Read the following text and find out how many synonyms for ‘ship’ are listed

and whether they can be used indifferently.

Note down all the words that are new for you.
(By positioning the cursor (arrow) on a word underlined in the text, without clicking, you can
read its translation into Italian.)

  Ship:

 any large sea-going vessel

 any sea-going vessel of considerable size
 any locomotive machine, that is one supplying its own power , designed for
navigation over water
 any floating object having its own means of steering and propulsion which
is used to carry passengers and goods
 any sailing vessel with at least three masts , all rigged with square sails

  Vessel:

 any ship or large boat or other description of craft used in navigation (see

below).

  Craft:

 any water-borne ship or vessel of any description.

  Carrier:

 any ship carrying cargo

e.g. a break bulk carrier, an LNG carrier (i.e. a ship carrying Liquefied
Natural Gas) or ships carrying airplanes/aircraft (aircarriers).

  Boat:

 small open vessel for travelling in on water, especially the kind moved by:

o oars (rowing boat)
o sail/s (sailing boat)
o engine (motor boat)

 It is also used of fishing vessels and small steamers (e.g. ferry-boats).

 Answer these questions:

Question 1:'What is the difference between ship and boat?'

Question 2:'Is there a difference between engine and motor?'

Why is a Ship called She?

In your opinion, why is a ship called ‘she’? Is a ship called ‘she’ in your native
language? Yes? No? Reflect, why is that?

Now read the following passage and find out the real reasons why a ship is called
‘she’ in English, the ‘lingua franca’ used by people working in the maritime
community worldwide.

‘She’ may be said of a thing instead of ‘it’ in order to show a certain kind
of sympathy with, or affection for the thing which is so raised above the
inanimate sphere even if the speaker does not really attribute sex to the
thing in question. (However, ‘it’ may be used whenever you consider the
thing simply as an object.)

Railwaymen will speak of locomotives or trains, pilots of planes, and

motor-owners of their cars as ‘she’.
But the best known example is said of a ship or boat (even if this has a
masculine name).
This is also due to historical reasons.
Britain is an island and so, obviously, ships have always been of
the utmost importance for the British as means of communication, trade,
defense, exploration, expansion and power.

why is a Ship called She?

1. Read this passage carefully.
2. Consult the glossary.
3. Try the activities
 A ship is called a she because
there is always a great deal of bustle around her;
there is usually a gang of men about;
she has a waist and stays;
it takes a lot of paint to keep her good-looking;
it is not the initial expense that breaks you, it is the upkeep;
she can be all decked out;
it takes an experienced man to handle her correctly;
and without a man at the helm, she is absolutely uncontrollable.
She shows her topsides, hides her bottom and,
when coming into port always heads for the buoys.

GENERAL TERMINOLOGY
By positioning the cursor (arrow) on a word in bold, underlined in the text, you can read its translation
into Italian.

We can distinguish two main parts in a ship: the hull and the superstructure/s.

The hull is the main body of the ship.

Its foremost part is the bow and its rearmost/aftermost part is the stern.

The stem is the part of the hull where the two sides meet at the bow. It is a vertical
structure rising upwards from the extreme fore end of the keel. The keel is the
backbone of the ship.

The hull is limited by the upper deck on top, the sides, and the bottom .

The shell, the outer 'skin' of the hull, is made up of sides and bottom.
The superstructures include all permanent housing fitted above the upper/main
deck.

The ship is conventionally subdivided into different areas, both transversally (from
side to side) and longitudinally (from bow to stern).

Conventionally, the ship is subdivided by the centre line (sometimes called middle

line), a vertical line running longitudinally /fore-and-aft through the centre of the
ship, into two halves:

 starboard side, i.e. the right-hand side when facing forward

 port side, i.e. the left-hand side when facing forward.

 When moving away from the centre line we go outboard (things are

placed outboard of… )
  When moving towards the centre line we go inboard (things are
placed inboard of…)

The hull can be further subdivided, transversally, into quarters by the quarter

lines.
The quarter lines are not to be mixed up with the quarters. The latter name, in fact,
is used to refer to the port quarter and the starboard quarter , i.e. parts of the
ship shell between the stern and the side (or, more precisely, the beam, i.e. the
greatest width of the vessel).
Conversely, at the fore end of the ship, the parts of the shell between the stem and
the side (beam) are called port bow and starboard bow.

The body of the ship is also subdivided, in the fore-and-aft direction, into two main
parts: forebody and after body by the amidship line.
The amidship line is a transverse/transversal/athwartship vertical plane at right
angle to the centre line passing at (a)midship(s). (A)midship(s) is a point exactly
half-way between the F.P. (Fore Perpendicular) and the A.P. (After
Perpendicular) .
The midship section, on the other hand, is the section having the largest cross-
sectional area, usually to be found at middle of ship’s length.

 When we go towards the bow we go forward .

  When we go towards the stern we go aft .

 Anything located between the amidship line and the bow is forward
of amidships (i.e. fore elements).
 Anything located between the amidship line and the stern is aft
of/abaft amidships (i.e. after/aft elements).

N.B.

 Anything forward of the bow lies ahead.

 Anything aft of the stern lies astern .

The parallel middle body is the portion of the (underwater) amidship body with a
constant cross-section.
The entrance is the immersed body forward of the parallel body.
The run is the immersed body aft of the parallel body.

FRAMING
By positioning the cursor (arrow) on a word underlined, you can read its
translation into Italian.

