Trapezium + Triangle
5.5 Load combination

The arrangement of the load on the beam should be such that to cause maximum moment and shear.
Section 3.2.1.2.2 of the Code proposes the following two (2) critical loading arrangements:
a) All spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load (1.4 + 1.6 );
b) Alternate spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load (1.4 + 1.6 ) and all other spans
loaded with the minimum design ultimate load (1.0 ).
(1.4 + 1.6 )
Fig 5.6a: All spans loaded with the maximum ultimate design load
(1.4 + 1.6 ) (1.4 + 1.6 )

(1.0 ) (1.0 )
Fig 5.6b: Alternate spans loaded with the maximum ultimate design load
5.6. Moment and shear Analysis
As mentioned earlier on, the analysis of the moment and shear force in beams can be carried out using
any of the methods of structural analysis discussed in BT 353. These moments give more accurate values
of moment and shear at the various sections. However, as an alternative, the empirical formulas in Table
3.5 of the Code can be used to determine approximate values for moment and shear. Such a beam should
satisfy the following provisions:
(a) The characteristic imposed load may not exceed characteristic dead load ;
(b) The loads should be substantially uniformly distributed over three or more spans;
67
(c) Variations in span length should not exceed 15 % of the longest.

The table gives values of moment and shear at five (5) critical sections of the beam namely:
i. The outer support
ii. Near middle of the end span. Span refers to the distance between two supports.
iii. At first interior support
iv. Interior spans and
v. Interior supports
Interior spans
End span End span
A B C D E F
Outer support First interior Interior First interior Outer support

support support support
Fig 5.7: Moment and shear for continuous beams (Table 3.5 of BS8110 −1:1997)
Table 5.1 (Table 3.5 of BS 8110 −1: Ultimate bending moment and Shear forces for beams)
At outer Near middle of At first interior At middle of At interior
support end span support interior spans supports
Moment 0 0.09FL − 0.11FL 0.07FL − 0.08FL
Shear 0.45F — 0.6F — 0.55F
Where, L is the effective span;

F is the total design ultimate load (1.4 + 1.6 ). The unit of F should be in KN.
5.7 Shear reinforcement or links in beams
Steps:
(a) Calculate the design shear stress v = , where V = the Shear force at the section under
consideration. Check to ensure that v does not exceed the limit of 0.8 or 5 N/ , whichever is
the lesser,
(b) Calculate the Concrete shear stress ( ) from Table 3.8 of the Code. Alternatively you can use the
formula: = 0.79 x x x …………. Where = 1.25
(c) Compare v to and decide on the form and area of the links from Table 3.7 of the code.
68
5.8 Design procedure
The design procedure is the same as the one discussed for slabs. However, for T− beam and L− beam the
ratio in Table 5.2 should be used in calculating the initial depth. Refer to Table 3.9 of the Code for more
details.
Table 5.2 Continuous Simply Cantilever

Beam supported beam
Ratio
1 26 20 7
≤ 0.3 20.8 16 5.6
Table 5.3
Cross Sectional Area of Number of Bars ( )
Number of Bars
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 28 57 85 113 141 170 198 226 254 283 311
8 50 101 151 201 251 302 352 402 452 503 553
10 79 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 785 864
12 113 226 339 452 565 679 792 905 1018 1131 1244
16 201 402 603 804 1005 1206 1407 1608 1810 2011 2212
20 314 628 942 1257 1571 1885 2199 2513 2827 3142 3456
25 491 982 1473 1963 2454 2945 3436 3927 4418 4909 5400
32 804 1608 2413 3217 4021 4825 5630 6434 7238 8042 8847
40 1257 2513 3770 5027 6283 7540 8796 10053 11310 12566 13823
50 1963 3927 5890 7854 9817 11781 13744 15708 17671 19635 21598
Example: With reference to Fig 3.11 (i.e. the drawing used for the slab design) design and detail the
continuous beam on gridline 2. Use steel grade 250 and concrete grade C35.
Solution
Step 1: Layout of beam
The beam is an interior beam (or T− beam) support by 5 columns located at gridlines A, B, C, D and E as
shown below.
A B C D E
5.2m 4.2m 4.2m 5.0m
Fig 5.8a: Layout of beam

69
Slab (flange)
150mm
Fig 5.8b Section Web
Step 2: Initial Dimension
For T− beam, effective flange width, = web width +
Where = Distance between points of zero moment. For a continuous beams,
= 0.7 x Effective span = 0.7 x 5.2 = 3.64m. The effective span is taken to be the longest center to
center dimension of the beam (Fig 5.8a). Moreover, we shall assumed the width of the web, = 225mm.
» Effective flange width, = + = 225 + = 953mm. This means that almost a metre of the
slab (i.e.0.953m) acts together with the web to form the T − beam.
The ratio = = 0.24 < 0.3. Therefore from Table 5.2 the ratio is 20.8
Effective depth, d ≥ = = 250mm
Overall depth, D ≥ d + (bar size) + Links + Cover. Assume bar size = 20mm, links = 8mm and a cover
of 25mm.
= 953
.
150
d D = 450
300
= 225
Fig 5.9
70
D ≥ 250 + (20) + 8 + 25 = 293mm. Unlike slab, the resistance to deflection offered by the reinforcement
is not so significant to rely on. In view of this, the overall depth of the section obtained above should
always be increased. Select D = 450mm (see Fig 5.9)
First pick the longest span (in this case between gridlines A&B) and calculate the area of load on it as
shown in Fig 5.10. Draw at all the corners. You do not necessarily have to draw the panels to scale
but remember that always the corners at the short span will intersect first. They will intersect at the
midspan of the short span.
From Fig 5.10b, total area of slab load on beam = [ x 2.2 (0.8 + 5.2)] + [ x 2.4 (0.4 + 5.2)] = 13.32
A
2.2m 2.4m
0.8m 0.4m 5.2m

2.2m 2.4m
2.2m 2.4m
B
4.4m 4.8m
Fig 5.10 a
2
Beam
5.2m
0.8m 0.4m
2.2m 2.4m Fig 5.10 b
71
Dead load
1. Slab: From the slab design, the dead load of slab including finishes = 6.34kN/
Load on beam: 13.32 x 6.34kN/ = 84.45kN
2. Self weight of beam web : (0.225 x 0.3 x 5.2) x 24kN/ = 8.91kN

3. Allowance for partition wall = 50kN
Characteristic dead load, = 143.35kN
Imposed load: Use Characteristic imposed load, = 3.5kN/
Total imposed load on beam: 13.32 x 3.5kN/ = 46.62kN
Ultimate design load, F = 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4(143.35) + 1.6(46.62) = 275.282kN
Thus, the total load on the 5.2m span beam is 275.282kN. Using the empirical formulas in Table 3.5 of
the Code, approximate values for bending moment and shear force at the critical sections can be
determined. On the other hand, if one desires to carry on the design as accurate as possible, then the total
load should be converted to distributed load and spread on the entire span as shown in Fig 5.11. After
this, Moment distribution method or Slope deflection equation can be used to analyze the beam.
Distributed load, w = = = 52.94kN/m
W= 52.94kN/m
A B C D E
5.2m 4.2m 4.2m 5.0m
Fig 5.11
Table 5.4
Moment Shear
(kNm) (kN)
At outer 0 0.45F = 0.45 x 275.28 = 123.88
Support (A & E)
72
Near middle 0.09FL = 0.09 x 275.28 x 5.2 —

