See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/280229288

Improved sorghum cultivation and value-addition perspectives.

Book · September 2014

CITATION READS

1 8,814

3 authors, including:

Rajendra R Chapke J. V. Patil

ICAR - Indian Institute of Millets Research Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth
149 PUBLICATIONS   177 CITATIONS    271 PUBLICATIONS   1,806 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Second green revolution in eastern india View project

Dissemination of sorghum technology View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Rajendra R Chapke on 21 July 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Model training course on improved sorghum

cultivation and value addition perspectives

Contents

1. Improved genotypes for rabi sorghum .............................................................................................2

2. Pests of sorghum and their management .......................................................................................7
3. Sorghum for food, feed, fodder and fuel .........................................................................................14
4. Production technologies of sorghum in rice-fallows ....................................................................16
5. Sweet sorghum: An important biofuel crop ..................................................................................22
6. Sorghum: An important forage crop ...............................................................................................30
7. Value addition in sorghum-Potential of sorghum for industrial uses in India and
entrepreneurship development ............................................................................................................34
8. Post harvest management of grain sorghum................................................................................41
9. Disease management in sorghum and sweet sorghum ..............................................................48
10. Field demonstrations on improved sorghum technologies and its impact ..........................54
11. Sweet sorghum syrup and jaggery ...............................................................................................61
12. Sweet sorghum – Juice quality and ethanol production..........................................................67
13. Prospects for sorghum biofortification .........................................................................................70
14. Current status of sweet sorghum biofuel industrial experiences for pilot–
production of bioethnol ..........................................................................................................................80
15. Nutritional benefits of sorghum with special emphasis on value addition .........................86
16. High yielding sorghum cultivars for kharif ................................................................................89
17. Seed production in sorghum & IPRs ............................................................................................94
18. Extension reform scheme under NMAET during XII Plan...................................................106

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 1 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

1. Improved genotypes for rabi sorghum

Prabhakar, N. Kannababu, Ch. Shashidhar Reddy & DM Bahadure
Centre on Rabi Sorghum (DSR), Solapur

Introduction: In India, sorghum is grown both in kharif and rabi seasons. While grain from kharif
season, in recent years, has been used primarily for animal feed, that from rabi season sorghum is
mostly used for human consumption. The crop residue (stover) after the harvest of kharif and rabi
season sorghums is a valuable source of fodder for both milch and draught animals, especially
during dry seasons. Sorghum is also an excellent source of green fodder because of its wide
adaptation, rapid growth and drought tolerance.

Rabi sorghum is an important dry land crop grown in the Deccan Plateau on 5.0 m ha area in the
states of Maharashtra (3.2 m ha), Karnataka (1.4 m ha) and Andhra Pradesh (0.38 m ha). It is the
major source of food and fodder and as such it greatly influences the economic well being of the
population in the region. It is mostly grown in medium (45 to 90 cm) and deep (>90 cm) black soils
of dry semi-arid region under receding moisture conditions. The productivity of the crop in general is
low (719 kg/ha). Moisture stress in GS-2 due to a unique situation of growing the crop on receding
soil moisture in medium to shallow soils, susceptibility to shoot fly, charcoal rot and low temperature
affecting crop growth as well as fertility restoration in hybrids are the major factors responsible for
low yield.

Rabi sorghum in different agroclimatic zones across states

Maharashtra: Western Maharashtra plain zone (Zone V), scarce rainfall zone (Zone VI) and central
Maharashtra plateau zone (assured rainfall zone) (zone VIII), Eastern Vidarbha zone (Zone IX).
The major rabi sorghum districts include Solapur, Sangli, Satara-east, Pune east,
Ahmadanagar, parts of Nasik, Dhule, Beed, Aurangabad, Parbhani and Osmanabad.
Karnataka: Northern and central parts of the state consisting of entire Bijapur, Bagalkota, Bellary,
Koppal districts, parts of Raichur, Gadag, Dharwad, Belgaum, Bidar and Gulbarga districts.
Andhra Pradesh: Parts of Prakasham, Kurnool, Anantapur, Cuddapah, Ranga Reddy, Medak,
Nizamabad, Mahabubnagar, and Adilabad encompassing agro climatic zones of North
Telangana,(Zone IV) South Telangana (ZoneV) and scarce rainfall zone (Zone VI).
Tamil Nadu: The major sorghum growing districts include Coimbatore, Dindigal, Thriuchirapalli,
Salem, Perambalur, Karur, Dharmapuri, Erode, Vellore, Theni and Namakkal.
Gujarat: Districts of Surat, Bharuch, and Baroda.

Varietal Improvement in rabi sorghum: There are many better varieties for rabi season, besides
5-decade old local variety M35-1, like the recently released national varieties/hybrids (CSV-216R,
CSV-18, CSV-22, CSH-15R, CSH-19R, CSV-26, CSV-29R) and state released (Shallow soils-Sel.3,
Mauli, Phule Anuradha; medium soils- Mauli, Phule Chitra, Parbhani Moti, Phule Suchitra; deep
soils/irrigated conditions-Phule Vasudha, Phule Revati, DSV-4, DSV-5 and PKV Kranti). Although
several hybrids have been developed and released for rabi season cultivation, the area covered with
hybrids is almost negligible. Lack of appropriate hybrids with acceptable grain quality adapted to
different agro-ecological situations of rabi season characterized by terminal drought, low
temperatures and biotic stresses like shoot fly infestation is a major constraint for higher productivity
(Rao et. al. 1986, Rana et.al. 1997). As most of the rabi sorghums are grown under receding
moisture situation without any supplementary irrigation, the heterosis can be exploited to break the
yield plateau and enhance national productivity from present levels of 769 kg to 900 kg/ha.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 2 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Development of early maturing cultivars helps escape terminal drought in rabi and will ensure higher
yield in medium to shallow soils where crop failure is frequent. Incorporating greater levels of
resistance to shoot fly, charcoal rot, drought and cold can enhance the stability of the production.
Hence, intensive efforts are necessary to develop rabi sorghum varieties/ hybrids incorporating all
the above characters including earliness to tackle difficult situation of low productivity under
receding soil moisture condition.
Historical aspect: Focused breeding on rabi sorghum was initiated in the early seventies. These
breeding efforts led to the central release of varieties like Muguti. Heterosis breeding led to the
central release of the hybrids like CSH-7R, CSH-8R and CSH-12R. These cultivars were notable in
two respects. First, that none of these cultivars succeeded in gaining consistent acceptability from
farmers at a scale to effect a discernible impact. Second, that the breeders came to realise the
complexities in the genetic up gradation of yield in rabi sorghum. Following were the lessons learnt
out of these programmes,
• The traditional and widely preferred land races are ineffective as donors of favourable gene
complexes and as parents in heterosis breeding,
• The kharif genetic diversity though very effective in achieving quick yield increase is bedeviled
with low adaptability and grain quality, and
• Critical elements of rabi sorghum adaptability are resistance to shoot fly, charcoal rot, moisture
stress and low temperature.

The second phase of rabi sorghum breeding with emphasis on hybrid cultivars was initiated in the
late eighties. During the first eight years of this phase, 199 entries were evaluated in the AICSIP
Initial Varietal Trials, out of which 43 were proposed to the Advanced Varietal Trials. This resulted
in the identification of SPV 839 and its central release as CSV-14R. During this period 250
experimental hybrids were evaluated in the AICSIP Initial Hybrid Trials. These trials resulted in the
identification of two hybrids, SPH 504 and SPH 677 for central release as CSH-13R and CSH-
15R.Variety CSV-14R has no significant yield advantage over M35-1 and is comparable to the latter
in most of the adaptability traits. CSH-13R has significant yield superiority over M35-1 but is highly
vulnerable to shoot fly and low temperature and has inferior grain quality. The case of CSH-15R
having a rabi based MS line (104A) developed at Mohol Centre is different from CSH-13R has a
marginal yield advantage over M35-1. Rabi sorghum hybrids will have a tangible impact only when
the MS and R lines having the season adaptability and desired combining ability are developed
(Rao, 1986)

Hybrid vs. Variety : This is a continuing dilemma in the minds of rabi sorghum breeders. The hybrid
school point to the quantum jump made possible in productivity through yield heterosis and
highlights the heterozygote advantage against unfavourable growing conditions. The variety school
dismisses the heterozygote advantage theory under rabi growing conditions and illustrates the
failure of high yielding hybrids. It is also argued that the adaptability under rabi conditions could be
achieved by selectively preserved gene complexes rather than by mere heterozygosity. It is further
argued that the traditional rabi land races are notable for their high adaptability across an array of
micro and macro-environments under the rabi sorghum farming areas (Nerkar, 1998).

Genetic Improvement: Genetic improvement strategy for increasing productivity of rabi sorghum,
therefore, should offer flexibility to develop,
(i) Varieties with adaptability to specific soil depths (shallow, medium and deep) and
superiority over the existing land races in one or more agronomic or quality attributes,
(ii) Rabi adapted parental lines capable of breeding high heterotic hybrids significantly superior
to varieties under rained management conditions and

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 3 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

(iii) Rabi adapted and high input responsive hybrids for irrigated conditions.

Rabi sorghum has an important role in the food and fodder security in the dry land areas of deccan
plateau. Its regional importance as a food crop is as much as that of wheat and rice at national
level. The continuing low productivity of the crop and its marginal production system are challenges
to the researchers. A long way still remains to reach towards the goal of increasing rabi sorghum
yield. The research and technology need a thorough relook and introspection to reset attainable
targets with time frame and agenda of vigorous action.