DECKS

1. (deck) beam /transverse beam

2. deck girder
3. deck longitudinal/longitudinal beam
4. deck stringer

SIDES

1. (transverse side) frame

2. longitudinal /side stringer
3. sheer-strake (stringer)

BOTTOM

1. keel
2. centre girder
3. side girder
4. (bottom) longitudinal
 5. floor
1. plate/solid floor
2. bracket floor
6. margin plate
7. turn of the bilge
8. double bottom
1. outer bottom
2. inner bottom

PLATING

1. shell plating
2. bottom plating
3. side plating
4. deck plating

Description

The hull is the body of the ship: it is made up of a framework covered with plating.
This framework includes:

 the keel
 the frames
 the beams
 other longitudinal and transverse elements

The keel is the backbone of the ship and runs fore-and-aft throughout the ship
along the centre line, in the bottom.

The transverse frames, or frames proper, are the ribs of the ship and are fitted in
the ship side (they are transverse elements of the side).

The beams are athwartship elements of the decks. They tie the frames, and
therefore the sides of the ship, together and support the decks.

The longitudinal elements of the decks or longitudinal beams include:

 deck longitudinals
 deck girders
The longitudinal frames/elements of the sides are called side longitudinals.

The longitudinal elements of the bottom are:

 the centre girder, connected to the keel to form a strong I-

shaped beam
 the side girders
 the margin plates or outer boundary of the bottom
 a number of bottom longitudinals

The floors – either plate floors or bracket floors – are the transverse elements of

the bottom.
A cellular double bottom is delimited by inner bottom and outer bottom.

The curvature between the bottom and the side is called turn of the bilge.

The sheerstrake and the deck stringer are strakes of plates strengthening the

connection between the sides and the deck.

The sheer is the rise of a vessel’s deck fore and aft. It adds buoyancy.

The camber or round of beam is the curvature of the weather decks which rise

from the sides to the centre line and it is meant to help shed water.

Plating is made up of plates. It can be divided into shell plating (including bottom

plating and side plating) and deck plating.

GENERAL PATTERN
By positioning the cursor (arrow) on a word in bold, underlined in the text, you can read its translation
into Italian.
The hull is divided up into a number of compartments by decks and bulkheads.

The decks are floors dividing up the hull horizontally.

In passenger ships decks are lettered from the upper deck down:

 upper deck
 A Deck (2nd deck)
 B Deck (3rd deck)
 C Deck (4th deck)
 and so on.

In cargo ships the most common deck names are:

 weather deck
 upper deck
 main deck
 strength deck
 tonnage deck
 orlop deck
 lower deck

The ‘tween decks are partial decks dividing up cargo space.

A system of pillaring (consisting in a suitable number of pillars) supports the

decks where required.

The bulkheads divide the hull transversely or longitudinally. They are vertical

steel walls and are fitted athwartships or/and fore and aft. They can be:

 watertight
or
 non-watertight.
The bukheads delimiting the cargo tanks on tankers are oil-tight.

The hull houses the engine room, boiler room, cargo

space, accommodation, store rooms, etc.

Dry cargo space is divided up into holds.

Liquid cargo space is divided up into tanks.

At the fore and after ends of the ship there are the peaks.

 The fore peak is limited by the fore peak

bulkhead or collision bulkhead.
 The after peak is limited by the after peak bulkhead.

The space between the outer bottom and the inner bottom is called double bottom.
The double bottom tanks are used to carry either water ballast or fuel.

Deep tanks are lower cargo spaces used either to carry dry or liquid cargo or water
ballast or fuel oil. In the latter case they are called bunkers.

Cofferdams are spaces between two transverse bulkheads which are used to isolate
tanks or holds and separate them from each other.

The superstructures include all permanent housing above the upper/main deck.

At the fore end there is the forecastle, at the after end there is the poop.

The navigating bridge is the superstructure from which the ship is manoeuvred

and navigated. In the past it was located amidships, today it is usually aft. Vessels
with a bridge superstructure fitted forward are to be found on the Great Lakes
where traffic is busy and optimal visibility is essential).

Other superstructures include:

 quarter decks extending from side to side and

 deck houses not extending from side to side.

Other key elements of the ship are illustrated in the table below.
Modern and Traditional Layouts
Read the parallel descriptions provided below noting where they correspond and where they differ.
They provide a simple model to descibe any kind of ship.
Please note that, by positioning the cursor (arrow) on a word underlined, you can read its translation
into Italian.

A traditional general cargo vessel is, in A modern general cargo vessel can be a
single-or multi-deck ship.
general, a single-or two-deck ship.
The bridge superstructure and the The bridge superstructure and the
engine room are fitted aft (three quartes
engine room are fitted at amidships so
that there are some holds forward of aft or right aft) so that all, or nearly all,
the holds are forward of the engine
the engine room and some holds aft of
it. room.
The holds have ‘tween decks to divide
The holds also have ‘tween decks i.e.
decks dividing up cargo space. up cargo space.

At the fore and after ends of the hull, At the fore and after ends of the hull,
divided up into water- divided up into water-tight
tight compartments by decks and compartments by decks and bulkheads,
bulkheads, there are the fore peak tanks there are the fore peak tanks and the
and the after peak tanks. after peak tanks.
Above the upper deck, at the fore end, Above the upper deck, at the fore end,
forward of n°1 hold there is the forward of n°1 hold there is the
 forecastle. At the after end, the poop
forecastle while, at the after end, there
and the bridge superstructure can be
is the poop.
combined.

Cargo is un/loaded by means of Cargo is un/loaded by means of

derricks (supported by masts or samson derricks (supported by masts or samson
posts). They are stowed fore and aft posts) and by cranes. They are stowed
when the ship is at sea. fore and aft when the ship is at sea.
There usually are two lifeboats, one on There is a suitable number of lifeboats,
the port side, another on the starboard on the port side and on the starboard
side at amidships. side, in line with the bridge
superstructure or aft of it.