of end span = 128.83
At first interior − 0.11FL = − 0.11 x 275.28 x 5.2 0.6F = 0.6 x 275.28 = 165.168
Support (B & D) = − 157.46
At middle of 0.07FL = 0.07x 275.28 x 4.2 —
interior spans = 80.93
At interior − 0.08FL = − 0.08 x 275.28 x 4.2 0.55F= 0.55 x 275.28 = 151.40
Supports (C) = − 92.49
Step 4: Adequacy of the section to take the maximum moment.
The depth of beam required to take the maximum moment (157.46kNm) is given by
= ……………….. Where K = 0.156 = 0.156 x 30 = 4.68N/ and b = 225.
= = = 386.70mm
Overall depth required,
= + (bar size) + link + Cover = 386.7 + (20) + 8+ 25 = 429.7mm
We require 429.7mm depth of beam to take the maximum moment; however at the initial stage, we
selected 450mm which is more than the required. This implies that the initial depth of 450mm is
satisfactory.
(a) Near middle of end span
M = 128.83kNm (sagging). The bottom of the beam is under tension
Effective depth, d = D – (Cover + bar size + link) = 450 – {25 + (20) + 8} = 407mm
K= = = 0.115
73
Since K < (0.115 < 0.156), there is no need to put reinforcement at the compression side of the section
Lever arm, Z = d {0.5 + } = d {0.5 + } = 0.85d = 0.85 x 407 = 345.95
Area of tension reinforcement required, = = = 1567.98
Provide 5R20 bars ( = 1571 ) at the bottom of the beam and 2R20 bar at the top for the purpose
of tying the links.
2R20
150
407
D = 450
Fig 5.12a
5R20
= 225
(b) At first interior support
M = − 157.46kNm (hogging). The top of the beam is under tension
K= = = 0.141
Lever arm, Z = d {0.5 + } = d {0.5 + } = 0.81d = 0.81 x 407 = 329.67
74
Provide 5R25 bars ( = 2454 ) at the top of the beam and 2R20 bar at the bottom for tying the
links.
5R25
150
407 D = 450
Fig 5.12b
2R20
= 225
(c) At middle of interior span
M = 80.93kNm (sagging). The bottom of the beam is under tension
K= = = 0.065
Lever arm, Z = d {0.5 + } = d {0.5 + } = 0.92d = 0.92 x 407 = 374.44
Provide 3R20 bars ( = 942 ) at the bottom of the beam and 2R20 bar at the top for tying the
links. 2R20
150
407
D = 450
Fig 5.12c
3R20
75
(d) At interior supports
M = − 92.49 kNm (hogging). The top of the beam is under tension
K= = = 0.083
Lever arm, Z = d {0.5 + } = d {0.5 + } = 0.90d = 0.90 x 407 = 366.3
Provide 4R20 bars ( = 1257 ) at the top of the beam and 2R20 bar at the bottom
4R20
150
407 D = 450
Fig 5.12d
2R20
= 225
Step 7: Checks
(a) Shear reinforcement or Links
Design shear stress, v =
Where V = the Shear force at the section under consideration. We shall use the maximum shear force
from Table 5.4 (i.e. 165.168kN)
76
v= = = 1.80
Allowable shear stress = 0.8 = 0.8 = 4.38 N/
Since the design shear, (1.80 ) is less than the allowable shear (4.38 N/ ) the depth of the
beam is ok.
Design concrete shear stress, = 0.79 x x x …………. Where = 1.25
= 0.79 x x x
= 0.53 x = 0.53 x = 0.56N/
From Table 3.7 of the code, the condition below applies:
( + 0.4) < V < 0.8
(0.56 + 0.4) < 1.8 < 4.38. We shall provide links only and the spacing of the links is given by the
formula
Where = the total area of the two legs of the link. Using 10mm links,
=2( )=2( ) = 157.1
Note: it is also common to find links with 3 legs.
Links with Links with

2 legs 3 legs
= the characteristic strength of the links = 250N/
It is always a good practice to select the diameter of the links and use the formula above to determine the
spacing.
≤ = = 134mm
77
Maximum spacing of links = 0.75 d = 0.75 x 407 = 305.25mm
Provide R 10 bars at 125 spacing around the first interior support and 200 centres at all the sections.
(b) Deflection
We shall check deflection at near middle of the end span where the span is longest.
Allowable deflection = Ratio x modification factor = 20.8 x modification factor.
Modification factor = 0.55 + ( )≤2
= 0.55 + ( ) = 0.98
Allowable deflection = 20.8 x 0.98 = 20.38
Since the actual deflection (12.78) is less than the allowable deflection (20.38), deflection is satisfactory.
Step 8 Detailing
78
Fig 5.13
CHAPTER SIX
COLUMNS
6.1. Introduction
Columns are vertical members which carry axial compressive load and sometimes bending moment one
or both axis. In this chapter, we will focus our studies on the design of reinforced concrete columns.
6.2. Classification of columns
Columns can be classified based on their resistance to lateral loads as braced and unbraced columns. In
concrete framed building, the beams and columns may be designed to act together as a rigid frame in
transmitting the lateral forces down to the foundations. In such instance the columns are said to be
unbraced and must be designed to carry both the vertical (compressive) and lateral (bending) loads.
On the other hand, the lateral loads may be transferred through the roof and floors to a system of bracing
or shear walls, designed to transmit the loads to the foundations. In such a case the columns are said to be
braced and hence designed to carry only vertical loads.
BS 8110−1 further classify braced columns based on the ratio of their effective height to their lateral
dimensions as either Short or Slender column. Where neither of the ratios is more than 15, the column is
classified as short. It should otherwise be considered as slender.
b For short braced column

y 79
< 15 and < 15 where

The effective height about any axis is influenced by the degree of fixity at the end of the column. For
braced columns, the effective height is obtained by multiplying the clear height between the end restraints
( ) by an end condition factor from Table 3.21 of BS 8110 – 1 reproduced here as Table 6.1
Thus effective height or = ……………………….. (1)
Table 6.1 Values of for braced columns (Table 3.21 of BS 8110 – 1: 1997)
End Condition at
top End Condition at bottom
1 2 3
1 0.75 0.80 0.90

2 0.80 0.85 0.95
3 0.90 0.95 1.00
80
Fig 6.1b Column End conditions

End condition 1 End condition 3
End condition
6.3 Bending Moment 2 Force in Columns
and Axial
(a) Moment (M)
The bending moment at the top and bottom of a column is calculated by considering a singly – storey
Subframe shown in Fig 6.2. The Subframe is loaded to give the maximum unbalanced moment at the top
and bottom of the column considered. To achieve this, the maximum load (1.4 + 1.6 ) be placed on
the beam – for column subframes at the corner of a building.
In the case of interior columns, the maximum load (1.4 + 1.6 ) should be placed on the longer of the
two spans and the other span loaded with the minimum load, 1.0
Roof beam Roof beam
(a) Subframe for corner column at (c) Subframe for interior column at roof level
roof level.
81
Upper column Upper column

Moment at foot
of upper column
= [ ] ………………… Corner column Fig 6.2 b
= ∆ [ ] …………… Interior column Fig 6.2d
Moment at head
of lower column
= [ ] ………………… Corner column Fig 6.2 b
= ∆ [ ] …………… Interior column Fig 6.2d
Where,
= the stiffness of upper column =
= the stiffness of lower column
82
& = the stiffness of the beams on either side of the joint. The stiffness is halved.
= = the fixed end moment of the beam assuming both ends as fixed and w = 1.4 + 1.6
∆ = the difference in Fixed end moment for the beams on either side of an internal column
= − ; where = 1.4 + 1.6 (load on long span beam) and = 1.0 (load on short
span beam)
The design moment in a column either direction should not be less than N , where N is the design
ultimate axial load and is a minimum eccentricity equal to 0.05 times the overall Column depth in
the plane of bending, but not more than 20mm (section 3.8.2.4 of BS 8110 − 1: 1997)
(b) Axial Force (N) in Columns
The axial force in columns is calculated using any of the following two methods.
i. From reactions obtained from continuous beam analysis or

ii. By taking half of the maximum load on the adjacent spans (Fig 6.3)
4.6m 4.8m
2.3m 2.4m
6m
3m
Column
2.5m
5m
Fig 6.3 Axial load on column
From Fig 6.3, area of load on column = (2.3 +2 .4) x (3 + 2.5) = 25.85
Reductions to imposed load
83
In practice, it is unlikely that all the floors of a given structure will carry the ultimate load all times. This
means that when a single column carries several floors or when a large area floor is carried by a single
beam, BS 6399 −1 recommends a reduction to the total imposed loads on the floor (Table 6. 2)
Table 6.2 Reduction to imposed load