Table 1: Rabi sorghum varieties and hybrids recommended: State-wise

State Area of adptation Hybrids Varieties

Maharashtra Shallow soils Nil Se. 3, CSV 26, Mauli, Phule Anuradha
Medium soils CSH-15R M35-1, Mauli, Phule Chitra, Suchitra,
Parbhani Moti, CSV14R, DSV 4 and CSH
15R
Deep soils CSH-15R, CSH-19R, CSV 18, CSV22, CSV 216R(Phule Yashoda),
SPH-1666 PKV Kranti, CSV 14R, DSV 5, CSV-29R,
DSV 4
Irrigated conditions CSH-15R, CSH-19R, Phule Vasudha, Phule Revati, CSV 216R
SPH-1666 (Phule Yashoda), DSV 4, CSV-29R
Karnataka Dry zones CSH-12R,CSH 15R M 35-1, DSV 5
Transitional zones CSH-13R,CSH 15R CSV 8R, CSV 14R
Irrigated zone DSV 4, CSV-29R
CSH-12R,CSH- DSV5, CSV-29R
13R,CSH-15R
Andhra Early rabi of CSH 13R, CSH 15R CSV 8R, CSV 14R,
Pradesh Rayalaseema
Normal rabi areas CSH-13R,CSH 15R M 35-1, CSV 8R, CSV 14R, CSV-29R
Tamil Nadu Entire rabi area CSH 10, K.tall CO 24, CO 25
CSH 13R CSV 14R
Summer irrigated CSH 13R, CSH 15R CO 26, CO 24, CO 25,
areas CSH 3, CSH 5 CSV 8R, CSV 14R
Gujarat Entire rabi zone CSH 13R, CSH 15R CSV 14R,CSV 8R

Table 2: Salient features of popular rabi sorghum hybrids and varieties

S. Cultivar Grain yeild Dry fodder yield Plant hieght Duration Salient features
No. kg/acre tones/acre (cm) (Days)
1 CSH 15R 1278 kg/acre 2.23 t/acre 180-200 cm 112-115 Suitable for medium to deep soils for rainfed
(3194 (5.57t/ha) Days & irrigated areas. Tall, large semi compact
kg/ha) panicle. Pearly white round & very bold grain,
tolerant to shoot fly & charcoal rot and free
threshing
2 Phule 1250 kg/acre 3.0-3.2 t/acre 220-240 cm 115-125 Suitable for deep soils & under irrigated
Revati (3000-3500 kg/ha (7.5-8.2 t/ha) Days conditions. Pearly white round & very bold
grain, tolerant to shoot fly & charcoal rot
3 Phule 1200-1400 kg/acre 2.8-3.0 t/acre 180-210 cm 116-120 Suitable for irrigated areas. Pearly white
Vasudha (3000-3500 kg/ha) (7-7.5 t/ha) Days lustrous & Medium bold grain, tolerant to
shoot fly & charcoal rot
4 Phule 800-1000 kg/acre 2.2-2.6 t/acre 200-220 cm 112-115 Suitable for medium soils. Plumpy, lustrous &
Chitra (2000-2500 kg/ha) (5.5-6.5 t/ha) Days medium bold grain, good grain & fodder
quality, tolerant to shootfly, charcoal rot,
drought and non lodging
5 CSV 216R 800-1000 kg/acre 2.8-3.2 t/acre 220-250 cm 120-125 Suitable for medium to deep soils in rainfed &
(Phule (2000-2500 kg/ha) Days irrigated areas. Pearly white round, lustrous &
Yashoda) (7-8 t/ha) medium bold grain, Tolerant to shoot fly and
drought

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 4 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

S. Cultivar Grain yeild Dry fodder yield Plant hieght Duration Salient features
No. kg/acre tones/acre (cm) (Days)
6 M35-1 832 kg/acre 2.44 t/acre 170-210 cm 115-118 Suitable for medium to deep soils in rainfed
(2080 kg/ha) (6.11 t/ha) Days areas. Oval shaped semi compact earheads.
Pearly white round, lustrous & medium bold
grain, tolerant to shootfly, charcoal rot &
drought
7 CSV 18 1400-1520 kg/acre 3.4-3.6 t/acre 220-240 cm 120-126 Suitable for irrigated areas. Yellow white &
(3500-3800 kg/ha) (8.7-9.0 t/ha) Dyas bold grain, tolerant to aphid & non lodging
8 CSV 22 920 kg/acre 2.84 t/acre 180-200 cm 116-120 Suitable for medium to deep soils in rainfed &
(2300 kg/ha) (7.1 t/ha) Days irrigated areas. Pearly white round, lustrous &
medium bold grain, tolerant to charcoal rot &
shootfly,
9 CSV 26 650-720 kg/acre 1.8-2.4 t/acre 180-200 cm 112-115 Suitable for shallow soils, tolerant to shoot fly,
(1300-1600 kg/ha) (4.5-6.0 t/ha) Days stem borer, charcoal rot and tolerant to
drought. Medium bold grain with good fodder
quality
10 CSV 14R 908 kg/acre 2.22 t/acre 180-200 cm 115-120 Suitable for medium to deep soils in rainfed
(2270 kg/ha) (5.54 t/ha) Days areas. Pearly white round, bold grain,
resistant to shootfly charcoal rot & drought
equal to M35-1
11 CSV 8R 1000-1200 kg/acre 2.2-2.6 t/acre 200-230 cm 115-120 Suitable for medium to deep soils. Creamy
(2500-3000 kg/ha) Days coloured bold gran tolerant to charcoal rot,
(5.0-6.0 t/ha) shoot fly & drought
12 Parbhani 1280 kg/acre 2.44 t/acre 190-200 cm 125-130 Suitable for medium soils in rainfed areas.
Moti (3200 kg/ha) (6.1 t/ha) Days Pearly white lustrous & bold round grain.
Tolerant to shoot fly & charcoal rot.
Responsive to fertilizers
13 PKV Kranti 900-1000 kg/acre 2.5-3.0 t/acre 180-200 cm 115-120 Suitable for medium to deep soils and
(3000-3500 kg/ha) (5.0-7.5 t/ha) Days irrigated Pearly white round & very bold grain,
tolerant to shoot fly.
14 CSV-29R 800-1000 kg/acre 2.6-3.2 t/acre 180-200 cm 115-120 Suitable for deep soil. Pearly white round &
(2500-3000 kg/ha) (5.0-7.5 t/ha) Days very bold grain, tolerant to shoot fly &
charcoal rot
15 Phule 600-700 kg/acre 1.2-1.6 t/acre 160-180 cm 100-112 Suitable for shallow soils in rainfed areas.
Anuradha (1500-1800 kg/ha) (3.0-3.5 t/ha) Days Early Pearly white round and medium grain,
tolerant to shoot fly & charcoal rot. Early
maturing.
16 Phule 600-800 kg/acre 1.8-2.0 t/acre 180-210 cm 110-115 Suitable for shallow, medium soils in rainfed
Maulee (1500-2000 kg/ha) (4.5-5.0 t/ha) Days areas. Yellow white, lustrous & medium bold
grain, tolerant to shoot fly & charcoal rot &
drought
17 DSV 5 900-1000 kg/acre 2.6-3.2 t/acre 220-250 cm 120-125 Suitable for deep soils, transitional & irrigated
(3000-3500 kg/ha) (3.5-4.5 t/ha) Days zones in Karnataka. Pearly white round &
very bold grain, tolerant to shoot fly.
18 DSV 4 1600-1680 kg/acre 1.8-2.0 t/acre 180-200 cm 115-120 Suitable for dry zones in karnataka. Creamy
(4000-4200 kg/ha) (4.5-5.0 t/ha) Days bold, round grain flat at one side and tolerant
to diseases
19 Solapur 400-500 kg/care 1.8-2.2 t/acre 180-200 cm 120 Suitable for deep soils and irrigated
Dagadi (1000-1250 kg/ha) (3.5-4.0 t/ha) Days conditions Pearly white, bold grain, tolerant to
shoot fly & charcoal rotdrought.
20 CSH 19R 1181.2 kg/acre 2.34 t/acre 225 cm 117-120 Suitable for medium to deep soils for rainfed
(2953 kg/ha) (5.84 t/ha) Days & irrigated areas. Pearly white,slightly flat,
medium sized grain, tolerant to shoot fly &
charcoal rot
21 SPH1666 1200 kg/acre 2.2 t/acre 200-225 cm 118-122 Suitable for deep soils . Pearly white,slightly
(3000-4000 kg/ha) (5.5 to 6.5 t/ha) Days flat, medium sized grain, tolerant to shoot fly
& charcoal rot
22 Phule 1000-1200 kg/acre 2.2-2.6 t/acre 200-220 cm 115 Days Suitable for medium Pearly white, lustrous &
Suchitra (2500-3000 kg/ha) (5.5-6.5 t/ha) medium bold grain, tolerant to shoot fly &
charcoal rot & drought soil.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 5 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Table 3.Details on the pedigree and origin of hybrids and varieties

S.No. Hybrid/Variety Pedigree Origin
Hybrids
1 CSH-12R 296A xM148-138 Dharwad
2 CSH-13R 296A x RS 29 NRCS
3 CSH-15R 104A x RS-585 NRCS
4 CSH-19R 104A x R 354 Akola
5 SPH-1666 Devgen
Varieties
6 M35-1 Selection from Maldandi bulk Mohol
7 CSV-8R R24(IS-2954 x M35-1) NRCS
8 SWATI SPV-86 x M35-1 Rahuri
9 SEL-3 Selection from Bidar local Rahuri
10 CSV-14R M35-1 x (CS2947 x CS2644) x M35-1) NRCS
11 DSV-4(9-13) E36-1 x SPV-86 Dharwad
12 DSV-5(GRS-1) Selection from Natte maldandi of Gulbarga Dharwad
13 CSV-216R (Phule Yashoda) Selection from Dhulia germplasm Rahuri
14 RSLG-262 (Mauli) Land race selection Rahuri
15 Parbhani Moti Selection from GD 31-4-2-3 Parbhani
16 CSV-18 (Parbhani Jyoti) PVR 579 Parbhani
17 PKV Kranti(AKSV-13R) SPV-1201 x Ringni Akola
18 Phule Chitra SPV-655 x RSLG-112 Rahuri
19 Phule Vasudha RSLG-206 x SPV-1047 Rahuri
20 Phule Revati CSV 216 x SPV 1501-1 Rahuri
21 Phule Suchitra Rahuri
22 Phule Anuradha Rahuri
23 CSV-22 CSV 216 x RSP 2 Rahuri
24 CSV-26 SPV 655 x SPV 1538 Solapur
25 CSV-29R [GRS 1 x CSV 216R] x CSV 216R Bijapur

Conclusion
Rabi sorghum has an important role in the food and fodder security in the dry land areas of deccan
plateau. Its regional importance as a food crop is as much as that of wheat and rice at national
level. The continuing low productivity of the crop and its marginal production system are challenges
to the researchers. The research and technology need a thorough relook and introspection to reset
attainable targets with time frame and agenda of vigorous action.