Today this kind of cargo ship is no

longer built, but you may happen to see Today this is a common kind of cargo
one in a museum, in a scrapyard or in ship.
backwaters.

The traditional dry cargo ship in the The modern general cargo ship in the
picture above has her engine room and picture above has her engine room and
bridge superstructure amidships so that bridge superstructure three quarters aft
there are three holds forward of the so that there are four holds forward of
engine room and two holds aft of it. the engine room and one hold aft of it.
The holds also have ‘tween decks. The holds also have ‘tween decks.

At the fore and after ends of the hull,

At the fore and after ends of the hull,
divided up into water-tight
divided up into water-tight
compartments by decks and bulkheads,
compartments by decks and bulkheads,
there are the fore peak tanks and the
there are the fore peak tanks and the
after peak tanks.
after peak tanks.
Above the upper deck, at the fore end,
Above the upper deck, at the fore end,
forward of n°1 hold there is the
forward of n°1 hold, there is the
forecastle. The poop and the bridge
forecastle. Right aft, there is the poop.
superstructure are combined aft.

Cargo is un/loaded by means of Cargo is un/loaded by means of the

derricks. The derricks are supported by derricks. The derricks are supported by
 masts and by a samson post. masts.
There are two lifeboats at amidships on There are two lifeboats three quarters
the bridge superstructure, one on the aft on the bridge superstructure, one on
port side and another on the starboard the port side and another on the
side, abaft the funnel. starboard side, abaft the funnel.
There is a jackstaff right forward and There is a jackstaff right forward and
an ensign staff right aft. an ensign staff right aft.

Merchant ships are designed

 to carry cargo and/or passengers or

 to perform special duties.

Cargo ships can be divided into two basic types:

 one type carries dry cargo,

 the other carries liquid cargo.

(O(il) B(ulk) O(re) ships, however, are designed to carry both liquid and dry
cargoes.)

Dry cargo ships include: multi deck vessels, break bulk carriers, container ships,
refrigerated ships.

 Multi deck vessels are a traditional type of dry cargo ship. Their holds
are divided horizontally by one or two 'tween decks make stowage of
individual packages easier.
 Container ships are the most modern type of dry cargo carrier. They
carry containers of standard (20 feet or 40 feet) dimensions.
 Dry bulk cargo is carried in break bulk carriers. These do not have
'tween decks, as cargo is carried loose in their self-trimming holds.
 Perishable goods such as fruit, meat and dairy produce are carried in
refrigerated ships.

Liquid cargo ships include: oil tankers, gas carriers, chemical carriers.

 Oil tankers are the most common type of liquid cargo carrier. They
are often very large so as to carry huge quantities of oil and make
transport more economical.
 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) carriers, Liquefied Petroleum Gas
(LPG) carriers and chemical carriers are other types of liquid bulk
carrier of great importance.
(Chemicals, however, can also be transported in drums in general
cargo ships.)
Passenger ships are fewer in number and type in comparison with cargo vessels

 Passenger liners are the traditional type of passenger ship. Nowadays

the passenger trade is very small and few passenger liners are still
employed on routes from North America to Europe and to the Far
East. They carry some cargo as well as passengers and they usually
operate as cruise ships for part of the year.
 Cruise ships are a type of passenger vessel of growing importance.
These are often converted passenger liners or cargo ships.
 Ferries are a very common type of passenger vessel. Many of them
are also designed to carry vehicles. The latter type, therefore, has
doors and ramps at the bows or stern They offer a daily or weekly
service for passengers and vehicles across channels and narrow seas.

All merchant vessels can operate as either liners or as tramps:

 Liners are employed on regular routes on a fixed time table.

 Tramps do not sail on regular routes and do not keep to a fixed
timetable. They operate where there is cargo for them to carry.

There are types of ship (such as tugs, pilot launches, dredgers, icebreakers,
lightships, lifeboats, etc.) that are designed to do special jobs to help ships and
shipping.

TUGS

A very common type of special duty vessel is the tug. Tugs must be designed to
satisfy three important requirements:
  they must be manoeuvrable
 they must be stable in all conditions
 they must be powerful enough to move ships of far greater size.

Tugs can be divided into four basic types:

 harbour tugs that are designed to help ships in and out of ports and
harbours.
 coastal tugs that go out to help ships in diffculty in coastal waters
 ocean-going tugs that help ships in difficulty in the open sea
 river tugs that are designed for work on rivers and backwaters.

PILOT LAUCHES/BOATS

Pilot launches/ boats are motor boats used in shelterd waters to transport pilots to
and from ships to embark and disembark them. They must be seaworthy as pilots
go out in all weathers.
In the United Kingdom, some port authorities employ their own pilots, but many
pilots are employed by Trinity House, which was founded in 1514.

DREDGERS

The dredger is a smaller type of vessel used to remove the sand and mud from the
beds of channels and areas and deepen them.
There are three main types of dredger:

 bucket dredgers, which have a series of buckets which go down to the

sea bed and scoop up the sand and mud
 suction dredgers, which suck up sand and mud like very large vacuum
cleaners
 grab dredgers, which operate like cranes.
ICEBREAKERS

Icebreakers are mainly used to keep ports and channels open (since ships must use
them all year round) and, therfore, mostly work in northern waters that freeze up in
winter.
They must have powerful engines, very strong hulls and bows specially shaped to
thread down and break sheet ice and make navigable lanes.