Number of floor % Reduction in total
supported imposed loads
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5−10 40
Over 10 50
6.4. Design of short Braced Column
For design purpose short columns are divided into four categories:
(a) Short braced columns carrying axial load only (moment is insignificant). Example is column B2
(Fig 6.4).The spans of the beams on opposite sides of the column are equal. The area of steel for such
a column is calculated from the following equation:
N = 0.4 + 0.75 ……………………….. (1)
Where,
= the net cross sectional area of concrete in a column (excluding area of reinforcement)
= area of vertical reinforcement; N = design ultimate axial load on column
= − , Where is the gross sectional area of the column (including reinforcement)
4.5m 4.5m 5.2m 3.2m
5m
A2 B2 C2
2 84
5m
(b) Short braced columns supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams
For columns in this category, the span of beams on adjacent sides of the column must not differ by more
than 15% of the longer span (see column C2 in Fig 6.4). Taking column C2, the difference in span
between the beams on gridline 2 (i.e. 5.2 − 4.5 = 0.7m) does not exceed 15 percent of the longer span (i.e.
15% x5.2 = 0.78m). The axial loading capacity obtained for axially loaded columns in equation 1 is
reduced to cater for the small moment that will be induced in this second category of columns. This gives
the axial load capacity as
N = 0.35 + 0.67 ……………………….. (2)
(c) Short braced columns carrying axial load plus bending about one axis (uniaxial bending).
Where the beams spans on one gridline differ by more than 15 per cent of the longer, such a column
should be designed to carry vertical load in addition to bending moment about on axis. Examples include
column A2 and C3. Taking column C3, there will be bending of the column about gridline C since the
difference in the span of the beam (i.e. 6.2 − 5 = 1.2m) is more than 15 per cent of the longer span (i.e.
15% x 6.2 = 0.93m). For this group of columns, we design them using column design charts.
(d) Short braced columns carrying axial load plus bending about both axis (biaxial bending).
85
This often occurs in columns at the corner of buildings. Examples include column C4, E4, D3, E2 etc.
Taking column C4 for instance, it will bend about gridline C as well as 4. Column D3 will also bend
about gridline D since the difference in the beams span (i.e. 6.2 − 5= 1.2m) is more than 15 per cent of
the longer span (i.e. 15% x 6.2 = 0.93m). Similarly on gridline 3, the difference in span
(i.e. 5.2 – 3.2 = 2m) is more than 15 per cent of the longer span (i.e. 15% x 5.2 = 0.78m); therefore there
will be bending about gridline 3.
These columns are designed by increasing the moment about one axis as follows.
When ≥ , increase the moment about the x – x axis. The design moment becomes
= + ……………………… (4)
However, when < , increase the moment about the y – y axis. The design moment becomes
= + ……………………… (5)
h x x
Fig 6.5 Plan of column subjected to bending about both axes
Where,
b = the overall section dimension perpendicular to y – y axis
86
= effective depth perpendicular to y – y axis
h = the overall section dimension perpendicular to x– x axis
= effective depth perpendicular to x – x axis
= bending moment about x – x axis
= bending moment about y – y axis
= coefficient obtained from Table 3.24 of BS 8110 – 1: 1997,
After you have determined the increased moment about one of the axes of the column, the section can
then be designed to take up the vertical load (N) and the bending moment (M) using column design
charts.
Part 3 of BS 8110 presents design chart for symmetrically reinforced columns subject to vertical loads
and bending moment. There is a separate chart for each grade of concrete combined with high yield
reinforcement and individual ratios. The area of reinforcement can be found from the appropriate
chart using the and ratios for the column section being designed. See appendix A for
copies of these design charts.
6.4.2 Design procedure for short Braced Column
The procedure below is used in the design of short braced columns:
1. Determine whether the column is short or slender
To do this calculate the effective height and use it to calculate the slenderness ratio in both axes.
2. Calculate the axial load (N)
This comprises of the dead ( ) and imposed ( ) loads.
3. Calculate the design moment (M)
This stage is applicable only to columns subjected to axial load plus uniaxial or biaxial bending.
4. Calculate the area of steel
For columns subjected to axial load only, use equation 1. Equation 2 should be used for columns
supporting approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams. Design charts should however be used to
design columns subject to bending about one or both axis.
87
5. Detailing
Detail the column and show the arrangement of the links and the main bars.
Example 1: Fig 6.5 shows the plan and section of a proposed two storey residential building; using the
information given, design and detail column B2 from foundation to roof. Concrete grade: C30 and steel
grade: 250.
4.5m 4.5m 5.2m 3.2m

X
1
5m
A2 B2 C2
2
5m
C3 D3
3
X
6.2m
C4 E4
4
A B C D E
Fig 6.6a Ground Floor plan 88

Design data:
Slab — Dead load including finishes …………………. 6.34kN/
— Imposed load on slab ………………………. 3.5kN/
Roof — Dead load …….……………..…………………. 2.0kN/
— Imposed load …….……………..……………. 1.5kN/
Roof beams: (225 x 350mm)…………………………... 1.89kN/m
Floor beams: (225 x 450mm)…………………………... 2.43kN/m
Column size: 225 x 225mm Cross section area = 0.225 x 0.225 = 0.05
Solution
Step 1: Determine whether column is short or slender
Column: 1st floor to Roof
Effective height, or = ……………………….. (1)
Clear distance between end restraint, = 2850mm
89
= 0.75 (End conditions: top = 1, bottom = 1). That is, at the top of the column, the depth of the roof
beam (350mm) is greater than the dimension of the column (225mm); hence end condition 1 applies.
Similarly, at the bottom of the column, the depth of the floor beam (i.e. 450mm) is greater that of the
column. In this case condition 1 also applies at the bottom. From table 3.21 of the code, = 0.75.
Effective height, or = = 0.75 x 2850 = 2137.5mm
Slenderness ratio or = = = 9.5 < 15 (Short column)
Column: Foundation to 1st floor
Clear distance between foundation and soffit of beam, = (3 + 0.1 +0.6) – 0.3 = 3.4m
= 0.90 (End conditions: top = 1, bottom = 3). NB: The column footing only provides nominal restraint
to the column; hence condition 3 applies at the bottom.
Effective height, or = = 0.90 x 3400 = 3060mm
Slenderness ratio or = = = 13.6 < 15 (Short column)
Step 2: Axial load (N) estimation
4.5m 4.5m
2.25m 2.25m
5m
Column B2 2.5m
2.5m
5m
Fig 6.7 Area of load on column
Area of load on column = (2.25 + 2.25) x (2.5 + 2.5) = 22.5
90
Dead load
i. Own load: (0.05 x 2.85) x 24kN/ x 1.4 = 5kN

ii. Roof : 22.5 x 2.0kN/ x 1.4 = 63‖
iii. Roof beam: (5 + 4.5)m x 1.89kN/m x 1.4 = 25‖
iv. Ceiling including fixtures (assumed) = 10‖
Total = 103 ―
i. From above = 103kN

ii. Own load: (0.05 x 3.4) x 24kN/ x 1.4 = 6‖
iii. Floor beam: (5 + 4.5)m x 2.43kN/m x 1.4 = 32‖
iv. Slab: 22.5 x 6.34kN/ x 1.4 = 200‖
Total = 341 ―
Imposed load
i. Roof : 22.5 x 1.5kN/ x 1.6 = 54‖

ii. Imposed load on ceiling (assumed) = 8‖
Total = 62 ―
Reduction in imposed load =100% of 62 = 62kN
i. From above = 62kN‖

ii. Imposed load on slab: 22.5 x 3.5kN/ x 1.6 = 126‖
Total = 188 ―
Reduction in imposed load = 100% of 188 = 188kN
Table 6.4: Axial load combination
91
Column Dead load Imposed load Total axial load (N)