References
Nerkar, Y.S. 1998. Rabi sorghum improvement for food and fodder security: Opportunities and strategies, Special
lecture delivered at 29th Workshop of AICSIP, April 23-25,1998 at University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad
Prabhakar, M Elangovan and MS Raut. 2010. Stability of new varieties for yield components in rabi sorghum, Indian J.
agric, Sci. 80 (2): 106-109.
Rana BS, Swarnlata Kaul and Rao MH. 1997. Impact of genetic improvement on sorghum productivity in India. Pages
142-165 in the Proceedings of the International Conference on Genetic Improvement of Sorghum and Pearl
millet, 22-27 September 1996, Holiday Inn Plaza, Lubbock, Texas.
Rana, B.S., Jaya Mohan Rao, V., Reddy, B.B., and Rao, N.G.P. 1985. Overcoming present hybrid yield in sorghum.
Pages 48-59 In Genetics of heterotic system in crop plants: Proceedings of Precongress Symposium XV
International Genetics Congress, 7-9 Dec 1983, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India.
Rao, N.G.P. 1982. Transforming traditional sorghum in India. Pages 39-59 In Sorghum in the Eighties: Proceedings of
the International Symposium on Sorghum, 2-7 Nov 1981, ICRISAT, India. Vol. 1. Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh
502 324, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
Rao, N.G.P., Jaya Mohan Rao, V., and Reddy, B.B. 1986. Progress in genetic improvement of rabi sorghums in India.
Indian J. Genet. 46(2): 348-354.
Reddy. B.V.S., Ahok Kumar, A., Sanjana Reddy, P. and Elangovan, M. 2008. Sorghum germplasm: diversity and
utilization in ‘Sorghum Improvement in the New Millennium edited by Reddy Belum VS, Ramesh S, Ashok
Kumar A and Gowda CLL, pp153-169.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 6 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

2. Pests of sorghum and their management

VR Bhagwat, KS Babu, A. Kalaisekar, B Subbarayudu, GS Prasad and PG Padmaja
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Sorghum (Jowar), Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is an important dry land crop grown with minimum
purchased inputs mostly grown in most of the parts of India either for grain or fodder use. It is also
the base crop on which many inter- and sequence-cropping systems are built upon. Increasing
industrial utilization, greater use as quality forage and as an adjunct in food and feed mixes can
enhance the demand for sorghum. However, insect pests in Kharif and Rabi sorghum remain the
major causes for limiting yield and economic losses. The grain yields are generally low (500-800
kg/ha) mainly damages caused by insect pests. Nearly 150 insect pest species have been reported
as pests of sorghum of which shoot fly (Atherigona soccata, Rondani), spotted stem borers, (Chilo
partellus,Swinhoe and Sesamia inferens), aphids (Melanaphis sacchari and Rhopalosiphum maidis),
shoot bug (Peregrinus maidis), sorghum midge (Stenodiplosis sorghicola Coquillett), earhead bug
(Calocoris angustatus), armyworm (Mythimna separata, Walker), bollworms (Helicoverpa armigera
(Hubner), Eublema and Pyroderces) and spider mites (Oligonychus spp.) have been reported as
major pests in sorghum in India. The list sorghum pests and their status is given (Table 1).

Table 1: Major pests of sorghum in India

S Common name Scientific name, Family, (Order) Status
No
1 Shoot fly Atherigona soccata Muscidae (Diptera) Major
2 Stem borer Chilo partellus, Crambidae (Lepidoptera) Major
3 Pink stem borer Sesamia inferens, Noctuidae (Lepidoptera) Major
4 Shoot bug Peregrinus maidis, Delphacidae (Hemiptera) Major
5 Aphids Rhopalosiphum maidis, Melanaphis sacchari Major
Aphididae (Hemiptera)
6 Earhead bug Calocoris angustatus, Miridae (Hemiptera) Major
7 Sorghum midge Stenodiplosis sorghicola, Cecidomyiidae (Diptera) Occasional
8 Earhead web worm Cryptoblabes gnidiella Occasional
Pyraustidae (Lepidoptera)
9 Gram caterpillar Helicoverpa armigera, Noctuidae (Lepidoptera) Occasional
10 Stink bug Nezara viridula Pentatomidae (Hemiptera) Occasional
11 Mirid bug Creontiades pallidifer Miridae (Hemiptera) Occasional
12 Leaf roller Marasmia trapezalis Pyralidae (Lepidoptera) Occasional
13 Flea beetle Cryptocephalus schestedii, Monolepta signata Occasional
Chrysomelidae (Coleoptera)
14 Hairy caterpillar Amsacta albistriga, A. moorei Arctiidae (Lepidoptera) Occasional
15 Semilooper Eublemma silicula, Noctuidae (Lepidoptera) Occasional
16 Weevils Myllocerus maculosus M. discolor, Occasional
Curculionidae (Coleoptera)
17 Grasshopper Colemania sphenaroides, Acrididae (Orthoptera) Sporadic
18 Spider mites Oligonychus spp. Sporadic

The biology, damage symptoms, cultural control, chemical control and integrated management
strategies for major pests are discussed below.

I. MAJOR PESTS
1. Sorghum Shoot fly: Atherigona soccata (Muscidae: Diptera)
Host range: Maize, ragi, bajra, rice, wheat and grasses
ETL: 10% dead hearts or 1 egg / plant

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 7 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

1.1. Bionomics
The adult is a small, grey coloured, female shoot fly which deposits small,
white cigar shaped eggs, singly on the under surface of the seedling leaves
(Plate 1). After hatching in 2-3 days, the maggot enters the seedling through
the whorl and destroys the growing point. The larval period lasts for 8-10
days. Mature larva is yellow and about 6 mm in length. Pupation takes place
either at the plant base or in the soil and lasts for 8-10 days. The fly
population exhibits considerable variation and normally very low in April to
Plate 1: Shoot fly-Adult June, tends to increase in July and reaches the peak in August. From
September onwards the population gradually declines and remains at a
moderate level till March. Its activity is influenced by extreme temperatures (high or low) and also by
continuous rains.

1.2. Damage symptoms

It is a seedling pest and normally occurs in the 1st-4th week after germination.
Maggot feeds on the growing tip causing wilting of leaf and later drying of central
leaf giving a typical appearance of `dead heart’ symptoms (Plate 2). If the
infestation occurs a little later, damaged plants produce side tiller which again
are infested increasing the population build up. To schedule the chemical
control, the shoot fly infestation can be monitored by checking the egg-laying on
the lower surface of the seedling leaves before the formation of dead hearts. Plate 2: Shoot fly deadheart

2. Stem borer: Chilo partellus (Crambidae: Lepidoptera)

Host range: Maize, sorghum, sugarcane, bajra, rice, Sorghum halepense, finger millet
ETL: 10% dead heart

2.1. Bionomics
The female lays nearly 500 eggs in masses of 10-80 on the under surface of the leaf often near the
midrib. The eggs hatch in 4-5 days. The larval period lasts from 19 to 27 days. Pupation takes
place inside the stem and the adult emerges in 7-10 days. During the dry season, the larva enters
into diapauses and survives in harvested stalks/stems as well as stubbles left in the field. As the
rainy season starts the diapauses brakes down and pupation takes place. The moth is medium size
and straw colored.

2.2. Damage symptoms

It infests the crop from 2nd week till maturity. Initially, the larvae feed on the
upper surface of whorl leaves leaving the lower surface intact
as transparent windows. As the severity of the feeding
increases, blend of punctures and scratches of epidermal
feeding appears prominently. Sometimes, `deadhearts’
(Plate 3) symptoms also develop in younger plants due to
early attack. Subsequently, the larvae bore into the stem
Plate 4: Stem infestation
resulting in extensive stem tunneling (Plate 4). Peduncle
Plate 3: Stem borer deadheart tunneling results in either breakage or complete or partial chaffy panicle.

3. Pink stem borer: Sesamia inferens (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Host range: Sorghum, maize, rice, wheat, sugarcane, bajra and ragi, barley, guinea grasses.
ETL: 1 larva/whorl

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 8 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

3.1. Bionomics
The adult moth is pale pink colored, with dark brown streaks on the fore
wings and white hind wings. The female lays about 150 creamy-white and
hemispherical eggs that are arranged in two or three rows between the leaf
sheath and the stem of the host plant. Egg period remains till 7 days. The
fully grown larvae measures about 25 mm and is pale yellow with a purple
pink tinge and a reddish-brown head. The larval period 25 days but in cold
months it may be extended to 75 days. Pupation occurs in the larval tunnel
Plate 5: Pink stem borer- in the stem and the adult emerges in 12 days (Plate 5). One generation
may take 6-7 weeks. The life cycle is completed in 45-75 days. There are
4-6 generations per year.

3.2. Damage symptoms

The pink larva bores into the stem and damages the central shoot resulting in
deadheart. Borer holes are visible on the stem near the nodes. Holes in the stem
caused by the larvae tunneling into the stem, deadheart (drying and eventual
death of the growing point of the maize), broken due to larvae tunneling in to the
stem. Internal feeding causes withering of stem results in formation of deadhearts,
Faeces (frass) and empty grains are visible due to damage (Plate 6).
Plate 6: Stem damage-borer
4. Shoot bug: Peregrinus maidis (Delphacidae, Hemiptera)
Host range: Sorghum, maize, rice, millets, ETL: 5 nymphs/whorl
4.1. Bionomics
The adult is yellowish brown to dark brown with translucent wings. The brachypterous
female is yellowish while macropterous female is yellowish brown and male dark
brown (Plate 7). It lays eggs in groups of 1-4 inside the leaf tissue and covered with a
white waxy substance. The fecundity of the bug is 97 eggs / female. The egg period
lasts for seven days. The nymphal stage undergoes five instars in 16 days. The total
life cycle is completed in 18-31 days. Being a sporadic pest, under favourable
conditions, it produces several generations and can cause heavy damage to Plate 7: Adult-Shoot
sorghum.

4.2. Damage symptom

Infestation in kharif begins 30 days after germination. However, heavy infestation is seen on the
Rabi crop, when rain occurs at seedling stage. Both the adult types
(Brachypterous and Macropterous) and nymphs suck the plant sap causing
reduced plant vigour and yellowing. In severe cases, the younger leaves
start drying and gradually extend to older leaves (Plate 8). Sometimes,
complete plant death occurs. Heavy infestation at vegetative stage may
twist the top leaves and prevent either the formation or emergence of
panicles. It is also known to be vector for transmitting stripe disease of
Plate 8: Shoot bug damage maize.

5. Aphids: Rhopalosiphum maidis, Melanaphis sacchari (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Host range: Sorghum, maize, ragi, ETL:10 aphids/leaf (undersurface)
5.1. Bionomics
The corn yellow aphid is dark bluish-green and somewhat ovate. It is 2 mm long, with black legs,
cornicles, and antennae. Winged and wingless forms occur. Females give birth to living young
without mating and a generation requires only a week or so. During Rabi, the adult is yellow

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 9 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

coloured with dark green legs. Female gives birth to young ones and a generation takes 7 days.
The colonies are typically found deep inside the plant whorl of the middle leaf on the ventral surface
of the leaves, stem and panicle.