LIGHTSHIPS and LIGHTVESSELS

Lightships and lightvessels are sort of floating lighthouses. They are commonly
moored in shallow waters to signal navigational dangers and act as navigational
aids.
They look like ordinary ships but exhibit a light (clearly visible at night) and a
daymark (i.e. distinguishing characteristics in daytime)
Ligntships have their own means of propulsion while lightvessels have no engines
because they are towed into position and anchored there.
They are equipped with a powerful light, a foghorn, a radio beacon (radio faro) and
meteorological equipment.
Most have a crew of approximately twelve.

LIFEBOATS

There are many different types of lifeboat.

There are the lifeboats compulsorily carried onboard ships for safety reasons and
the lifeboats maintained on coasts of maritime nations to rescue people in danger at
sea in the vicinity of the coast.
The latter are specially designed. They must be strong, stable, self-righting,
unsinkable and manoeuvrable.
In the United Kingdom, coastal lifeboats are manned by well trained volunteers and
are supported by voluntary donations.
LENGTH (L)
 Length Overall /
It’s the extreme length from the foremost to
Overall Length
the aftermost ends of the ship
(LOA)

It’s the length of the ship on the load

Length Between
waterline (L.W.L.) between the fore and the
Perpendiculars (Lbp)
after perpendiculars

The fore perpendicular (F.P.) is a vertical line at the point where the fore edge

of the stem cuts the load waterline.
The after perpendicular (A.P.) is a vertical line through the after edge of
the rudderpost or sternpost or the centre of the rudder stock.

BREADTH/BEAM (B)

It’s the greatest breadth measured from side

Extreme Breadth
to side at amidships outside the shell plating

It’s the maximum breadth over frames and

Breadth Moulded it’s measured at amidships outside the frames
but inside the shell/side plating.

DEPTH (D)
It’s the vertical distance at amidships from
the moulded base line i.e. from the top of the
Depth moulded keel to the top of the deck beams at the side
of the uppermost continuous deck, or
underside of deck plating at ship side

DRAUGHT/DRAFT (T)
Roughly speaking, it’s simply the distance from the bottom of the ship to the water
surface.
However
 It’s the summer draft measured from the
Real draft
bottom of the keel to the summer loadline

It’s the summer draft measured from the top

Draft moulded
of the keel to the summer loadline

AIR DRAUGHT/DRAFT OR HEIGHT

Air draft/draught or It’s the height of the exposed part of the ship,
Height masts included, above the summer loadline.

FREEBOARD
It’s the distance from the top of the deck line
(i.e. upper surface of the freeboard deck at
Freeboard
side) to the waterline (i.e. to the centre of the
Plimsoll Mark.)

 The freeboard deck is the uppermost complete deck with permanent means of

closing all openings in its weather portions.
 The deck line is a line 300 mm. long placed amidships. Its upper edge marks the level
at which the top of the freeboard deck, if continued outward, would cut the outside of
the shell plating.
 The Plimsoll Mark or loadline disk is placed directly under the deck line.
 The distance between the top of the deck line and the centre of the disk is
the statutory summer freeboard and indicates the draft to which the ship can be
loaded in summer.
Forward of the disk are placed the loadlines which show the draft the ship may be
loaded to in different seasons and waters.

Please note:
Lloyd’s and A.B.S. (American Bureau of Shipping) dimensions are
always moulded dimensions, i.e. measured inside the shell and deck
plating. Moulded dimensions are especially relevant in shipbuilding (and not so
much in seafaring).
 The loadlines, tonnage mark and deck
line must be painted in white or yellow on a
dark background or in black on a light
background.
All lines are 25 millimetres thick. Their
upper edges mark the level to which they
refer.

The deck line is placed amidships and is

300 millimetres long. Its upper edge marks
the level at which the top of the freeboard
deck, if continued outward, would cut the
outside of the shell plating. In ships which have a rounded sheerstrake, it is placed
at, or sometimes below, the point where the lower edge of the curved plate meets
the flat side plating.

The loadline disk or Plimsoll Mark is placed directly below the deck line. The
distance from the upper edge of the deck line to the centre of the disk is
the statutory summer freeboard .

A vertical line is placed 540 millimetres forward of the disk. On this area are
marked the ordinary loadlines which show the drafts to which the ship may be
loaded. These loading marks allow for the different specific gravities: with the
same cargo, a ship will sink deeper into the water in seas near the equator than she
will in the North Atlantic in winter.
When we speak of tonnage it is important to distinguish
between Tonnage measured by capacity and Tonnage
measured by weight and between the terms: tons and tonnes:

 tons refer to cubic capacity (i.e. volume)

while
 tonnes refer to weight in metric tonnes

Tonnage measured by capacity

Tonnage measured by capacity is based on the international unit

of 100 ft3 or 2,83 m3 equal to one ton.
The term does NOT, therefore, refer to weight as it is derived
from the word tun, which indicated the capacity of a wine cask.
Tonnage measured by capacity includes gross and net tonnage
figures:
  Gross (registered) tonnage (g.r.t. or gt.) is the total of all
permanently enclosed spaces above and below decks, with
certain exceptions, such as the wheelhouse, chart room, radio
room, galley, washing facilities, and other specified spaces
above deck.
 Net (registered) tonnage (n.r.t.) is the earning space of the
ship, i.e. gross tonnage less the crew’s accommodation,
steering gear, anchor working space, workshops, ballast tanks,
and the space for the propelling machinery.
Port and harbour dues are calculated on net tonnage.