( ) ( ) kN
1st floor to Roof 103 62 165
Foundation to 1st floor 341 188 529
Step 3: Bending Moment analysis
Looking at the arrangement of the beams, the column will carry only axial load (bending moment is
insignificant).
The axial load capacity of an axially loaded column from equation 1 is given by
N = 0.4 + 0.75 …………………….. (i)
Net cross sectional area of column, = − , = (225 x 225) − , = 50625 − ,
N = 0.4 (50625 − ,) + 0.75
Making the area of steel the subject in equation (i), we have
= ………………….. (ii) Using this equation, the area of steel required ( ) and
provided ( ) for each column can be found on Table 6.4.
Table 6.4: Area of steel
Column Location Axial load (N)

Newton ( )
1st floor to Roof 165,000 −2521 4R16 bars
( = 804 )
st
Foundation to 1 floor 529,000 − 447 4R16 bars
( = 804 )
The area of steel required, for each column is negative. This implies that theoretically steel
reinforcement is not required to carry the axial load. However, practically we have to provide minimum
reinforcement. Moreover, in rectangular columns there should be at least 4 number of bars.
92
Minimum area of steel, = 0.4% b h = 0.4% x (225 x 225) = 202.5 . Hence from the steel chart
select 4 number of bar of any diameter of your choice such that the total area is slightly more than
202.5 .
Links: Spacing = 12 x bar size = 12 x 16 = 192mm. Therefore provide R8 bars as links at 200mm
spacing.
Step 5: Detailing
Fig 6.9 shows the arrangement of the reinforcement.
Example 2: With reference to Fig 6.6, design and detail column A2. Use the design data for example 1.
Step 1: Check whether column is short or slender
From example 1
it was shown that
all the columns
are short.
Step 2: Axial
load (N) 4.5m
estimation
2.25m
Column A2
Fig 6.8 Area of loa
93
Fig 6.9 Detailing of column
Dead load
i. Own load: (0.05 x 2.85) x 24kN/ x 1.4 = 5kN

ii. Roof : 11.25 x 2.0kN/ x 1.4 = 32‖
94
iii. Roof beam: (5 + 2.25)m x 1.89kN/m x 1.4 = 19‖

iv. Ceiling including fixtures (assumed) = 10‖
Total = 66 ―
i. From above = 66kN

ii. Own load: (0.05 x 3.4) x 24kN/ x 1.4 = 6‖
iii. Floor beam: (5 + 2.25)m x 2.43kN/m x 1.4 = 25‖
iv. Slab: 11.25 x 6.34kN/ x 1.4 = 100‖
Total = 197 ―
Imposed load
i. Roof : 11.25 x 1.5kN/ x 1.6 = 27‖

ii. Imposed load on ceiling (assumed) = 8‖
Total = 35 ―
i. From above = 35kN‖

ii. Imposed load on slab: 11.25 x 3.5kN/ x 1.6 = 63‖
Total = 98 ―
Table 6.5: Axial load combination
Column Dead load Imposed load Total axial load (N)

( ) ( ) kN
1st floor to Roof 66 35 101
Foundation to 1st floor 197 98 295
95
Step 3: Bending Moment analysis

From Fig 6.6a, the beams on either side of the column on gridline A have the same span (i.e. 5m); hence
there will be no bending about that axis. However, bending will occur on gridline 2. In view of this, the
column would be designed to take up the combined effect of the axial load plus bending about one axis.
Let us proceed to calculate the moment in the column.
Loading: (a) Roof beam
Dead load
i. Self weight of beam: 1.89kN/m = 1.89 kN/m

ii. Ceiling load (assume) = 0.80‖
Total ( ) 2.69 ―
Imposed load: Use imposed load of 1.5kN/m
Ultimate design load, w = 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4 (2.69) + 1.6 (1.5) = 6.17kN/m
(b) Floor beams
Area of load on 4.5m beam = 10.125 (Refer to section 5.4 on how to determine area of load on a
beam)
Dead load
i. Self weight of beam: 2.43kN/m = 2.43 kN/m
ii. Slab: 10.125 x 6.34kN/ = 64.16kN x = 14.26‖
iii. Allowance for partition wall (assumed) = 1.6‖

Total ( ) 18.29 ―
Imposed load: = 10.125 x 3.5kN/ = 35.44kN x = 7.88kN/m
Ultimate design load, w = 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4 (18.29) + 1.6 (7.88) = 38.21kN/m
Column and beam Stiffnesses
96
Moment of inertia, I = = = 214 x
Stiffness, K = = = 75 x
Stiffness, K = = = 63 x
Roof beam
I= = = 804 x K= = = 179 x
Floor beam
I= = = 1709 x K= = = 380 x
Moment in column
6.17kN/m
Moment at top
= [ ] B
= 179
C
of column
2.85m
= 75
Fixed end moment at B is given by
A
4.5m
= = = = 10.41kNm
Fig 6.10a. Subframe: Roof junction
Moment at top of column = 10.41 x ( ) = 4.80kNm
Comment: we always use only half of the beam stiffness. Moreover, the formula above was derived using
the method of Moment Distribution we studied last semester in BT 353: Elementary Theory of Structures.
From Fig 6.10b, Fixed end moment at B is given by
C
= = = = 64.48kNm = 75
38.21kN/m 2.85m
B D
= 380 97
3.4m
= 63
A
Moment at bottom
= [ ]
of upper column
= 64.48 x
= 14.74kNm
Moment at top of lower column = 64.48 x ( ) = 12.38kNm
Summary of column moments
1st floor to Roof: Moment at top = 4.80kNm, bottom = 14.74kNm
Foundation to 1st floor: Moment at top = 12.38kNm, bottom = 0
From section 3.8.2.4 of BS 8110 − 1: 1997,
Minimum design moment = 0.05hN = 0.05 x 0.225 x 285 = 3.2kNm.
N is the axial load for the foundation to 1st floor column (the maximum value). See Table 6.5
Since 3.2kNm is smaller than any of the moments, the column design will be governed by the moments
obtained from the frame analysis. Thus we shall use 14.74kNm for 1st floor to roof column and
12.38kNm for foundation to 1st floor column.
Step 4: Area of steel y
= 30N/ ; = 250N/ Cover = 25mm
= = 0.85 approx. 225

h d x
Hence Column design chart No. 22 of BS 8110 –3

(reproduced as Fig 6.12) applies, and the results are as y
shown in Table 6.6 Fig 6.11
98
Fig 6.12: Design chart for symmetrically reinforced rectangular column.
Table 6.6: Column Reinforcement
Column Location
(N/ ) (N/ ) ( )
1st flr to roof 0.04 4R16 bars
(804 )
Fdn to 1st floor 4R16 bars
(804 )
Minimum area of steel, = 0.4% b h = 0.4% x (225 x 225) = 202.5 .