5.2. Damage symptom

Rhopalosiphum maidis: Colonies of aphids are seen in central leaf whorl, stems, or in panicles.
The young and adults suck the plant juice. This frequently causes yellowish mottling of the leaves
and marginal leaf necrosis. The aphid produces an abundance of honeydew on which molds grow.
In panicles, honeydew may hinder harvesting. The aphid also transmits maize dwarf mosaic virus.

Melanaphis sacchari: The sugarcane aphid is yellow to buff. Numbers increase rapidly during dry
spells or at the end of the rainy season. The female of the wingless form deposits 60- 100 nymphs
within its reproductive period of 13-20 days (Plate 9). The
winged form produces slightly fewer nymphs. The life cycle is
completed in 5.5-7.0 days during the dry season. The
honeydew excretion hinders harvesting process and result in
poor quality grain (Plate 10). Severe damage was noticed
under moisture stress conditions resulting in drying of leaves
as well as plant death. Unlike the corn leaf aphid, sugarcane
aphid predominantly is a serious pest in rabi and prefers to Plate 10: Aphid damage
Plate 9: Aphids on leaf

fed on older leaves and also infest younger leaves including panicle at flowering
stage. Adults are yellow to buff colored. Both adults and nymphs such the plant sap and cause
stunted growth.

6. Oriental armyworm, Mythimna separate (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Host range: Sorghum, maize, ragi, graminaceous plants; ETL: 1-2 Caterpillars/plant
6.1. Bionomics
Female lays round greenish white eggs in batches. Caterpillars become full
grown in 3-4 weeks. Pupal periods last for 8-10 days. The pest is active from
June to November. It completes its life cycle in about six weeks. In a year about
three generations can be completed. The pupae usually hibernate in the soil
(Plate 11).
Plate 11: Caterpillar-armyworm

6.2. Damage symptom

Caterpillars are mostly active in night and hide in leaf whorl or in the soil in day time. The Oriental
armyworm, Mythimna separata larvae (Plate 12) feed on the leaves, leaving only the
midribs, and panicles. Pellated excreta of the larvae are observed either on the leaf or
in the whorl. When the larvae are in gregarious phase, they move in a band and feed
on the foliage of most of the graminaceous plants they come across. Maximum larval
incidence and damage occur during August.

7. Earhead bug: Calocoris angustatus (Miridae: Hemiptera) Plate 12: Leaf damage-armyworm

Host range: Pearl Millet, maize, tenai, sugarcane and grasses, ETL: 1-2 bugs
/earhead
7.1. Bionomics
Adult male is green in colour and female is green with a brown margin (Plate 13) Blue
cigar shaped eggs are laid under the glumes or into the middle of the florets. Each
insect lay between 150 and 200 eggs. The egg period is seven days. Nymphs are
Plate 13: Earhead bug-adult

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 10 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

slender, green in color. First instar is orange in color. The nymphal period is 10 - 14 days. The life
cycle from egg to adult occupies less than 3 weeks. At least 2 generations of the bug can feed on
the same crop when the panicles do not ripen at the same time.

7.2. Damage symptom

The adults and nymphs damage the earheads by feeding on them. They suck the
juice from the grains when they are in the milky stage. The sucked out grains, shrink
and turn black in colour and become ill filled (or) chaffy (Plate 14). Older grain shows
distinct feeding punctures that reduce grain quality. Extent of damage usually
depends on the number of bugs per panicle, duration of infestation and stage of
grain development and decreases as the grain develop towards hard dough stage.
Grain mold damage is severe in bug affected panicles. Plate 14: Earhead damage-head

8. Sorghum midge: Contarinia sorghicola (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)

Hosts range: Sorghum cultivated and wild species. ETL: one maggot/earhead
8.1. Bionomics
The adult fly is small, fragile with a bright orange abdomen and a pair of transparent wings. It lays
eggs singly in developing florets resulting in pollen shedding (Plate 15). A female lay about 30-35
eggs at the rate of 6-10 in each floret. The incubation period is 3-4 days. The
maggot has four instars with duration of 8-10 days. Larvae are colorless, but,
when fully grown, they are dark orange. Larval period 9 - 11 days. The larval
stage undergoes diapauses in a cocoon during December - January within a
spikelet. It pupates beneath the glumes. The pupal period lasts for 3 days.
When the adult emerges the white pupal skin remains at the tip of the spikelet.
Plate 15: Midge A generation is completed in 14-16 days. The insect's rapid developmental
cycle permits 9-12 generations.

Damage symptoms
A maggot feeds on the developing grains and pupates there. White pupal cases
protruding out from the grains and chaffy grains with holes are the damage symptoms
(Plate 16). Pupal cases can be seen attached to the glumes of damaged spikelets.
Plate 16: Earhead damage
9. Spider mites (Oligonychus indicus)
9.1. Bionomics
Female and immature stages feed on the foliage. It leaves in colonies under a
deliberate web on the under surface of the leaves and get disturbed by crawling or
by wind. Adults of sorghum spider mite are deep red or maroon and the nymphs
are also slightly reddish (Plate 17).
Plate 17: Spider mite-adult
9.2. Damage symptoms
Although found early in the growing season rapid population increases occurs
only after the panicle emergence. They such the plant sap first on the under
surface of the functional leaves and the infested areas initially are pale yellow,
but later turn to reddish (in purple pigmented cultivars) or brownish tan (in tan
pigmented plants) on the upper leaf surface. This extends to the entire leaf area
which spreads upwards through the plant affecting plant growth and seed
development (Plate 18). The underside of the heavily infested leaves have
dense deposits of webbing and in severe infestations they may invade and web
Plate 18: Mite damage

even the sorghum panicle. It often causes damage to sorghum in prolonged drought situations.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 11 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

II. MINOR PESTS

The pests like ear head web worm (Cryptoblabes gnidiella), Gram caterpillar (Helicoverpa armigera),
Oriental armyworm/cut-worms (Mythimna separata), plant bug (Dolycoris indicus) sting bug (Nezara
viridula), Mirid bug (Creontiades pallidifer), leaf roller (Marasmia trapezalis), flea beetle
(Cryptocephalus schestedii), Wingless grasshopper (Colemania sphenaroides) and Pyrilla (Pyrilla
perpusilla) are minor in nature and infest occasionally.

III. INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT

1. Cultural methods
 Collect and burn stubbles and chaffy earheads, and feed the stalks to cattle before the onset of
monsoon rains. This will reduce the carryover of stem borers and midge.
 Deep plough one month before planting will expose immature stages of insects and serve as a
food for predators.
 Adopt synchronous and timely/early sowings of cultivars with similar maturity over large areas to
reduce the damage by shoot fly, midge, and head bugs.
 Rotate sorghum with cotton, groundnut, or sunflower, to reduce the damage by shoot fly, midge,
and head bugs. Intercropping sorghum with pigeonpea, cowpea, or lablab also reduces the
damage by stem borers
 Treat seeds with carbofuran (5% a.i.) or imidacloprid (0.165 mg/kg seed) or thiamethoxam
(cruiser) 70 WS @ 3 g /1 kg of seeds to improve plant stand, seedling vigor, and reduce the
damage by shoot fly and to some extent stem borer and sucking pest.
 Use high seed rates 1.5 times more i.e. @10-12 kg/ha, and delay thinning (to maintain optimum
plant stand) to minimize shoot fly damage.

2. Mechanical method
 Set up light traps till mid night to monitor, attract and kill adults of stem borer, grain midge and
earhead caterpillars.
 Set up sex pheromone trap at 12/ha to attract male moths Helicoverpa sp. from flowering to
grain hardening.
 Set up the fishmeal traps having impregnated with Arpocarb insecticides @ 12/ha till the crop is
30 days old.

3. Biorational methods
 Release egg parasitoids: Telenomus sp., Trichogramma chilonis; Larval parasitoids: Apanteles
flavipes, Bracon hebetor; Pupal parasitoid: Tetrastichus ayyari
 Take up two applications of NPV at 10 days interval at 250 LE/ha along with crude sugar 2.5 kg
+ cotton seed kernel powder 250 g on the ear heads to reduce the larval population of
Helicoverpa sp
 Neem seed kernel extract (5 kg/ha) or Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) formulations can be suggested
for the control of stem borers, armyworms, and head caterpillars.
 Apply balanced fertilizers having adequate NPK to promote better plant growth, that results in
reduced damage by shoot fly and stem borers.
 Plant sorghum varieties with less susceptibility to insect, e.g., SV 1616, CSV 15, M 35-1, Phule
Yashoda, are relatively less damaged by shoot fly and stem borers while ICSV 745 and ICSV
88032 are resistant to sorghum midge.
 Conserve egg parasitoids viz., Paranagrus optabilis, Octetrastichus indicus and Predators -
Coccinella septumpunctatum, Menochilus sexmaculatus, Geocoris tricolor for shoot bugs and
aphids control.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 12 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

4. Chemical methods
 When the shoot fly damage reaches 5 to 10% of the plants with deadhearts, the crop may be
sprayed with cypermethrin 10 EC (750 ml/ha) or quinalphos 25 EC (400 g a.i./ha) or carbofuran
granules (5 to 7 granules/plant) may be applied in the leaf whorls
 For stem borers, dusts or granules can be applied in the whorl leaves of damaged plants or the
entire field can be sprayed with quinalphos fenvalerate, or cypermethrin.
 For sorghum midge, the crop may be sprayed at the 50% flowering stage (1 midge/panicle) with
quinalphos or cypermethrin.
 For earhead bugs (1 to 2 bugs per panicle) and head caterpillars (2 larvae per panicle), the
crop may be sprayed at the completion of flowering and at the milk stage with quinalphos or
cypermethrin.
 Spraying of sulphur has been most effective in reducing the mite population, in severe cases
kelthane (Dicofol) 35 EC or ethion @ 1 lt/ha in 500 ml of water reduces the incidence
 Spraying of Metasystox 35 EC (@1 lt/ha in 500 lt water) or methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml in
500 L of water per ha effectively controls aphids and shoot bugs.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 13 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

3. Sorghum for food, feed, fodder and fuel

Sunil Gomashe and Ganapathy KN
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench] is an important cereal crop in semi-arid regions of the world
including African and Asian countries. Sorghum is generally a dry land crop and most commonly
cultivated by resource poor farmers in marginal farms where this relays on very low inputs. In India
sorghum is found primarily on Deccan Plateau and it is the main staple diet of the people of
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh states. Due to its versatile use, drought hardiness and
adaptability over wide range of climates, sorghum has maintained its importance and dependability.
Nutritional point of view, it is the main source of dietary energy in central parts of the country
contributing nearly 50% of the total cereal intake (75 kg grain per head per year), especially by rural
consumers in the inlands of Maharashtra and Karnataka. In terms of nutrient intake, sorghum
accounts for about 35% of the total intake of calories, protein, Fe and Zn in the dominant production/
consumption regions. Kharif sorghum area in India is 4.10 m ha while rabi sorghum occupies
relatively more acreage of 5.2 m ha. Here we have provided brief information about different uses of
sorghum and its importance in changing climatic conditions.