Tonnage measured by weight

Tonnage by weight is is the weight of the water displaced by a

vessel. It includes:

o light displacement,the weight of the ship’s hull,

engines, spares and other items necessary for her
working.
o load displacement, the ships weight when fully laden,
i.e. hull, engines, cargo, crew, and everything on board
sinking her down to the summer draught loadline.
o deadweight(d.w or dwt), is the difference between light
and load displacement and therefore gives the weight, in
metric tonnes, of the cargo, ballast, fresh water, fuel,
crew and passengers.

Displacement tonnages are calculated in relation to

draught and the statutory freeboard. Tonnage marks
must be shown on the ship’s side.
A triangular tonnage mark indicates that certain
modified or alternative tonnages have been assigned to a
ship.

The tonnage deck is the upper deck in single-decked

ships and the second deck in all others. It’s used in
measuring ships for tonnage

Cargo Work
Merchant ships are designed to carry cargo. This cargo may be divided into two
basic types:

 bulk cargo, which consists of a single type of goods carried loose

 general cargo, which consists of a variety of goods packed separately.
Break bulk cargo
Bulk cargo is carried in specially designed vessels, therefore stowage presents few
problems while general cargo stowage presents many problems, because each item
has its characteristics and its own type of packaging.

Bulk cargo can be divided into liquid bulk cargo and dry bulk cargo.

 Liquid bulk cargo is carried in tankers. Most tankers are designed to

carry crude oil or its refined products, such as fuel oils. The oil is
carried in tanks. These are connected by a system of pipes to a central
manifold. The cargo is pumped on board at the loading port by shore
pumps. At the discharging 'port, the oil is pumped ashore using the
ship's own pumps.
 Dry bulk cargo is carried in bulk carriers. The cargo is carried in self-
trimming holds.
Dry bulk cargo includes grain, iron-ore, coal, sugar, etc. It is loaded
automatically by buckets •or by a conveyor belt system or through
large tubes.
Although the cargo stows itself, it is important to make sure that it
will not move during the voyage and to maintain the ship's stability.
Dry bulk cargo is unloaded by huge grab cranes or by giant suction
tubes.

General cargo
General cargo can be divided into:

 non-containerized cargo,
 containerized cargo
 refrigerated cargo.

Non-containerized cargo
Non-containerized cargo presents stowage problems, because each commodity has
its own type of packaging and characteristics. Goods may be in bags, bales, cases
or steel drums. Individual pieces of machinery may not be packaged. Some cargoes
such as tobacco and rubber have a strong odour and will taint delicate cargoes such
as tea and rice. Other cargoes such as cement and fertilizers are dusty and leave a
residue behind them. Heavy cargoes must not be stowed on top of fragile cargoes.
Non-containerized cargo is carried in multi-deck vessels and it is un/loaded on
pallets handled by the ship's derricks and by cranes.

   pallet
Containerized cargo
Many types of general cargo are carried in containers of standard dimensions to
help with the problem of stowage.

A container is 8 feet high and 8 feet wide (2.44m x 2.44m) and is usually 20 feet or
40 feet (6.1m or 12.2m) in length.
There are many different kinds of container.
Containers are carried in specially designed container ships (container ships having
a container refrigeration system are called reefers), The containers are stacked both
above and below deck and are un/loaded by special cranes (gantry
cranes,shipstainers, portainers, transtainers).

Refrigerated cargo
Perishable cargoes such as meat, fruit and dairy produce are carried in ships with
refrigerated holds. These holds are designed to keep food at the correct
temperature. Some food such as fish is frozen solid, other food such as fruit is only
chilled. Mutton and lamb are stowed fore and aft, beef when chilled is hung on
hooks. Fruit needs good ventilation.
Refrigerated cargo is loaded by cranes and derricks.

PACKINGS
Task: Look at the pictures and read the captions. Translate the cargo packing terms
into L1.
 Packing and Packaging
The verb to pack can refer either to the process of packing goods or to the use of
the actual material employed in the process (e.g. paper, cardboard, etc).
A distinction is made between packing and packaging.

 Packing refers to the way large quantities of goods are packed for

transport
 Packaging refers to the way individual items are packed/wrapped for
sale.

The choice of the type of packing depends on the type of goods involved, on
transport costs, climatic conditions and on any individual requirements of the
importer and the exporter

Activity: Explain the difference between packing and packaging.

Loading/ Discharging Equipment

By positioning the cursor (arrow) on a word in bold, underlined in the text, you can read its translation
into Italian.
 Masts on general cargo ships may fulfil a number of
functions but their prime use is to carry and support
the derricks. Single masts are usually fitted but many
ships have various forms of bipod masts. Samson posts,
which are very strong masts,are also popular.

Various forms of derrick rig may be used. The commonest

use of the single derrick is a single swinging derrick with a
safe working load between 10 to 80 tonnes.

Adjacent derrick booms may be used as in union purchase. Cargo is lifted from the

hatch and swung overboard by the operator controlling the winch.
The patent Stülcken derrick in the very heavy lift range, can serve two hatches and
has a safe working load of between 80 to 300 tonnes.

         

On modern cargo ships deck cranes replace the derricks. They

usually are an alternative to the union purchase rig. They can
rapidly pick up and land loads anywhere within their working
radius.
The safe working load is generally between 10 and 15 tonnes but larger cranes can
lift from 30 to 40 tonnes.

Dockside cranes are of

different types, perform
different jobs and are
named in different ways,
e.g. straddle carriers or
gantry
cranes, transtainers and
portainers depending on their build and use.