Links: Spacing = 12 x bar size = 12 x 16 = 192mm. Therefore provide R8 bars as links at 200mm
spacing.
Step 5: Detailing
The detailing is similar to example 1.
CHAPTER SEVEN
FOUNDATIONS
99
7.1 Introduction
Foundation is the final destination of the loads from the roof, beams, slabs, walls and columns. There are
two types of foundations: Artificial foundation and natural foundation. The natural foundation refers to
the surrounding soil or earth upon which the structure is being built. The artificial foundation is
constructed to distribute the load of the structure evenly unto the natural foundation (Fig 7.1). Our studies
will focus on the design of artificial foundation.
Load from building
Column or wall
Artificial foundation
Fig 7.1a
Distribution of load unto the natural foundation
7.2 Types of Artificial foundation
There are various types of artificial foundations which include:
(a) Shallow foundations (b) Deep foundations

i. Strip foundation i. Pile foundation
ii. Pad foundation ii. Diaphragm walls
iii. Raft foundation
iv. Strap foundation etc.
The choice of a foundation type is influenced by the following factors:
1) The magnitude of the load from the building

2) The type of soil with respect to the bearing capacity
3) The cost of construction
4) Problems concerning foundation construction e.g. site constraints
In this manual we will look the design of only pad foundations.
7.3 Design of Pad foundation
100
This is one of the most common types of foundation for framed structures where a pad or footing (square,
rectangular, and trapezoidal etc) is constructed to support either a single column or several columns.
Isolated footing supports only one column, combined pad supports two footing and strip footing supports
several columns. Each and their method of design are described below.
7.3.1. Design of Isolated Pad foundation
This is the most common type of pad foundation. The pad is constructed to transmit the column load
evenly to the soil. The thickness of the footing is influence by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
The bearing capacity of a soil is the maximum amount of load it can sustain per square meter without
failure from soil test. Table 7.1 shows value for some soils.
Table 7.1: Maximum allowable bearing capacities of some soils

Soil Maximum allowable
bearing capacity(kN/m2)
Compact sand and gravel 400 – 600
Loose sand and gravel 150 – 400
Hard clay and soft clay 300 – 600
Stiff clay and sandy clays 150 – 18
Firm clay and sandy clays 75 – 150
7.3.1.1. Design procedure
Below is the procedure for the analysis and design of isolated pad foundation.
1. Determine the size of the pad on plan using the safe bearing capacity of the soil and the loading at
the serviceability limit state
2. Calculate the bearing pressure at the base of the footing using the ultimate design load
3. Moment analysis and Area of steel to resist the moment
4. Check for Punching shear
5. Check for shear at some critical sections
6. Detailing
Example 1: Design a suitable isolated pad foundation to safely transfer from a 300 x 300mm square
column with characteristic dead load, = 720kN and imposed load = 300kN. The allowable bearing
capacity of the soil is 200kN/m2. Use concrete grade C30 and steel grade 250.
101
Solution
Step 1: Plan size of footing
The dead load given above excludes the self weight of the footing so an allowance has to be made for it.
Let us assume this to be 80kN.
Total dead load, = 720 + 80 = 800 kN and Imposed load, = 300kN
At the Serviceability limit state, the design load
N = 1.0 + 1.0 = 1.0(800) + 1.0 (300) = 1100kN

N = 1100kN
Area of pad required,
A=
Column
= = 5.5
Pad Fig 7.1b
Using a square pad, the length
L= = 2.34m use 2.5 x 2.5m square footing
2.5m
Step 2: Bearing pressure
The ultimate design load 2.5m
F = 1.4 + 1.6 Fig 7.1c Plan of footing
= 1.4(800) + 1.6 (300) = 1600kN
If we assume the pad to be 500mm thick, its self weight = (2.5x 2.5 x 0.5) x 24kN/ = 75kN. Since
this value is less than the 80kN assumed in step 1, we may either continue to use it or use the actual value.
Note: Some designers neglect the effect of the self weight of the footing in calculating the bearing
pressure.
Bearing pressure, w = = = 256kN/
102
F = 1600kN
300 x 300mm Column 1.1m
2.5 x 2.5m square footing
W= 256kN/
(a) Bearing pressure
1.1m
Fig 7.2
0.3m
1.1m
(b) Plan of footing

1.1m 0.3m 1.1m
2.5m
W= 256kN/ x 1m = 256kN/m
(c)
The loading is treated as a cantilever with the maximum moment occurring at the column face.
Moreover, since both the column and the pad are square, the cantilever on both sides of the
footing will be the same
Step 3: Moment analysis and Area of steel
From the cantilever in Fig 7.2c, the maximum moment at the column face is given by
M= = = 154.88kNm
Area of steel
Use depth of pad = 500mm, cover = 50mm, Bar size = 16mm ϕ
103
Average effective depth
d = 500 – (cover + bar ϕ) d

D = 500
= 500 – (50 + 16)

Fig 7.3: Section through pad
= 434mm
By inspection the lever arm Z, will be more than 0.95d. Hence
Z = 0.95d = 0.95 (434) = 412.3mm
Provide R16 bars at 125mm ( = 1608 /m) in both directions
Step 4: Punching shear
Experiments have shown that in pad foundations, the weight of the column has a tendency of punching a
hole through the footing. The weight of the column develops some stresses referred to as punching shear
around a certain perimeter of the footing. This perimeter is referred to as punching shear or critical
perimeter and it is measured on an imaginary line 1.5d away from the column faces (Fig 7.4).
Punching of hole through pad
1.5d
1.5d
Critical perimeter
Stresses will develop on the surface

Fig 7.4: Punching shear
Punching shear stress =
From Fig 7.5 critical perimeter,
104
1.5d 1.5d
1.5d
0.3m
= 8(1.5d) + Column perimeter
= 12d + Column perimeter
= 12(434) + 1200
= 6400mm
Punching shear force,
= Bearing pressure x Shaded area
But shaded area = Pad area – Unshaded area
= 2.52 – (3d + 0.3)2
= 6.25 – {(3 x 0.434) + 0.3}2 = 3.68
Punching shear force, = 256kN/ x 3.68 = 942.08kN
Now punching shear stress = = = 0.34N/
Design concrete shear stress, = 0.79 x x x …………. Where = 1.25
= 0.79 x x x
= 0.44 x = 0.44 x = 0.47N/
Now, since the resistance of concrete to shear ( = 0.47N/ ) is greater than the punching shear stress
(0.34N/ ) there will be no punching shear in the footing and the thickness of the footing is ok. NB: If
the punching shear exceeds the concrete shear stress, you have to increase the depth of the pad and also
revise the calculation for the area of steel.
Step 5: Shear at some critical sections
The critical section for shear is taken to be 1.0d from the column face. At this point
105
Shear force = Bearing pressure x shaded area
= 256kN/ x (2.5 x 0.666)

1.0d
V = 426.24kN
2.5m
Shear stress, v =
0.666 0.434
=
Fig 7.6: Shear

v = 0.39N/ < = 0.47N/
Since the shear (v) is also less than the concrete ( ) the section is adequate in terms of shear.
Step 6: Detailing
The arrangement of the reinforcement in the footing is shown in Table 7.2
BENDING SCHEDULE
Bar Mark Diameter Quantity Length Shape
1 16 21 2700 150
2400
2 16 21 2700 150
2400
Explanation: Bar shape Quantity

Length of footing 2500 Length divided by spacing 125) 2400
Ddt Plus one (1) 19.2 + 1
Cover: 2/50 100 21 No.
2400 The 150mm projection
is selected from
experience.
106
Fig 7.7
7.4 Design of Combined and Strip Footing

Where two or more columns are close together such that separate footings would overlap or if one column
is close to an existing building or sewer it may not be possible to design a single pad footing but rather, it
is convenient to combine their footings to form a continuous base. The centroid of the resultant force
(load) from the columns must be calculated and the extent of the base from the centroid must be equal on
both sides to avoid load eccentricities. This is aimed at preventing differential settlement.
The shape of the footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal (Fig 7.8).The trapezoidal shape is used where
there is a large variation in the column loads and there are limitations on the length of the footing.
Sometimes in order to strengthen the base, and reduce the cost of concrete, a beam is incorporated
107
Centroid of base and resultant

Column load must coincide
between the two columns so that the base is designed as an inverted T– beam. The footing should be
neither too long nor too short.
7.4.1 Design procedure
1. Calculate the plan size of the footing