Sorghum as a food and feed

Grain sorghum mainly cultivated in two seasons i.e. kharif and rabi. Most of produce from kharif
season is used for the industrial uses and also as a feed. Maturity period in kharif season generally
coincides with the heavy rains thus affected by grain mold. This produce is used by distilleries to
produce alcohol and some part is utilized by feed industry (Dairy and Poultry). Unlike kharif, in rabi
season produce will be clean and of high quality. This is mostly used for consumption. Kharif
sorghum area is mostly dominated by hydrids which respond better to high moisture and fertilizers.
Whereas, varieties are the choice for the rabi season under receding moisture conditions.

Pooped sorghum is very popular snack consumed in several sorghum growing states of India.
Popped sorghum grains superior to popped corn as they are tender, have less hull, do not clog in
space between teeth and causes less noise while eating. Popping sorghums have a very low germ-
endosperm size ratio and the embryo is located at a corner in the hilar region. The germ remains
unaffected during popping. The availability of sorghum cultivars whose grains exhibit superior
popping quality without any pretreatment should be of significance to food technologists and
breeders.

In most of the sorghum growing parts of the India there is a practice of roasting sorghum heads at
the dough stage and eating the threshed grain as a delicacy. The cultivars most suitable for roasting
have a sweet endosperm that is dimpled at maturity. Vani sorghums (durra group) of lndia are
especially popular in this respect. The panicles were buried in hot coals and ashes for several
minutes to be cooked, following which the light green seeds were lightly beaten off the heads and
hand winnowed. In Maharashtra this very popular snack is called Hurda.

Sorghum as fodder
Sorghum as a forage crop has high demand due to its high quality fodder. It is cultivated in large
area in northern states of India. Forage sorghum is a valuable fodder, it is relished by ruminants, it is
outstandingly drought resistant and it grows where maize is not able to grow because of high
temperatures or dry conditions. Most of the sorghum cultivars grown in India are found to be dual-
purpose varieties providing grain for human consumption and fodder for livestock. It has two types,

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 14 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

single cut and multi-cut sorghum. Multi-cut sorghum has more advantage as we can get more
fodder from the same plant for longer period.

Sorghum as a biofuel
Sorghum genotypes possessing sweet stalks are excellent alternative for production biofuels.
Improved cultivars of sorghum are very high in the brix and used for extracting juice and thereafter
converted to ethanol. Sorghum grains are also used for the production of ethanol. The main
advantage of sweet sorghum is that it requires very less water as compared to the sugarcane. The
greatest challenge for large-scale production of sweet sorghum for biofuel is the lack of commercial
harvesting equipment. It is hoped that this will change in the near future. Government has also
initiated and made it mandatory to blend ethanol in petrol and other commercial fuels. This will bring
in private players to commercially exploit the sweet sorghum potential by developing equipments for
processing.

Color sorghum
Coloured sorghum is now gaining importance due its high antioxidant content. This sorghum grain
contains high amount tannins and phytates. Nonalcoholic porridges of sorghum are made by
souring the grain overnight and cooking it in the morning. Such preparations are diluted and
consumed as a thin gruel. In the highlands of southern Uganda extending into Rwanda, there is a
practice of malting the dark brown sorghums for preparation of porridge. The coloured sorghum
grains are in high demand as feed in eastern countries for pigs and other live stock. It gives a
reddish colour to the flesh.

Scented sorghum
There are some sorghum landraces which have a special aroma or scent similar to scented rice.
Seedlings were stated to emit scent and also the adult leaves when crumpled. Directorate of
Sorghum Research has good collection of scented landraces collected from Bundelkhand region.
The efforts are in way to transfer this character in high varieties.

Broomcorn sorghum
Sorghum has multifarious uses such as human food, animal feed, and biofuel. One of the special
type’s sorghum is broom corn sorghum. The only reported use of broomcorn sorghum is in the
broom industry. Brooms of different sizes, shapes, and purposes based on broomcorn fibers are
called corn brooms. This use of sorghum is mainly exploited in South Eastern European countries
i.e. Serbia. Here the corn brooms are products of a well–organized niche market. In India even
though we have diversity for broomcorn in Uttaranchal and Himalayas, it is not flourished as
industry. The local people are manufacturing the brooms for the house hold purpose. The landraces
they are using are not of standard qualities which are required for making the good quality brooms.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 15 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

4. Production technologies of sorghum in rice-fallows

JS Mishra and RR Chapke
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Under changing climate scenario, sorghum is emerging as a potential alternative feed, fodder and
bio-energy besides, food crop. However, the area under kharif sorghum cultivation is decreasing
rapidly due to various reasons. The situation demands a search for potential niches for its cultivation
in non-traditional areas. Sorghum cultivation in rice-fallows with an average productivity of 6.5 t /ha,
which is the highest in the country, is a valuable opportunity.

In recent years, sorghum cultivation in rice-fallows during late-rabi is gaining popularity in coastal
Andhra Pradesh, especially in Guntur and adjoining Krishna and Prakasham districts due to
insufficient water for second crop of rice. The farmers are planting sorghum after harvest of rice in
mid-December under zero-tillage to utilize the residual soil moisture. The crop is harvest during first
week of April. Usually, farmers grow pulses (greengram and blackgram) in rice-fallows of the
Krishna-Godavari zone of Andhra Pradesh as utera cropping (broadcasting of seeds in standing
crop of rice). This practice helps the farmers to harness the residual moisture (Singh, 2007), and at
the same time increasing nitrogen content in soil by biological nitrogen fixation. However, in the
recent times, the area under pulses has declined due to late planting of rice and severe attack of
viral diseases and parasitic weed Cuscuta (Mishra et al. 2009). The farmers of the coastal area
having assured irrigation facilities have now shifted to maize and those with limited irrigation to
sorghum. The area under sorghum in rice-fallows has increased from 2000 ha in 2005-06 to more
than 24000 ha during 2012-13 (fig. 1), with an average productivity of 6.5 t/ha, which is the highest
in the country. Sorghum also requires fewer inputs such as nutrients and plant protection measures
as compared to maize. Farmers of the area are harvesting up to 6-7 t/ha sorghum grains depending
up on management practices. Keeping in view the scarcity of irrigation water in future, the area
under sorghum is expected to increase.

Fig. 1 Sorghum area in rice-fallows in Guntur district of coastal Andhra Pradesh

Production technology
Cultivars: In rice-fallows of coastal Andhra Pradesh, sorghum is grown for grain purpose. The
hybrids are preferred over varieties due to their high yields. Mishra et al. (2009) evaluated thirteen
sorghum cultivars including hybrids and varieties in rice-fallows under zero tillage at farmer’s field in
Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh and reported that sorghum hybrids, ‘Sudama 333’ (8.44
tonnes/ha), ‘CSH 16’ (7.80 tonnes/ha), ‘MJ 4334’ (7.37 tonnes/ha) and ‘MRS 4094’ (7.14 tonnes/ha)
were promising. Chapke et al. (2011) demonstrated the performance of sorghum hybrids in rice-

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 16 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

fallows at farmer’s fields in Guntur district and found that hybrids NSH 27 (7.57 t/ha), CSH 16 (7.43
t/ha), Kaveri 6363 (7.4 t/ha), Mahalaxmi (7.11 t/ha), and SBSH 151 (6.97 t/ha) registered the higher
grain yield (Table 1).

Table 1. Plant height, yield and yield attributes of sorghum hybrids in rice-fallows in the
farmers’ fields in Guntur district

Hybrid Plant Panicles/ Panicle Grains/ Grain 100-grain Grain

height m2 length panicle weight/ weight (g) yield
(cm) (cm) panicle (g) (t/ha)
NSH 27 163 15.1 29.6 2951 54.7 2.58 7.57
CSH 16 174 18.4 30.7 2471 50.1 2.66 7.43
Kaveri 6363 163 17.4 28.4 2780 52.8 2.46 7.40
Mahalaxmi 146 17.2 28.9 2352 46.9 2.55 7.11
SBSH 151 171 15.8 28.5 2446 49.5 2.88 6.97
CSH 15R 251 16.2 26.7 1948 41.4 2.86 5.95
CSH 23 155 17.9 25.4 2498 36.8 2.41 5.39
CD(P=0.05) 19 3.6 1.9 611.63 8.3 0.36 0.92

Fig.2. Performance of sorghum hybrid CSH 16 in rice-fallows

Time of sowing: The time of sowing of sorghum in rice-fallows depends solely on the time of kharif
paddy harvesting as the crop is sown on the residual soil moisture. In general, 2nd to 3rd week of
December is an ideal time. Delayed sowing in January affects the seed setting and grain filling due
to high temperature in March and April. Sometimes unusual rains in coastal areas during April cause
heavy damage in sorghum.

Method of sowing and seed rate: The crop is sown in zero tillage after harvesting of paddy. The
sowing is done manually in rows (40x15cm apart) at 4-6 cm depth by making a hole with wooden
stick and putting 2-3 seeds in each hole (Fig. 13.2). Making holes manually for sowing is however;
time consuming back breaking and costly. Therefore manually operated small implement (Fig. 13.2)
and tractor operated hole maker (Fig.13.3) have been developed for easy and timely sowing.
Around 8-10 kg seed/ha is required for optimum plant population.

Nutrient management: For obtaining high yield of sorghum, 200 kg N, 60 kg phosphorus and 60 kg
potassium per hectare is recommended. Mishra et al. (2013) obtained maximum sorghum grain
yield (8.04 t/ha), nutrient uptake and income benefits with 225 kg N/ha (Table 2 and 3). Grain yield
of different sorghum hybrids varied significantly in their response to applied nitrogen (Fig 4). Hybrids

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 17 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

‘CSH 23’ and ‘CSH 15R’ were less responsive to higher doses of nitrogen as compared to other
hybrids. Being a zero till manually sown crop, no nutrient is applied at sowing. A dose of 100 kg N
and full dose of phosphorus is applied at 30 days after sowing (DAS) (just before Ist irrigation).
Remaining 100 kg N and 60 kg potassium is applied at 60 DAS (just before 2nd irrigation). Nutrients
are applied manually to individual plants by mixing different fertilizers (Fig. 5). In the event of using
seed-cum-fertilizer drill, 50% of N and total P and K should be applied at sowing and remaining 50%
of N should be applied at 30 DAS.