Cargo Handling
By positioning the cursor (arrow) on a word in bold, underlined in the text, you can read its translation
into Italian.
The officer in charge of the loading, stowage and safe delivery of cargo is the First
Mate.
S/He will have had information about the cargo to be loaded before it arrives at
the quay or at ship’s side so as to be able to draw up or check the cargo plan.

The stability of the ship has to be considered since the ship must not be too stiff nor
too tender to be safe in rough seas.
It is also necessary to make sure that the cargo is securely stowed to prevent it
from shifting and affecting the ship’s stability and seaworthiness. Moreover, if the
ship is to discharge at more than one port, it is important to stow the cargo for the
first port of discharge in the upper part of the hold. It must therefore be loaded last.

The handling of cargo into and out of the ship’s holds is the work of
the stevedores. They work in gangs, each of which is under the charge of a
gang foreman. When loading general cargo as many as 8 stevedores may work in
the hold and 6 on the quayside or in the lighter, alongside the ship.
The foreman stands at the hatch when cargo is being unloaded and supervises in
the ship’s hold when loading. The gang member who stands on deck near the hatch
to advise the crane driver or winchman is called hatch(way)man.
The cargo is checked as it is loaded by a tallyman.

Port-related Terminology
By positioning the cursor (arrow) on a word in bold, underlined in the text, you can read its translation
into Italian.
Words in bold but not underlined are of particular relevance but are not translated.
HARBOUR, PORT, HAVEN are synonymous but each also has a specific
meaning:

PORT
It is a place, including both the harbour and the adjacent town,
offering facilities suitable for un/loading goods, dis/embarking people, etc. active
in shipping or other maritime activities. A SEAPORT is a port, or town, either
located on the seacoast or accessible to seagoing vessels.

HARBOUR (harbor in American English)

It is a place of security and comfort, a small bay or other sheltered part of an area
of water, usually well protected against high waves and strong currents, and deep
enough to provide anchorage for ships and other craft.
Port facilities may or may not be present.

HAVEN
It is a term only used either in proper nouns (e.g. Pearl Harbour) or metaphorically
giving the idea of a sheltered refuge. (e.g. a safe haven)

OUTER PORT
Body of water protected outside the inner or 'real' port, right for maneuvering or
stopping or for accommodating the largest ships

ROADSTEAD/ROADS
It is an area of sheltered waters with good holding ground, in which ships may
anchor and ride safely. In general the roadstead is the natural outer harbour of the
largest commercial ports.

HYDROPORT/SEAPLANE STATION
A body of water, provided with the appropriate equipment for the takeoff and
landing of seaplanes.

MARINA
It is a place which usually provides fuel, fresh water and other facilities
besides mooring for yachts and pleasure boats.

Port Structures
The terms BREAKWATER, MOLE, QUAY/QUAYSIDE, WHARF, PIER and
JETTY are synonymous since they all refer to solid artificial landing places built
to accommodate vessels and to receive and discharge passengers or cargo but each
also has its specific meaning.

BREAKWATER or MOLE
It is a massive port structure made of masonry or large stone blocks laid in the sea
to protect the port from waves and currents.
Sometimes, PIER or JETTY are used to mean the same.

QUAY/QUAYSIDE
It is a paved strengthened bank, a solid artificial landing place located along the
shore, parallel to a navigable body of water built for loading/unloading ships.

WHARF (plural: WHARVES)
It is the oldest term in English referring to port structures and denotes any large
structure of timber, masonry, cement, earth or other materials built parallel or at
an angle to the navigable waters with sufficient depth of water (i.e. a basin) to
accommodate vessels and to receive and discharge passengers or cargo.
The term is often replaced with PIER.

PIER .
It is a construction work projecting into the water with sufficient depth of water
alongside (i.e. a basin) to accommodate vessels, also used as a promenade or
landing place for passengers. It carries the idea of greater length than a WHARF
and is interchangeable with WHARF.
JETTY
It may refer to a small pier of timbers for boats, yachts, and fishing boats
(fisherman jetty) but it is may also be used to describe a pier for large ships, e.g.
tanker jetty ot T-jetty, that projects into the water.
It may be also used to mean a breakwater built to protect a river mouth or a harbour
entrance.

LANDING PLACE
It is a very general term referring to a place suitable for landing and and getting
ashore and onboard. It may be either natural or man-made.

BERTH
It is the place allotted to a ship where she lies at anchor or is made fast by mens
of mooring lines.

BASIN
It usually refers to the water space between two piers designed to accommodate
vessels.

DOCK
It is an artificial basin or enclosure in a harbour or river for the reception of ships,
often equipped with means for controlling the water height, such as
a lock and floodgates .
It is sometimes used (wrongly) by seamen to refer to a WHARF or PIER.

WAREHOUSE
It is a building where goods are stored.

TERMINAL
It is defined as a single man-made facility for accommodating, loading/discharging
ships and for storing, stacking and handling cargo ashore (e.g. "oil terminal", "bulk
cargo terminal", "livestock terminal", "container terminal").
A passenger terminal coordinates both the efficient handling of passenger vessels
and the reception of the passengers.

Useful Terms

 To moor, to dock, to berth

 Mooring, docking, berthing
  To come alongside (the pier, the quay, etc.)
 To berth end-on, to dock bow-first
 To berth stern-on, to dock stern-first
 To anchor
 To make fast

Examples from SMCP ANNEX IV-A/ 5.7.2 Berthing

 We will berth port side alongside.

 We will berth starboard side alongside.
 We will moor to buoy(s) ahead and astern.
 We will moor alongside.
 We will moor to dolphins.