2. Calculate the resultant of the column loads and the centroid of base
3. Determine the bearing pressure
4. Calculate the resultant column load and centroid of footing
5. Moment and shear analysis
6. Area of steel
(a) Longitudinal reinforcement
(b) Transverse reinforcement
7. Punching shear
8. Shear at critical sections
Example 2: With reference to Fig 7.9 Design and Detail a suitable combine pad foundation to distribute
the loads from columns D3 and D4. The characteristic loads from each column are as follows: Column
108
D3 ( = 180kN, = 350kN), Column D4 ( = 190kN, = 400kN). Each column is 300 x 300mm.
The safe bearing capacity of the soil is 200kN/ . Use steel grade 460 and concrete grade C30.
B C D E
6000 4200 4200
1 1
2500
2 5100
3
2100
4
4500
5
5200
4500
7
8400 8400
A B C D E
Fig 7.9: Ground floor plan
Solution
Step 1: Plan size of footing
109
Allowing self weight of footing to be say 160kN, we have
Total dead load = 160 + 350 + 400 = 910kN and = 180 + 190 = 370kN
At the Serviceability limit state, design load
N = 1.0 + 1.0 = 1.0(910) + 1.0 (370) = 1280kN
Area of pad required, A = = = 6.4
Provide a rectangular base of 3.1 x 2.2m = 6.82
Column D3 Column D4 = 400kN

= 350kN
= 190kN
= 180kN
590kN
530kN
600
Fig 7.10
Column D3 Column D4 1100
2200
1100
440 2100 560

3100
Step 2: Resultant of Column load (R) and centroid of base
D3 = 530kN R D4 = 590kN
x 110
Fig 7.11a
Taking moment about column D2, we have
R x = 590(2.1) + (530) (0), where R is the resultant column load = 530 + 590 = 1120kN
» 1120 x = 1239 x = 1.11m
D3 = 530kN R = 1120kN D4 = 590kN

1.55m 1.55m
1.11m 0.99m 0.56m Fig 7.11b

0.44m
3.10m
NB: The extent of the base from the centroid must be equal to avoid loading eccentricity.
Step 3: Bearing pressure
At the ultimate limit the design column loads are
D3 = 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4(350) + 1.6 (180) = 778kN
D4 = 1.4 + 1.6 = 1.4(400) + 1.6 (190) = 864kN
Total ultimate design load, F = D3 + D4 = 778 + 864 = 1642kN
NB: This time the self weight of the footing is ignored in calculating the bearing pressure
Bearing pressure, w = = = 240.76kN/
Step 4: Moment and Shear analysis
(a) Longitudinal Bending moment and shear
D3 = 778kN D4 = 864kN 111
Elastic curve
NB: Always multiply the bearing pressure by the width of the footing to convert it to kN/m.
(b) Transverse Bending
The loading is treated as a cantilever with the maximum bending moment occurring at the column face.
Taking one meter of the width (Fig 7.12b), the load w = 240.76 kN/ x 1m = 240.76kN/m
W = 240.76kN/m
Fig 7.12a
0.95m
1m
Loading 0.95m
1.10m
112
300 sq. Column

From the cantilever in Fig 7.12a, the maximum moment at the column face is given by
M= = = 108.643kNm Shear force, v = 240.76 x 0.95 = 228.722kN
Step 5: Area of reinforcement
(a) Longitudinal reinforcement (main bars)
Assume depth of pad = 600mm, cover = 50mm, Bar size = 16mm ϕ
Average effective depth

d
D = 600
d = 600 – (cover + bar ϕ)
= 600 – (50 + 16)
= 534mm Fig 7.12c: Section through pad
By inspection the lever arm Z, will be more than 0.95d. Hence
Z = 0.95d = 0.95 (534) = 507.3mm
(i) At the face of column D3
M = 51kNm (sagging). Note: the 51kNm is the moment at the centre of the column (Fig 7.11c). The
actual moment will be slightly smaller than this value, hence for safety reasons, the 51kNm is used for the
design.
The minimum area of steel in slab for steel grade 460 is given by
= 0.13% Bd = 0.13% (1000 x 600) = 780 /m
113
Hence from the steel chart, provide Y16 bars at 250mm ( =804 /m) at the bottom of the
footing.
(ii) At the face of column D4
M = 83kNm (sagging). By inspection the lever arm will be more than 0.95d, hence per the code’s
specification
Z = 0.95d = 507.3mm
= = = 374.40 /m
Provide Y16 bars at 250mm ( = 804 /m) at the bottom of the footing.
(iii) Between Columns
M = 229kNm (hogging). Z = 507.3mm
= = = 1032.97 /m
Provide Y16 bars at 175mm ( = 1149 /m) at the top of the footing
(b) Transverse Reinforcement (distribution bars)
M = 108.64kNm Z = 507.3mm
= = = 490.05 /m
Provide Y12 bars at 125mm ( = 905 /m) as distribution bars top and bottom
Step 6: Detailing
The arrangement of the reinforcement in the footing is shown in Fig 7.13
114
Fig 7.13
115
Exercise
1. Design a rectangular base to support two columns carrying the following loads:
Column 1: Dead load 350 kN, imposed load 160 kN
Column 2: Dead load 480 kN, imposed load 220 kN
The columns are each 350 mm square and are spaced at 2.5 m centres. The width of the base is
not to exceed 2.0 m. The safe bearing pressure on the ground is 180 kN/ . Use concrete grade
C30 and steel grade 460
2. Design a suitable pad foundation to support a 225mm square column with = 450kN and
= 185kN. The surrounding soil is loose sand and gravel with safe bearing capacity of 150 kN/ .
Use concrete grade C30 and steel grade 250
116
CHAPTER EIGHT
RETAINING WALLS
8.1. Introduction
Retaining walls are structures used to retain earth which would not be able to stand vertically
unsupported. The weight of the soil exerts pressure on the wall and hence tries to destabilize it.
Retaining walls are usually used at bridge sites, riverbank areas, sloppy terrains and basement
areas within the house. They are constructed of masonry, mass or reinforced concrete.
8.2. Types of Retaining walls
Concrete retaining walls can be categories into three groups: (1) Gravity (2) Cantilever and (3)
counterfort retaining walls. Within each group they may be variant forms. Moreover, though the structural
action of each type is fundamentally different, the techniques used in their analysis, design and detailing
are those used for concrete structures
(a) Gravity retaining walls: These types of retaining walls depend on their weight to achieve stability. It
uses its dead weight alone to resist sliding and overturning. They are usually constructed of mass
concrete, with reinforcement included in the faces to restrict thermal and shrinkage cracking.
Moreover, because of their size, they are economical up to a height of 3.0m.
(b) Cantilever retaining walls: the walls are designed as vertical cantilevers spanning from a large rigid
base. Stability is provided by the weight of structure and the weight of backfill on an inner base or the
weight of the structure only when the base is constructed externally. Cantilever retaining walls are
economical in the use of materials and can be up to 7.5m high.
(c) Counterfort retaining walls: In this type, the slab is supported on three sides by the base and
counterfort or buttress walls. They are used where the overall height of the wall is too large to be
constructed economically either in mass concrete or as a cantilever. The basis of design of counterfort
walls is that the earth pressures act on a thin wall which spans horizontally between the counterforts.
The wall must be large enough to provide the necessary dead load to meet the requirements for
stability. The weight of the backfill on the base can also be relied on for stability. The counterforts
are designed as cantilevers to resists any moment at those points. The counterforts are spaced in such
a way that there will be satisfactory span−depth ratio for the wall which is designed as a continuous
slab.
117
Fig. 8.1 (a) Gravity wall; (b) cantilever walls; (c) buttress wall; (d) counterfort wall.
8.3. Pressures acting on retaining walls
(a) Active soil pressure ( ) = this is the pressure of the earth acting at the back of the retaining wall.
This pressure is zero at the top of the wall and increases (in the shape of a triangle) to its maximum
at the depth of the wall. It is calculated using the formula
= γ h ……………………………….. (1) Where,
= Rankine’s coefficient of active soil pressure =
= angle of internal shearing resistance of the soil (or the angle of repose)
= the bulk density of the material (see table 8.1)
118
= the height of the soil retained
(b) Passive soil pressure ( ) = this is the pressure which offers passive resistance to the retaining wall.
= γ h ……………………………….. (2) Where,
= coefficient of passive soil pressure =
h = the depth of soil of the soil on the wall offering the passive resistance
(c) Hydraulic pressure = this is the pressure created as a result of the water retained at back of the wall.
To reduce this pressure, weep holes are provided in the walls to drain the water.
(d) Surcharge pressure = this is the pressure due to weight of permanent load behind the wall. This
pressure is uniform (i.e. rectangular) at the back of the wall.
Fig 8.2
119
8.4. Stability Requirements
The forces acting can be grouped into two: (a) Horizontal forces resulting from the active soil pressure,
hydraulic pressure and surcharge. Their effect is to destabilize the retaining wall (b) Vertical forces: these
forces resist the action of the horizontal forces and hence ensure or restore stability. The weight of the
wall and any soil on it constitutes the vertical forces. The design should ensure that the following
conditions do not occur.
1. Overturning of wall: This usually occurs at the heel (i.e. point B) of the wall (Fig 8.3a). To ensure
stability, the total stabilizing moment ( ) should be at least 2 times the overturning moment
( ). That is a factor of safety of 2 is used against overturning.
∑ = 2∑ ……………………. (2)
A B B
A
Fig 8.3a: Overturning Fig 8.3b: Sliding
2. Sliding of the wall: To ensure stability against sliding,
Wμ = 1.6P …………… (3) Where W= total vertical force; μ = tan ϕ = the coefficient of
friction between the base of the wall and the soil; P = total horizontal force (excluding that due to passive
soil pressure). The 1.6 is a factor of safety. A nib can be added, as shown in Fig 8.4 to increase the
resistance to sliding through passive earth pressure.
3. Settlement. The maximum earth pressure occurring at the base of the wall must not exceed the
permissible bearing capacity of the soil.
Maximum pressure, = +
Where, M = the net moment about the centre−line of the base and D = the breadth of the base
120
4. Tension occurring in the masonry. This requirement applies to gravity retaining walls where there is
no reinforcement.
8.5. Design Procedure
The steps below are used in designing cantilever retaining walls
1. Assume a breadth for the base and a thickness for the wall. About 75% of the wall height can
be used as the breadth of the base. To increase resistance to sliding a nib is introduced
2. Calculate the horizontal pressure of earth and check the stability of the wall against Sliding,
Overturning and Settlement
3. Design the reinforced concrete. At this point a partial factor of safety of 1.4 is applied to the wall and
the earth pressures including surcharge if present. The design consists of the following
(a) The wall, calculate shear forces and moments caused by the horizontal earth pressure. Design the
vertical moment steel for the inner face and check the shear stresses. Provide minimum secondary
steel in the horizontal direction for the inner face (where the soil is) and both vertically and
horizontally for the outer face.
(b) Inner footing (Heel): The net moment due to earth pressure on the top and bottom faces of the
inner footing causes tension in the top and reinforcement is designed for this position.
(c) Outer footing (Toe): The moment due to earth pressure causes tension in the bottom face of the
outer footing.
Fig 8.4
121
Table 8.1 Properties of some soil types
Soil Angle of shearing Density (γ)