Seeding with wooden stick Twine wheel hole maker

Crop sown by tractor drawn hole maker Tractor-drawn hole maker

Fig. 13.3. Progress in sowing machinery of sorghum in rice-fallows

Table 2 Effect of nitrogen levels and genotypes on growth, yield attributes and yields of
sorghum cultivars in rice-fallows

Treatment Plant height Leaf Panicles Panicle Grains Grain weight 100-grain Grain
at harvest area /m2 length /panicle /panicle (g) weight yield
(cm) index (cm) (g) (t/ha)
Nitrogen levels (kg/ha)
25 159 2.19 13.1 26.24 1401 38.39 2.63 4.81

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 18 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

75 170 2.29 13.3 26.33 1851 48.10 2.69 5.96

125 177 2.91 12.9 28.19 2225 58.81 2.74 7.38
175 187 3.26 12.4 29.10 2391 65.81 2.78 7.82
225 188 3.94 13.2 29.05 2249 66.35 2.96 8.04
LSD (P=0.05) 12 0.36 1.7 0.85 93 2.79 0.09 0.89

Table 3. Effect of nitrogen levels and genotypes on nutrient content and uptake in sorghum
grains

Treatment Nutrient content (%) in grain Nutrient uptake (kg/ha) by Protein Net B:C
grain content returns ratio
N P K N P K (%) ( /ha)
Nitrogen levels (kg/ha)
25 1.49 0.46 0.33 72.6 22.1 16.0 9.31 24 625 2.05
75 1.54 0.48 0.34 96.1 29.9 21.1 9.61 35 589 2.48
125 1.55 0.49 0.34 112.3 35.5 24.6 9.69 49 254 3.00
175 1.57 0.49 0.34 120.2 37.6 26.1 9.81 53 060 3.11
225 1.58 0.49 0.35 129.4 40.0 28.8 9.86 54 782 3.13
LSD (P=0.05) 0.03 0.01 0.01 5.3 3.4 2.3 0.26 2 127 0.15

Fig 4. Response of sorghum hybrids to nitrogen in rice-fallows

Fig. 5. Nutrient application at 30 DAS (just before 1st irrigation)

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 19 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Weed Management: Weeds are major problem in rice-fallows sorghum. As the crop is grown under
zero tillage weeds infest the crop heavily due to adequate soil moisture. Moreover, due to moisture
and favourable weather conditions, large number of rice ratoons and new rice plants also
germinates and compete with sorghum crop for resources. For effective weed control, tank mixed
application of paraquat + atrazine (0.50+0.75 kg/ha) should be done one day after sowing. Paraquat
controls the rice rations and already emerged vegetations and atrazine checks the emergence of
new weeds (Fig. 6).

Severe infestation of weeds Atrazine + paraquat used as pre-emergence

Fig. 6. Weed management with herbicides

Irrigation: Sorghum in rice-fallows is grown on residual soil moisture, which supports the germination
and early establishment of crop. Two irrigations are sufficient to harvest good yield in this area. First
irrigation should be applied at 30 days after sowing (DAS) and 2nd irrigation at 60 DAS. Irrigation
frequency however, depends on the seasonal rains.

Harvesting and threshing: Crop is harvested manually at 105-110 days after sowing depending upon
the genotypes duration. The harvested panicles are left in the field for about a week for drying and
thereafter the grains are separated from panicles manually. The panicles are harvested first and
remaining plants latter.

Economic analysis: On an average, farmers’ expenditure incurred on sorghum cultivation was Rs.
28,000 – 30,000 per ha with net profit of around Rs.35000 /ha. Component-wise cost and benefits
are highlighted in Table 4. However, the cost of stover was not included in the net benefit as it is
either burnt or incorporated in the soil.

Table 4: Economics of sorghum cultivation in rice-fallows as per the farmer’s experience

S. No. Particular Cost (Rs. /ha)

1 Sowing and seed cost 3,500
2 Fertilizers’ cost + its application 6,000
3 Herbicide cost + its application 1,500
4 Pesticides cost + its application 4,500
5 Irrigation water and labour charges 5,000
6 Harvesting 3,000
7 Threshing 3,000

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 20 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

S. No. Particular Cost (Rs. /ha)

8 Drying / Bagging 1,500
10 Total cost of production 28,000
11 Gross returns* 63,000
12 Net returns 35,000
13 Benefit : Cost ratio 2.25:1
*Excluding fodder’s price, selling price of sorghum grain @Rs. 10000/- per ton.

Fig 7 Sorghum cultivation in rice-fallows

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 21 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

5. Sweet sorghum: An important biofuel crop

AV Umakanth
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Biofuel and its importance

Owing to drastic increase in the population and their demanding requirements, depletion of natural
energy sources is rapid and demand for alternative energy sources is ever increasing worldwide to
meet the needs of increased population and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions along with
associated risks of climate change, global warming and global oceanic acidification. Environmental
sustainability and reduced dependence on fossil fuels (the primary source of transport fuel) require
the development of alternate renewable energy sources which also ensures energy security.
Renewable energy is a critical source of energy that contributes to energy security, reducing
dependence on fossil fuels and emission of greenhouse gases (Vinutha et al, 2014). Biological fuels
derived from the crops are the best among the energy sources as they are renewable, holding
promise as an alternative to depleting non-renewable sources. Production and use of biofuel will
have potential impact on environmental sustainability, and will be the alternate source for declining
natural energy source. Use of renewable, easily available, consistent photosynthetic biomass for
production of biofuel plays significant contribution in development of environment friendly
technologies. Biofuel include fuels derived from biomass conversion, as well as solid biomass, liquid
fuels and various biogases (Demirbas, 2009). The biofuel development program especially
lignocellulosic bioethanol received highest priority of late considering the long term economic,
environmental and social benefits. Use of corn and sugar cane as first generation biofuel crop is
limited as their use as biofuel feed stock may lead to food shortage. Sorghum is a promising crop
with high biomass and sugars, and offers an option to produce biofuel without great increase in food
price. Wider adaptability of sorghum also makes economy of the industries viable.

Sorghum: an alternate biofuel crop

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) biomass is considered as one of the potential renewable
sources of energy for economic development and environmental sustainability, owing to its wide
adaptability, C4 photosynthetic pathway, and high nitrogen and water use efficiency (Prakasham et
al, 2014). Some sorghum genotypes partition large amounts of sugars to their stems like sugar cane
and therefore classified as sweet sorghum. Sweet sorghum is a high biomass and sugar yielding
crop and is equally competent to sugarcane, maize in its ability to provide feedstock for industries,
under water-limited conditions sorghum is reliably more productive than corn, and is more tolerant to
drought than other crops. Sweet Sorghum is a promising crop considering its high biomass,
economic value to produce a very wide range of renewable industrial commodities like sugar, biofuel
and other valuable products. Ethanol is produced from stalk juice similar to molasses based ethanol
production process. In recent years, much emphasis is given to the production of ethanol from
agricultural wastes/residues which contain cellulose (most abundant on earth) and hemicelluloses,
the carbohydrates that can be converted to ethanol by fermentation. Cellulose has earlier been
taken into account for chemical/biological saccharification and subsequent biological conversion of
the monomeric sugars to ethanol (Chaudhary and Qazi et al, 2011). The convertibility of high
biomass lines of sorghum to bioethanol is of special interest as the use of sorghum biomass for
biofuel production will not lead to food price increase. According to Agribusiness week (2008)
estimated costs for production of 1 gallon of ethanol from sweet sorghum is at $1.74 while it was
estimated at $2.12 for producing 1 gallon of ethanol from corn. Sweet and forage sorghums have
high yield potential i.e. up to 20-40 ta/ha dry biomass and above 100 t/ha fresh biomass and they
are good source of cellulose and hemicelluloses. Some sweet sorghum lines yield juice about 78%

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 22 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

of total plant biomass and contains soluble fermentable sugars from 15 to 23% (by comparison,
sugarcane has 14–16%) (Reddy et al., 2008). The sugar is composed mainly of sucrose (70–80%),
fructose and glucose. Most of the sugars are distributed in the stalk, with about 2% in the leaves and
inflorescences (Vietor and Miller, 1990). The large scale cultivation of sweet sorghum can happen if
improved cultivars with higher sugar yield with multiple biotic and abiotic stress tolerance are
available besides more importantly the policy support from Government of India in terms of both
producer and processor incentives materialize.

R& D efforts on sweet sorghum breeding

Early R & D efforts were made at Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute (NARI), Phaltan,
Maharashtra to develop improved sweet sorghum cultivars by crossing locals with exotic lines that
resulted in the identification of superior types with high cane yield, high brix content and moderate
grain yield (Rajavanshi and Nimbkar 1996). At International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-
Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, major attempts were made to evaluate and identify useful
sweet sorghum high biomass germplasm from world collections (Seetharama et al. 1987). Sweet
sorghum research in India is being carried out at Directorate of Sorghum Research (DSR),
Hyderabad, and at other All India Coordinated Sorghum Improvement Project (AICSIP) centers in
Rahuri, Phaltan, Parbhani, Akola, Coimbatore and other places. DSR has been engaged in sweet
sorghum research since 1989 and the sweet sorghum varieties and hybrids bred have the ability to
produce extremely high stalk yields of up to 50 t ha-1, with juice Brix reading between 18% and 22%
and 1.5 to 2.5 t ha-1 grain.

Concerted research efforts during last two decades at DSR and its cooperating centres in different
State Agricultural Universities and at ICRISAT have resulted in excellent sweet sorghum varieties for
use in ethanol production by the sugar industries/alcohol distilleries and for use as green/dry fodder.
Sweet sorghum improvement programs at AICSIP centers have resulted in the identification of
several promising sweet sorghum varieties such as SSV 96, GSSV 148, SR 350-3, SSV 74, HES
13, HES 4, SSV 119 and SSV 12611 for TSS% and juice yield, GSSV 148 for cane sugar, NSS 104
and HES 4 for green cane yield, juice yield, juice extraction and total sugar content, and RSSV 48
for better alcohol yield.

Promising nationally released varieties/hybrids were SSV 84 (high brix), CSV 19SS (High stalk yield,
shoot fly tolerance), CSV 24SS (High stalk and sugar yields) and hybrid CSH 22 SS (High stalk and
sugar yields). The productivity ranged between 40 and 50 t ha-1 (AICSIP 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007
and 2008). The performance of nationally released cultivars (Fig. 1) during kharif season across
AICSIP locations is given in Table 1. The yields may vary according to the location, date of planting,
soil type, season (Kharif or Rabi), rainfall distribution etc. Stalk yields obtainable during Rabi will be
30-35% less with reduced sugar content than kharif and summer grown crops because of prevailing
low night temperatures and shorter day lengths and their interaction with planting time.