Note: A dolphin is a man-made structure that extends above the water level and is
not connected to the shore. A dolphin typically consists of a number of piles which
are driven into the seabed or riverbed and which are connected above the water
level to provide a platform or fixing point. They are used to extend a berth (a
berthing dolphin) or to provide a mooring point (a mooring dolphin). They are also
used to house lights or daybeacons and display regulatory information.

The Master is the man in charge of a ship. He is responsible for the ship, her cargo
and the safety of the crew. He must be a well qualified experienced navigator. His
correct title is Master but he is addressed as ‘Captain’.

The organization of the crew of a cargo ship is changing, but it is still customary to
find Deck, Engine, Catering and Radio Departments in ships of a reasonable
size. Each department is made up of a varied number of officers, petty
officers and ratings.

Deck

OFFICERS
Chief/(First) Officer/ Mate
Second Officer/Mate
3rd Officer/Mate
(4th Officer/Mate)
Navigating Cadet
PETTY OFFICERS
Boatswain (Bosun)
Carpenter
RATINGS
Helmsmen / Quartermasters
(U.K.) Able Seamen (A. B.)
(U.K.) Efficient deck hands (E.D.H.)
(U.K.) Ordinary seamen (O.S.)

The Master is assisted by the Chief Officer/Mate who is the head of the Deck

Department.
In his turn the Chief Officer is assisted by a Second Officer/Mate, a Third
Officer/Mate and sometimes a Fourth Officer/Mate. Several companies employ
a First Officer as well as a Chief Officer.

The Deck Department also includes a Boatswain (Bosun) and a Carpenter, both

petty officers and a number of ratings.

The Helmsmen or Quartermasters are ratings. On British ships there are also
several grades of seamen including Able Seamen (AB), Efficient Deck Hands
(EDH) and Ordinary seamen (OS).

Navigating Cadets may be carried for training purposes.

Engine

OFFICERS
Chief Engineer
2nd Engineer
3rd Engineer
4th Engineer
(5th Engineer)
Electrical Officer
Engine(er) Cadets
PETTY OFFICERS
Storekeeper
Donkeyman
Pumpman
RATINGS
Firemen
Greasers

The Chief Engineer is the head of the Engine Department. He is assisted by

a Second, Third, Fourth and, sometimes, Fifth Engineer. An Electrical
Officer may also be carried.

The engine room petty officers are the Storekeeper and the Donkeyman. On

tankers there is also a Pumpman. He, too, is a petty officer.

The engine room ratings are Firemen, Greasers, Oilers.

Engineer Cadets may also be carried for training purposes.

Catering
OFFICERS
Chief Steward
Purser
PETTY OFFICERS
GALLEY: Ship’s Cook
SALOON: Second Steward
RATINGS
GALLEY: Cooks
SALOON: Stewards
Junior ratings

The Catering Department, divided into Saloon Section and Galley Section, is

under the Chief Steward.

The Saloon Section is headed by the Second Steward, the Galley Section is under
the Ship’s Cook. Both are usually petty officers.

They are assisted by several stewards and cooks and by a number of junior

ratings.

Radio

OFFICERS
Chief Radio Officer

The Radio Department is usually made up of only one man: the Radio Officer. On
ships where continuous radio watches are kept there may be up to three radio
officers: Chief Radio Officer, Second Radio Officer and Third Radio Officer.

By positioning the cursor (arrow) on a word underlined in the text, you can read its translation into
Italian.
A ship at sea is subject to a number of forces:

1. static forces (when the ship is floating in still water):

o a. the ship's weight, acting vertically downward
o b. the water pressure, acting vertically upward (known
as buoyancy) and perpendicularly to the outside surface of
the quickworks
2. dynamic forces (when the ship is in motion).

When a ship is floating in still water the ship's weight and the
buoyancy are equal and act in opposite directions.

o The point where the downward weight acts is the centre of

gravity
o The point where the upward pressure is applied is called
the centre of buoyancy

When a ship is floating upright and motionless in perfectly calm

water, the centre of gravity 'G' and the centre of buoyancy 'B' are on
the same vertical line.

If the ship is made to heel over at an angle by the external forces of

wind and waves, the centre of gravity 'G' will remain in the same
position but the centre of buoyancy 'B' will move outward to a new
position 'B1' in the direction of the heel.
If a vertical line is drawn through the new centre of buoyancy, it
intersects the original vertical line at a point known
as metacentre 'M'.

The two vertical forces now acting on the ship are no longer along the
same line and form what is known as a couple or torque , which can
either bring the vessel back to the upright position or push her further
over.

If the centre of gravity remains below the metacentre, the couple will
return the ship to the upright position.
 If the centre of gravity moves above the metacentre, the ship
will capsize.

The ability of the ship to resist the external forces and return
automatically to the upright position is known as her stability.

<br
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USEFUL TERMINOLOGY
 to list
 to heel (over)
 to keel (over)
 to lean
 to slant
 to cant
 to capsise

 to float
 to sink-sank-sunk
 to founder

 upright
 on an even keel

</br
</br

By positioning the cursor (arrow) on a word underlined in the text, you can read its translation into
Italian.
STRESS: it is a load or force acting on a piece of material or on a structure.
It is usually expressed in kilograms per square millimetre (Kg/mm²).

STRAIN: it is the distortion in a material due to a stress.

Local increase of stress, called 'stress concentration' may be dangerous. It is at its

worst where square-cornered holes are cut out of plates. It occurs at a lesser degree
in the region of round holes or holes with rounded corners

Stresses are of four main types:

1. TENSILE stresses tend to increase the length.

2. COMPRESSIVE stresses tend to decrease the length or to

crush the material or to cause it to buckle.

