Chapter 6: Coordination

Textbook pages
84–97

Chapter overview
This chapter covers the structure of the nervous system, the senses, the structure and function of
the eye and reflex arcs.

What to expect
Specification areas covered:
2.87 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and is linked to
sense organs by nerves

2.88 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical impulses along
nerves into and out of the central nervous system, resulting in rapid responses

2.89 understand the role of neurotransmitters at synapses

2.90 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the withdrawal of a
finger from a hot object

2.91 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor

2.92 understand the function of the eye in focusing on near and distant objects, and in responding to
changes in light intensity

The content in the chapter is quite straightforward and offers several opportunities for practical
work. There are opportunities to develop mathematical skills. Possible homework tasks include:

 completing worksheet questions

Teaching notes
 There are many simple practical opportunities that can be used as demonstrations and / or
class practicals. Some, although not strictly covered by the specification (e.g. colour vision),
are good enrichment opportunities and also help students to develop an excellent feel for
the topic as a whole.
 A good starting point for the topic is a consideration of sense organs and how we detect
changes around us. This can be demonstrated by use of a senses practical ‘circus’ (see
practicals) and getting students to describe the different senses and their functions.
 As part of the sense organs, students can carry out a range of practicals (see practicals), such
as mapping the blind spot (relate this to the retina structure), identifying which is their
dominant eye, mapping colour vision and observing the effect of ‘tiring out’ different types
of cone cells by staring at a coloured shape.
 If an eye focusing model is available, it should be used to demonstrate the effect of changing
the shape of the lens on focusing. Convex lenses of different thickness (strength) should be
examined to show the effect of lens thickness on focusing. A 3D model of the lens helps
students to understand the effect of ciliary muscles on focusing.
 Optical illusions can be viewed to show visual perception.

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  A drawstring threaded through material (such as a gym bag) is a good way of demonstrating
the effect of contraction of circular muscles (and also ciliary muscles).
 The sensitivity of different areas of the body can be illustrated by getting students to identify
the shortest distance that the points of a hairpin can detect as two points (see practicals).
This distribution of touch receptors can be reintroduced by getting students to roll a marble
around on a bench between their crossed first and second fingers (the sensation will be of
two marbles). With more-able groups, the idea of the sensory cortex of the brain can be
introduced and students shown the sensory homunculus and map of the brain.
 Students should be able to recognise sensory, relay and motor neurones and identify parts
such as the axon. This is best done as an introduction to reflexes and then is reinforced by
carrying out reflex practicals
 There are many ways of testing reflexes such as catching a falling ruler or pressing a switch
when a light goes on, and there are also websites that can be used (e.g. sheepdash on a BBC
webpage). The ruler-drop practical to determine the speed of impulse travel when catching
a falling ruler detected by sight and touch is very good. This practical also shows that
synapses cause a delay in transmission of the impulse (sight pathway has more synapses
than the touch pathway so the speed of transmission is slower). Class data can be collated to
show the variation in reflex speeds.
 There are many videos of 100m sprint races available on the internet with false starts. The
website http://condellpark.com/kd/sprintlogistic.htm has lots of data on sprinters reflexes
and false starts that are less than 0.1s after the gun. Students can analyse parts of this data.
 The comparison of nervous and endocrine systems is best left until hormones have been
considered.

Differentiation
 There are many opportunities for enrichment:
o the roles of rods and cones can be examined by mapping colour vision
o the parts of the brain can be considered, in particular the sensory cortex as part of a
practical to compare sensitivity of different areas of skin
o optical illusions can be discussed
o corrective lenses for long and short sight can be considered.
 For less-able students, it is often beneficial for them to make posters of reflex arcs, and
models of the eye showing the main structures. If the ruler-drop practical is performed, it
may be better to restrict the analysis to a comparison of reflex times rather than speed of
impulse. Focusing of the lens should be considered in a practical context and demonstrated
with different lenses. Students can also trace the pathway of a reflex through their own
body.
 It is beneficial for all students (but particularly less-able students) to make a glossary of
terms (ciliary muscles, suspensory ligaments, etc.).

Possible misunderstandings
 Many students find accommodation in the eye very difficult and confuse the thickness of the
lens, the contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles and the tautness of the suspensory
ligaments. A table should be constructed to show the states of the structures when viewing
close and distant objects. If available, an eye model should be used or different strengths of
lenses.
 Many students mix-up the role of the ciliary muscle in focusing with the circular muscle in the
iris. The terms should be made clear and compared.

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not copyright free.
Practicals
Practi cals listed in the textbook

There are no practicals in this chapter.

Additi onal practi cals

 Investigating the senses as part of a ‘circus’ whereby students try taste tests (sweet, sour,
bitter and salt flavours), scents (e.g. coffee, vanilla, mint), water of different temperatures,
textures of different sandpaper grades, sounds of tuning forks with different pitches, and
colour blindness Ishihara charts. Students try each part of the practical and explain which
senses they use. A magnetic nail can also be included as a discussion point (some birds can
sense magnetic fields although humans cannot).
 Investigating the blind spot and which eye is dominant.
 Although the function of rods and cones is not on the specification, mapping the ability of
the eye to see colour is a good practical. Students work in pairs and a coloured pen is placed
in the outstretched hand of one student; the arm is rotated into the field of view until the
correct colour is stated.
 Investigating ‘bleaching’ of cone cells. Students stare at illuminated squares of different
colours for 2 minutes and then stare at white illuminated paper. If a blue square has been
used, blue cones will be ‘tired’ and the white paper will seem to have a yellow square as only
red and green cones are active.
 Investigating the minimum distance that two points of a hair grip can be identified on
different areas of skin (back of hand, forearm, thumb). After this practical, students should
cross their index and middle fingers over and roll a marble between these fingers – it will
give the sensation of two marbles. The roll of touch receptors and the brain can be discussed
– this should be done with a brain ‘homunculus’ image. Temperature sensitivity can also be
considered by placing warm and cold probes on the skin.
 Comparing the speed of nerve impulse transmission for sight and touch reflexes by catching
a ruler. A ruler should be dropped between thumb and index finger and caught as quickly as
possible. The time taken to respond can be calculated by using the formula

time taken =
√ distance∈cm . The speed of the two reflexes can be calculated by measuring
490
the path the impulse takes around the body and dividing by the time taken. Sight should
have a slower speed due to a larger number of synapses which must be crossed by diffusion
of neurotransmitters. Students can discuss why sprinters are ‘false-started’ when they set off
less than 0.1s after the gun.
 Students can investigate optical illusions to appreciate how the brain processes information.

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not copyright free.