Table 1. Performance of nationally released cultivars

Entry Year of Pedigree Days Days Fresh stalk Brix Juice yield Cal. ethanol yield
release to flower to maturity yield (t ha-1) ( L ha-1) (L/ha)
SSV 84 1992 Selection from 84 124 35-40 17-18 12000- 1000-1100
IS 23568 14000
CSV 19SS 2005 RSSV 2 x 78 120 35-40 17-18 12000- 1000
SPV 462 14000
CSH 22SS 2005 ICSA 38 x 82 119 44-52 17-18 14000- 1100-1300
SSV 84 18000
CSV24SS 2011 NSS 1005B x 81 119 35-40 17-18 14000- 1100-1200
(SSV 84 x 15000
401B)

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 23 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

CSV 24 SS

Fig.1. Sweet sorghum cultivars released at national level

Important features of Sweet sorghum

Characteristics that make sweet sorghum as a candidate crop for biofuel production:
• High biomass productivity (45–80 t ha−1).
• High Brix (soluble sugars) % (16–20%).
• Thick stems and juicy internodes with maintenance of stem juiciness until maturity.
• Photo- and thermo-insensitivity so that it can be grown throughout the year and fit into diversified
cropping systems.
• Tolerance to shoot-pests and diseases.
• Good digestibility of residues when used as forage or for lignocellulosic ethanol production.
• Tolerance to mid-season and terminal drought.
• High water and nitrogen-use efficiencies.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 24 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

• Suitability for specific conversion technologies (bmr).

• Grain yield (3.0 – 5.0 t ha−1).

Current efforts in sweet sorghum breeding

Breeding methods that are used for self pollinated and cross pollinated crops can be used in sweet
sorghum breeding to develop pure line varieties and hybrids. The most commonly used programmes
in sweet sorghum improvement are short term programmes (pedigree method and backcross) and
long term programmes (population improvement methods). Sweet sorghum breeding and
improvement leads to the development of hybrids and parents that are useful as first and second
generation (lignocellulosic) biofuel feed stock. Efforts are underway to breed and develop sweet
sorghum hybrids and varieties with high biomass, rich in soluble sugars, which are highly
advantageous and promising for the sugar and biofuel industry. The evaluation of four promising
sweet sorghum lines (‘Keller’, ‘BJ 248’, ‘Wray’ and ‘NSSH 104’ (‘CSH 22SS’) along with the check
‘SSV 84’ indicated substantial genotypic differences for extractable juice, total sugar content,
fermentation efficiency and alcohol production (Ratnavathi et al., 2003). The sweet sorghum variety,
keller, gained attention as a potential alternative feedstock for the renewable energy due to its high
sugar content and biomass yields (Jaisil. 2007). Genetic improvement should focus on stalk sugar,
biomass quantity and quality and general agronomic traits (such as water and nutrient use
efficiency) and, in particular, adaptation of sweet sorghum to colder, arid saline, and alkaline
conditions. Further improvement in soluble sugar %, stalk yield and juice volume should be targeted
in sweet sorghum to help improve the benefits to the industry and farmers without effecting grain
yield. Improvement of population offers better opportunities for breaking the desired and undesired
traits, which consequently provides scope for increased utilization of stress resistance (both biotic
and abiotic). Population improvement of sorghum provides long term breeding strategy to develop
superior varieties and hybrid parents. While population improvement programs are not the most
common in sorghum breeding, they are an important source of genetic variation and improved traits
(Rooney and Smith 2000). Brown mid rib (bmr) sorghum mutants have been identified, which give
high biomass and have lower lignin in their cell walls compared to normal sorghum. Introgression of
bmr into high biomass and stay green lines can be done as different bmr mutants are characterized
(Vermerris et al. 2007), and most of the bmr mutants resulted in increased yields of fermentable
sugars followed enzymatic saccharification (Saballos et al. 2008).

Brown midrib (bmr) sorghum

Currently, bio fuels are mainly generated from starch and sugarcane sucrose; however, the bulk of
plant biomass is in the form of cell walls, which promise to be the most abundant renewable source
of biofuels. Recent research efforts within the area of lignocellulosic ethanol production have
focused heavily on identifying genes involved in secondary cell wall synthesis in an attempt to
change the overall composition of the plant (Sarath et el, 2008). Another advantageous feature of
sorghum for bioenergy is the presence of brown midrib (bmr) mutations that can reduce lignin
content and increase forage digestibility in animals (Gerhardt et al, 1994: Bucholtz et al, 1980).
Increased forage digestibility is negatively correlated with lignin content in a number of grass
species, including potential bioenergy crops such as switchgrass, sorghum, and reed canary grass
(Gerhardt et al, 1994: Miron et al, 2006: Vermerris et al, 2007: Casler et al, 2002). Lowered lignin
also has been shown to increase conversion efficiency of biomass into ethanol (Casler et al, 2006:
Dien et al, 2006). Lignin is a major factor negatively affecting the lignocellulose to ethanol
conversion process (Chen et al, 2007).

Beyond the use of brown midrib mutants to increase forage digestibility, there has been significant
interest in the impact potential these mutants may have on lignocellulosic bioenergy. Lignocellulosic
bioenergy conversion requires decomposition of the cell wall polysaccharides cellulose and

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 25 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

hemicellulose into monomeric sugars prior to their conversion into ethanol or alternative biofuels.
Lignin negatively impacts lignocellulosic conversion because it can block the enzymatic liberation of
sugars from cell wall polysaccharide moieties, releases aromatic compounds that can inhibit
microbes used for fermenting sugars to fuels, and adheres to hydrolytic enzymes. Therefore brown
midrib feedstocks, which have reduced lignin content and altered lignin composition, would likely
have increased conversion efficiency over their wild-type counterparts (Pedersen et al, 2008).

In a study on allelic relationship between bmr mutants, (Vogler et al, 2009) observed that the
percent NDF and ADF across bmr and normal genotypes were significantly higher in panicle tissues
followed by the leaf sheath (Table 2). Differences between individual bmr mutants and their
respective wild-type counterparts were in most cases significant. The bmr-12 mutant had
significantly higher NDF compared to its wild-type isoline in all tissues except the panicle. There
were significant differences in IVDMD among different tissues in both bmr and normal genotypes. In
the bmr-12 mutant, the degree of reduction in lignin content is paralleled with an increase in
cellulose and hemicellulose contents which are favourable for biofuel production.
Hence, bmr sorghums meet many of the general criteria (Pedersen et al, 2005) laid out in selecting
a bioenergy crop species:

1. High suitability for genetic improvement

2. High biomass accumulation
3. High harvest index
4. High fraction of biofuel in harvested biomass
5. Being able to be grown on marginal lands
6. Harvested material able to be stored in the field
7. High bulk density
8. High water use efficiency
9. High N use efficiency
10. Low potential as a weed
11. High coproduct potential
12. Optimal biomass composition
13. Large-scale potential production
14. Low processing costs including harvesting

In a study on the enzymatic saccharification efficiency of sorghum bmr2, bmr6 and bmr12 stover, it
was observed increases of up to 17%, 20% and 21%, respectively, relative to wild-type (Dien et al,
2009). Brown midrib forage sorghum stover had highest hexose yield (79% for maximum) following
enzymatic hydrolysis as compared to non-bmr stover that yielded 43% and 48% of this maximum
(Saballos et al, 2008). Bmr6 and bmr12 forage sorghum stover had higher hexose yield (79% and
77% for maximum, respectively) following enzymatic hydrolysis compared to wild-type stover that
yielded 65% of the maximum while the highest hexose yield (90% of maximum) was observed in
bmr6 bmr12 double mutant stover (Chen et al, 2007). The reduced lignin in bmr6, bmr12 and the
bmr6 bmr12 double mutant stovers increased ethanol conversion efficiency (44%, 46%, 57%,
respectively) compared to wild-type (38%). Within this isogenic forage sorghum background, lignin
(Klason) content had a strong negative correlation with ethanol conversion efficiency (r = _0.943).
Together these studies establish that brown midrib mutants can increase hexose yield in enzymatic
saccharification, which will translate into higher ethanol conversion efficiencies (Pedersen et al,
2008). Pyramiding of bmr genes into genotypes will help in reducing lignin content and increase the
conversion efficiency of bmr sorghum for meeting the needs of animal feed and bioenergy. It is

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 26 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

possible to further reduce lignin content in a high yielding hybrid background by stacking bmr6 and
bmr12 without a substantial reduction in either grain or lignocellulosic tissue yield.

In a study on near-isogenic grain sorghum hybrids involving bmr 6, bmr 12 and bmr6 bmr12 double
mutant (stacked), the soluble sugars were fairly similar among the hybrids except for bmr12, which
had significantly higher levels of arabinose and soluble glucose (Table 3) relative to those of the WT
or bmr6 hybrids. Soluble glucose levels were 28% higher in bmr12 tissue than in the WT. Likewise,
sugars liberated by dilute acid treatment from glucuronoarabinoxylan (hemicellulose) were fairly
similar for all of the hybrids except for bmr12, which contained 21% higher levels of arabinose than
the WT. The stacked hybrid has the potential to further reduce Acid Detergent Lignin by 33%and
22% relative to that of bmr6 or bmr12, which is strongly negatively correlated with both ruminant
animal performance and lignocellulosic ethanol conversion efficiency. Using standard equations to
predict theoretical ethanol yields using both hexose and pentose sugars, the predicted
lignocellulosic ethanol yields of bmr12, WT, bmr6, and stacked hybrids were 389, 357, 355, and 346
L T-1 respectively. The higher carbohydrate levels and modified lignocellulosic tissue composition
associated with bmr12 could explain the higher IVDMD and higher theoretical ethanol yields
associated with bmr12 (Corredor et al, 2009).

By virtue of low lignin in the bmr plants, the cost and duration of pre-treatments can be reduced
thereby decreasing the energy requirement for processing. Sweet sorghum stover also serves as an
excellent feedstock for ethanol production. Introgression of bmr genes into sweet sorghums will
result in the ideal feed stock for production of second generation biofuels.