3. SHEARING stresses: tend to shear materials across or to make

the component parts slide over each other.

4. BENDING stresses try to bend a piece of material.

If a girder or beam is bent, the greatest tensile and compressive stresses occur at the
top and bottom.
Somewhere between the two there is a line, called neutral axis, at which these
stresses cease to exist.
Shearing stresses are, however, least at the top and bottom and greater near the
neutral axis.

Stresses in ships may be divided into two classes: structural stresses and local
stresses.

A) Structural stresses
:

Hogging: it is a longitudinal bending stress which may occur when too much
weight is placed at the ends in loading or when the ship is riding on the crest of a
wave (The hull is supported by extra buoyancy amidships while bow and stern,
with less water to support them, tend to droop.)

Sagging: it is a longitudinal bending stress which may occur when too much
weight is placed at amidships in loading or when the two ends of the hull are
supported on waves with a trough amidships (There is less buoyancy amidships and
extra buoyancy at the ends with a tendency of the ship to bend downwards into the
trough)

Racking it is a transverse stress which comes mainly on the corners of the ship and
occurs when a ship is rolling. The deck tends to move laterally relative to the
bottom structure and the shell on one side tends to move vertically relative to the
other side.

Torsion : it is a stress that occurs when a ship is subject to a twisting moment

or 'torque' , e.g. when a ship is heading obliquely to a wave.

Water pressure: it tends to push in the sides and bottom of the ship.
Drydocking: it is a transverse bending stress; it's the tendency of the ship to sag at
the bilges when in drydock supported by keel blocks.

B) Local stresses

Panting: it is an in and out motion of the plating in the bows as a ship

is pitching and is caused by unequal water pressure as the bows pass through
successive waves.

Pounding: it is caused when the ship, driven into head seas, is pitching and her
bow lifts clear of the water and then comes down heavily. It occurs over an area of
the bottom shell aft of the collision bulkhead.

Local Weights: it is a stress caused by local weights in a ship , e.g. engines or

exceptional cargoes.

Vibration : it is caused by the engines, propellers, etc. in the after part of the ship.

THE SHIP’S MOTIONS

A ship at sea has six degrees of freedom,
 rolling: a ship is said to be rolling when the bow and stern rise and
fall with the oncoming waves.

 pitching: a ship is said to be pitching when the port and starboard

sides rise and fall with waves coming from abeam.

 heaving: a ship is said to be heaving when the whole ship rises bodily
and then sinks into the trough of the wave.

 yawing: a ship is said to be yawing when her bow is pushed to port

and then to starboard.

 swaying: a ship is said to be swaying when the whole ship moves

bodily first to port and then to starboard.
  surging: a ship is said to be surging when she is pushed forward by
the waves and seems to move backwards when she falls back into the
trough.

Of these motions. only rolling can be effectively reduced .by means of a stabilising
system that provides an opposite force to that attempting to roll the ship , i.e by
fitting fixed bilge keels, fin stabilisers or anti-rolling tanks.

FIN STABILISERS

Fin stabilisers are usually limited to passenger ships since they provide accurate
and effective roll stabilisation but require a complex installation.

There usually is one or more pairs of fins fitted one on each side of the ship.

The fins may either

 be retractable, i.e. pivoting or sliding within the ship’ hull, or

 fixed.

The size of the fins is very small compared to the size of the ship and is governed
by factors such as the ship breadth, draft, displacement, and so on.

The fins are rectangular in shape and streamlined in section. The aerofoil sections
can be all-movable, with or without flaps or partly fixed, partly movable. The fins
are usually hydraulically tilted.

The fins apply a righting moment to the ship as she heels over, i.e. is inclined by a
wave or force on one side. The forward speed of the ship enables the fins to
generate the thrust (spinta) which results in the righting moment. The effectiveness
of the fins as stabilisers depends upon their speed of movement, which must be
rapid from one extreme point to the other.

The angle of tilt of the fin and the resulting moment on the ship is determined by a
sensing control system. The operating system can be compared to that of the
steering gear (apparato di governo): a signal from the control unit causes a
movement of the fin which, on reaching the desired value, is brought to rest.
The fin movement takes place as a result of a hydraulic power unit incorporating a
type of variable displacement pump. The control system which signals the
movement of the fins utilises two gyroscopes, one of which senses movements
from the vertical and the other the rolling velocity.

Bilge Keels
Bilge keels are intended to resist rolling. Their effects are complex, but may be
summarised as follows:

 (a) Direct resistance between bilge keel and water has a

comparatively weak effect.
 (b) They slightly increase the ship's period of roll.
 (c) They upset the transverse streamlines of the ship's hull and
thus set up eddy-currents and increase the 'wave-making
resistance'.
 (d) They increase water pressure over a large area of the ship's
hull and this pressure acts in such a direction as to damp the
rolling.

For their protection, bilge keels should always be arranged to lie within the line of
the ship's side and that of the bottom of the floors. If they were to project beyond
these limits, they would be more liable to damage.
Bilge keels are, anyway, sometimes ripped off, however carefully they are
positioned, if the ship touches the ground.So, it is important to construct them so
that, if this happens, the ship's shell plating will remain intact. For this reason, the
outer connection is made less strong than that to the shell plating.
In large ships, where the bilge keels are very deep, they may be constructed as
shown below.

Unless they are carefully designed, the ends of bilge keels tend to produce stress
concentrations which can cause the bilge plating to crack. To prevent this, the ends
of the bilge keel should be tapered-off gradually and should end over a floor or tank
side bracket. A doubling plate should be welded to the bilge plating at this point.