Resistance (ϕ) in degrees (kN/m3)
Gravel 35 - 45 16 - 20
Loose sand 25 - 35 17 - 19
Compact sand 30 - 40 18 - 21
Organic topsoil 15 - 30 13 - 18
Broken rock 35 - 45 14 - 21
Example: The cantilever retaining wall shown in figure 8.5 is 15m long and supports a granular material
of saturated density, γ = 19kN/ and the allowable bearing pressure is 110 kN/ .There is also a
surcharge of 12kN/ . Check the stability of the wall and design the bending reinforcement using high
yield steel, = 460N/ and concrete grade C30. Take ϕ =
Fig 8.5
122
Solution
Step 1: Dimensions of wall

The dimensions of the wall are as shown in Fig 8.5. The breath of the base was taken as 75% of the height
of the wall (i.e. 0.75 x 3.8 = 2.9m). A nib has been introduced to increase insistence to sliding. Moreover,
the design is for 1m length of the wall.
Step 2: Stability Requirements
Earth pressure:
Coefficient of active pressure, = = = 0.27
Active soil pressure at the base, = γ h = 0.27 x 19 x 4.05 = 20.78kN/
Force due to active pressure = x 4.05m x 20.78kN/ = 42.08kN per meter
Surcharge = q = 0.27 x 12kN/ = 3.24kN/
Force due to surcharge, = 4.05m x 3.24 kN/ = 13.12kN per meter
Total horizontal force = + = 42.08 + 13.12 = 55.2kN per meter
Vertical forces:
Wall (1) = (0.3 x 3.8) x 24kN/ = 27.36 kN per meter
Base (2) = (0.25 x 2.9) x 24kN/ = 17.4kN ―
Nib (3) = (0.55 x 0.4) x 24kN/ = 5.28kN ―
Soil on heel (4) = (2 x 3.8) x 19kN/ = 144.40 kN ―
Total, W = 194.44 kN ―
123
= 13.12kN
= 42.08kN
2.03m
1.35m
Fig 8.6
Checks:
(a) Resistance to Sliding: The forces resisting sliding are the friction under the base (Wμ ) and the
passive resistance for a depth of earth of 550 mm to the top of the base ( ).
Passive soil pressure = γh= x 19 kN/ x 0.55m = 38.70kN/
Passive resistance, = x 0.55m x 38.7kN/ = 10.64kN per meter. Now for stability against sliding,
Wμ + ≥ 1.6(Total horizontal force)
But the coefficient of friction, μ = tan ϕ = tan 35 = 0.70
» 194.44 (0.70) + 10.64 ≥ 1.6 x 55.2
Since 146.75 > 88.32, there is satisfactory resistance to sliding
124
(b) Resistance to Overturning
Take moment of all the forces about the toe (i.e. point A, Fig 8.6)
Resisting (clockwise) moments:
Wall (1) = 27.36kN x 0.75m = 20.52 kNm
Base (2) = 17.4kN x1.45m = 25.23 ―
Nib (3) = 5.28kN x 0.75m = 3.96 ―
Soil on heel (4) = 144.40kN x 1.9m = 274.36 ―
Total = 324.07 kNm
Overturning (anticlockwise) moment
Passive soil = 42.08kN x 1.35m = 56.81kNm
Surcharge = 13.1kN x 2.03m = 26.59 ―
Total = 83.40kNm
NB: the contribution of the passive soil pressure ( ) was not taken into account.
For stability against overturning,
Resisting moment ≥ 2 x Overturning moment » 324.07 ≥ 2x 83.4
Since 324.07kNm > 166.8kNm, overturning of the wall will not occur.
(c) Settlement or Earth pressure
Maximum earth pressure, = +
Where, M = the net moment about the centre−line of the base and D = the breadth of the base
Taking moment about the centre−line of the base (i.e. point B, Fig 8.6)
Clockwise moment:
Soil on heel (4) = 144.40kN x 0.45m = 64.98 kNm
125
Anticlockwise moment
Wall (1) = 27.36kN x 0.70m = 19.15 kNm
Base (2) = 17.4kN x 0 m =0―
Nib (3) = 5.28kN x 0.70m = 3.70 ―
Passive soil = 42.08kN x 1.35m = 56.81 ―
Surcharge = 13.1kN x 2.03m = 26.59 ―
Total = 88.10kNm
Net moment, M = 88.1 – 64.98 = 23.12kNm
Maximum bearing pressure, = + = + = 67.05 + 16.49 = 83.54kN/
Minimum bearing pressure, = − = − = 67.05 − 16.49 = 50.56kN/
Bearing pressure at internal face of wall = 50.56 + (83.54 − 50.56) = 73.87kN/
Now, since the maximum pressure is less than the permissible bearing pressure (i.e. 110kN/ ) the
design is satisfactory.
3.24kN/
4.05m Fig 8.7
E
20.78kN/
Step 3: Design of Reinforced Concrete
(a) Wall
The wall is treated as a vertical cantilever with the maximum moment at the base. The load at the ultimate
limit state is used; hence a factor of 1.4 is applied to all dead loads. Therefore
126
Active pressure at base = 1.4 x 20.78 = 29.09kN/ Surcharge = 1.4 x 3.24kN/ = 4.54 kN/
Taking moment at E, M = (4.54 x 4.05) ( x 4.05) + ( x 29.09 x 4.05) ( x 4.05) = 117.15kNm
Overall depth of wall, D = 300mm. Using 16mm bars and 50mm cover,
Effective depth, d = 300 – (50 + x 16) = 242mm K = = = 0.067
Z = d {0.5 + } = d {0.5 + } = 0.92d = 0.92 x 242 = 222.64mm
= = = 1204.09 /m
Provide Y16 bars at 150mm ( = 1340 /m) at the inner face of the wall as main bars
Distribution bars:
Minimum area of steel = 0.13% bd = 0.13% x 1000 x 300 = 390 /m
Provide Y10 bars at 150mm ( = 524 /m) horizontally as distribution bars for the inner
face. For the outer face, provide 10 mm diameter bars at 150 mm centres each way to control
cracking.
(b) Heel: Top reinforcement
Take moment about the centre −line of the wall for the vertical loads on the heel and the bearing pressures
The vertical load in this case will comprise of the soil on the heel and the self weight of the heel (Fig.8.8).
These forces act clockwise (+ve) about the centre of the wall. The bearing pressure which for
convenience sake has been divided into a rectangle and triangle. The pressure acts anticlockwise about the
centre of the wall.
Base (inert footing) = ( x 25.23) kN x 1.2m = 24.40 kNm
Soil on heel = 144.40kN x 1.2m = 173.28 ―
Bearing pressure (1) = − (50.56 x 2.05) ( x 2.05 + 0.15) = −121.79 ―
127
Bearing pressure (2) = − { x 2.05 x (73.87− 50.56} ( x 2.05 + 0.15) = − 19.91 ―
Total moment at the ultimate limit state, = 55.98 x 1.4 = 78.37kNm
Fig 8.8
Effective depth, d = 250 – (50 + x 16) = 192mm K = = = 0.071
Z = d {0.5 + } = d {0.5 + } = 0.91d = 0.91 x 192 = 174.72mm
= = = 1026.42 /m
128
Provide Y16 bars at 175mm ( = 1149 /m) at the top of the heel and Y10 bars at 175mm
(c) Toe: Bottom reinforcement
Take moment about the centre −line of the wall for the vertical loads and the bearing pressures
Bearing pressure at the outer face of wall,
= + ( − ) = 50.56 + (83.54 − 50.56) = 77.29kN/
Taking the moments, we have
Base (outer footing) = − ( x 25.23) kN x 0.43m = − 2.06 kNm
Bearing pressure (4) = (77.29 x 0.55) ( x 0.55 + 0.15) = 18.07 ―
Bearing pressure (3) = { x 0.55 x (83.54− 77.29} ( x 0.55 + 0.15) = 0.88 ―
Total moment at the ultimate limit state, = 16.88 x 1.4 = 23.63kNm
= = = 320.06 /m
Provide Y12 bars at 200mm ( =565 /m) at the bottom of the toe and Y10 bars at 175mm
(d) Nib reinforcement
Provide minimum reinforcement: Y10 bars at 150mm ( = 524 /m) vertically and
horizontally at the outer face
Step 4: Detailing
The arrangement of the bars is shown in Fig 8.9
129
Fig 8.9
130
References
 BS8110–1 (1985): Structural use of concrete –Part 2 Code of practice for special circumstances
 BS8110–1 (1997): Structural use of concrete –Part 1 Code of practice for design and construction
 BS8110–3 (1985): Structural use of concrete –Part 3: Design charts for singly reinforced beams,
doubly reinforced beams and rectangular columns
 Draycott, T: Structural Elements
Manual (1990). British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, UK. ISBN: 0 7506 0313 5
 Kong, F.K. and Evans, R.H:
Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete, 3rd Edition (1987). Chapman & Hall Publications, 2−6
Boundary Row, London SEI 8HN, UK. ISBN 0 412 37760 8
 MacGinley, T. J. and Choo, B.S:
Reinforced Concrete Design Theory and Examples, 2nd Edition (1990). SPON Press, London & New
York. ISBN 0 419 13830 7
 Olusegun Oyenuga, O: Simplified
Reinforced concrete design, 3rd Edition (2005). AROS Ltd Publications, Nigeria. ISBN:
978−36217−3−4
 Reynolds, C.E and Steedman, J. C:
Reinforced Concrete Designer’s Handbook, 10th Edition (1988). E & FN Spon (Taylor & Francis
Group) Publications,11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
 Whitlow, R: Materials and
Structures, 2nd Edition (1990)
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Design of Reinforced Concrete Elements

Table 1.1: Comparison of the strength of concrete and steel

1.4. Advantages of Reinforced concrete as a structural member

1. It has considerable compressive strength as compared to most other materials

1.5. Disadvantages of Reinforced concrete as a structural member

2.2. Objectives of design

2.3. The Limit State design Philosophy

2.3.3 Serviceability limit state

Ultimate strength (stress)

Linear curve Fig 2.1

2.4.2 Section analysis using the Elastic method

Before we derive the formulas, let us define some important terms:

i. Plane sections remains plane after bending

Concrete taking up compressive stresses

(a) Cross section (b) Strain diagram (c) Stress diagram

Fig 2.3: Singly reinforced rectangular beam under flexure

D = the overall depth of the beam

= the depth to the neutral axis and = the lever arm

Calculation of the depth to the neutral axis ( )

(for the concrete) and for the steel.

From similar triangles, = » = ……………….. (1)

But strain in concrete, = =

Similarly strain in steel, = =

Substituting the values into equation 1, we have

taken to be 15. Therefore

From above the depth to the neutral axis, = ……………..………… (2)

Moment of resistance of the section

(a) Using the force in concrete (FC)

Moment of resistance of the section using the concrete force

MC = Force in concrete (FC) x lever arm (la) = { b } x {d – } …………… (3)

(b) Using the force in steel (FS)

Moment of resistance of the section using the force in steel

MS = Force in steel (FS) x lever arm (la) = la = x {d – } ………….. (4)

But effective depth, d = 400 – (cover + bar diameter)

4R20 (Ast = 1257mm2)

(b) Moment of resistance

(i) Using concrete force, ={ fC b } x {d – }

={ x10 x 225 x 199.09} x {365 – } = 66.89kNm

(ii) Using steel force, = Ast x {d – } = 1257 x 125 x {365 – }= 46.92kNm

2.4.3 Limitations of the Elastic method

2.5. The Ultimate or Load factor method of design and analysis

2.6. The Ultimate Strength method (BS 8110)

i. Plane sections remain plane after bending

2.6.2.1 Moment of resistance of section (singly reinforced section)

Total compression force in concrete = (0.9x b) (0.67 ) ………….. But = 1.5

FC = (0.9x b) (0.67 ) = 0.402x b

Moment of resistance of the section using the concrete force

Mu = 0.402 (0.5d) b Z = 0.20 bd Z

= 0.20 bd {d – 0.45(0.5d)} = 0.156 b ……… (6)

= ……..…………………….. (7) Where k = 0.156

Area of tension steel ( )

Tensile force in concrete, FS = ……………… but γm = 1.05

Moment of resistance of the section using the force in steel,

Ms = Force in steel (Fs) x lever arm (Z) = 0.95 Z ……………. (8)

That is, =M » 0.95 Z=M = ……………. (9)

The lever arm (Z)

2.6.2.2 Moment of resistance of doubly reinforced section

(a) Cross section

Area of compression reinforcement ( )

The excess external moment = (M – )