The introduction of the bmr trait into high biomass sorghums would result in a dual-purpose
bioenergy crop that supplies fodder and fermentable sugars from the lignocellulosic biomass. At
Directorate of Sorghum Research, work on bmr sorghums was initiated way back in 2003-04 and
currently advanced bmr breeding stocks in dual-purpose background are available while
introgression of brown midrib trait into elite sweet sorghum and high biomass lines is in progress.
The promising bmr lines were evaluated during kharif 2008 and 2009 under All India Coordinated
Sorghum Improvement Project trials and lines viz., (CSV 15 x IS-21891)-6-1-1-1 , (CSV 15 x IS-
21891)-1-1-1-1, (Palem2 X IS 21891)-2-1-2-1 and (PC5 X IS 21888)-5-1-1-1 were found promising
with low lignin (4.2-5.4%) and higher digestibility values (IVDMD %) in the range of 50-54 % as
compared to the All India checks CSV 15 and CSV 23 (Lignin-5-6% and IVDMD-48-49%). These
lines offer promise for increased yield of fermentable sugars owing to their low lignin content and
higher invitro drymatter digestibility.

Table 2. Percent cell wall and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) of normal and brown
midrib sorghum genotypesa
Tissue NDF ADF Lignin Hemicellulose Cellulose IVDMD
Across genotypes
Whole plant 58.1 c 31.8 c 4.8 c 26.2 c 27.4 c 59.2 b
Stem 55.0 d 31.8 c 4.9c 23.1 d 27.6 c 59.8 ab
Sheath 64.5 b 36.3 b 5.4 b 28.2 b 31.0 b 56.2 c
Blade 53.9 e 27.6 d 3.9 d 26.3 c 23.9 d 61.3 a
Panicle 75.7 a 37.3 a 5.8 a 38.3 a 31.8 a 51.9 d
Bmr genotypes
Whole plant 58.0 c 31.4 d 4.3 c 26.6 c 27.7 d 59.5 ab
Stem 57.5 c 32.8 c 4.2 c 24.7 d 29.1 c 56.7 bc
Sheath 65.5 b 35.8 b 4.7 b 29.7 b 31.3 b 57.0 bc
Blade 55.0 d 28.3 e 3.8 d 26.7 c 24.8 e 61.9 a
Panicle 75.9 a 36.9 a 5.4 a 39.0 a 31.8 a 54.2 c

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 27 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Normal genotypes
Whole plant 58.2 c 32.4 c 5.6 b 25.7 b 27.0 c 58.6 b
Stem 51.1 e 30.3 d 6.0 ab 20.7 c 25.4 d 64.4 a
Sheath 63.1 b 37.0 b 6.5 a 26.0 b 30.6 b 55.0 c
Blade 52.3 d 26.5 e 4.0 c 25.7 b 22.4 e 60.4 b
Panicle 75.2 a 38.0 a 6.5 a 37.2 a 31.7 a 48.5 d
Means followed by the same letter in a column are not significantly different. NDF – neutral detergent fiber; ADF -
acid detergent fiber; IVDMD in vitro dry matter digestibility.
a Adapted from Vogler et al (2009).

Table 3. Effects of Brown Midrib (bmr) Genes on Lignocellulose carbohydrate

composition (Dry basis) in the Grain Sorghum Hybrid AWheatland x RTx430a

bmr6 bmr12 stacked WT SEM

soluble glucose (gkg -1) 12.7 b 11.4 b 15.4 a 13.0 ab 4
soluble fructose (gkg -1) 26.4 25.3 28.2 27.3 5.6
soluble sucrose (gkg -1) 56.3 58.5 64.9 59.3 7.1
arabinose (gkg -1) 15.3 b 16.0 b 19.6 a 17.1 ab 2.4
xylose (gkg -1) 175.8 179.8 192 174 11.3
dilute acid glucose (gkg -1) 87.7 91.2 81.7 83.7 10.8
conc. acid glucose (gkg -1) 172.5 b 163.3 b 196.5 a 161.0 b 6.1
a Meansin rows with differing letters differ at P = 0.05 using an F-protected LSD.
a Adapted from Sattler et al (2010).

Way forward
In order to meet the increased demand for energy, there is a need to develop renewable energy
sources such as high energy sorghum which produce high stalk yield per unit time, input energy,
photo-and thermo-insensitive with inbuilt desired levels of resistance/ tolerance to various stresses
and with different maturities, ensuring a continuous supply of feedstock to the biofuel industry.
Genetically developed brown mid-rib (bmr) sorghums having reduced lignin content have paved a
better path to increase cellulosic ethanol production as compared with other sorghum cultivars and
improve process economics targeting higher conversion efficiency. Future research should address
the optimization of sorghum as an energy crop through breeding for enhanced productivity under
limited available resources and adaptation to colder, arid, saline, and alkaline conditions. Sweet
sorghum parental line research needs urgent attention for enhancing genetic potential for high sugar
content. To develop superior varieties and hybrids, long term breeding strategy is useful.

References
Bucholtz DL, Cantrell RP, Axtell JD and Lechtenberg VL.1980. Lignin biochemistry of normal and brown midrib mutant
sorghum. J Agric Food Chem 28: 1239–1241.
Casler MD, Buxton DR and Vogel KP. 2002. Genetic modification of lignin concentration aVects Wtness of perennial
herbaceous plants. Theor Appl Genet 104:127–131.
Casler MD and Jung HJG. 2006. Relationships of Wbre, lignin, and phenolics to in vitro Wbre digestibility in three
perennial grasses. Anim Feed Sci Technol 125:151–161.
Chen F and Dixon RA. 2007. Lignin modiWcation improves fermentable sugar yields for biofuel production. Nat
Biotechnol 25:759–761.
Corredor DY, Salazar JM, Hohn KL, Bean S, Bean B, Wang D. 2009. Evaluation and characterization of forage sorghum
as feedstock for fermentable sugar production, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 158:164–179.
Demirbas, A. (2009). "Political, economic and environmental impacts of biofuels: A review". Applied Energy 86: S108–
S117.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 28 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Dien BS, Jung HG, Vogel KP, Casler MD, Lamb JFS, Weimer PJ, Iten L, Mitchell RB, Sarath G. 2006. Chemical
composition and response to dilute-acid pretreatment and enzymatic saccharification of alfalfa, reed
canarygrass, and switchgrass. Biomass Bioener 30:880–891.
Dien BS, Sarath G, Pedersen JF, Sattler SE, Chen H, Funnell-Harris D, Nichols NN, Cotta MA. 2009. Improved sugar
conversion and ethanol yield for forage sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) lines with reduced lignin contents,
BioEnergy Res. 2:153–164.
Gerhardt R.L, Fritz J O, Moore K J and Jaster E H. 1994. Digestion kinetics and composition of normal and brownmidrib
sorghum morphological components. Crop Sci. 34:1353–1361.
Jaisil P. Feasibility study on sweet sorghum production as raw materials for commercial ethanol production. Proceedings
of the International conference on Agricultural, Food and Biological Engineering & Post Harvest/
ProductionTechnology. Khon Kaen, Thailand, 21–24 January 2007.
Miron, J., Soloman, R., Adin, G., Nir, U., Nikbachat, M., Yosef, E., Carmi, A.,Weinberg, Z.G., Kipnis, T., Zuckerman, E.,
2006. Effects of harvest stage and re-growth on yield, composition, ensilage and in vitro digestibility of new
forage sorghum varieties. J. Sci. Food Agric. 86, 140–147.
Naureen Chaudhary and Javed Iqbal Qazi, 2011. Lignocellulose for ethanol production: A review of issues relating to
bagasse as a source material. African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 10(8), pp. 1270-1274.
Pedersen, J.F., Vogel, K.P., Funnell, D.L., 2005. Impact of reduced lignin on plant fitness. Crop Sci. 45, 812–819.
Pedersen JF, Toy J J, Funnell DL, Sattler S E, Oliver AL, Grant RA. 2008. Registration of BN611, AN612, BN612, and
RN613 Sorghum genetic stocks with stacked bmr-6 and bmr-12 genes, J. Plant Registrations 2: 258–262.
Ratnavathi, C.V., Dayakar Rao, B. and Seetharama, N. (2003) Sweet sorghum stalk: a suitable raw material for fuel
alcohol production. DSR/NRCS Report Number 12/2003. NATP (DSR) Series No. 1, National Research Center
for Sorghum (NRCS), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, 8 pp.
Reddy Shetty Prakasham, Darmarapu Nagaiah, Kanaganahalli S Vinutha, Addepally Uma,Thulluri Chiranjeevi, Akula V
Umakanth, Pinnamaneni Srinivasa Rao & Ning Yan. Sorghum biomass: a novel renewable carbon source for
industrial bioproducts. Biofuels (2014) 5(2), 159–174.
Reddy, B.V.S., Ramesh, S., Ashok Kumar, A., Wani, S.P., Ortiz, R. et al. (2008) Biofuel crops research for energy
security and rural development in developing countries. Bioenergy Research 1, 248–258.
Rooney, WL. & CW Smith. 2000. Techniques for developing new cultivars. Pages 329– 347 in Sorghum: Origin, History,
Technology and Production (Smith CW and Frederiksen, eds.). Wiley, New York.
Saballos A, Vermerris W, Rivera L, Ejeta G (2008) Allelic association, chemical characterization and saccharification
properties of brown midrib mutants of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench). BioEnergy Research 2: 193-204.
Sarath G, Mitchell RB, Sattler SE, Funnell D, Pedersen JF, Graybosch RA, Vogel KP. 2008. Opportunities and
roadblocks in utilizing forages and small grains for liquid fuels. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol.doi:10.1007/s10295-
007-0296-3.
Sattler S E, Funnel-Harris D L, Pedersen J F. 2010. Efficacy of Singular and Stacked brown midrib 6 and 12 in the
Modification of Lignocellulose and Grain Chemistry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 3611–3616.
Sattler SE, Funnell-Harris, D L, Pedersen J F. 2010. Brown midrib mutations and their importance to the utilization of
maize, sorghum, and pearl millet lignocellulosic tissues. Plant Science 178: 229–238.
Vermerris W, Saballos A, Ejeta G, Mosier NS, Ladisch MR and Carpita NC.2007. Molecular breeding to enhance
ethanol production from corn and sorghum stover. Crop Science 47(Supplement3) S142–S153.
Vietor, D. and Miller, F. (1990) Assimilation, partitioning, and nonstructural carbohydrates in sweet compared with grain
sorghum. Crop Science 30, 1109–1115.
Vinutha, K S and Rayaprolu, L and Yadagiri, K and Umakanth, A V and Srinivasa Rao, P. 2014. Sweet Sorghum
Research and Development in India: Status and Prospects. Sugar Tech, 16 (2). pp. 133-143.
Vogler RK, Tesso TT, Johnson K D and Ejeta G. 2009. The effect of allelic variation on forage quality of brown midrib
sorghum mutants with reduced caffeic acid Omethyl transferase activity. African Jl of Biochem Res.3:070-076

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 29 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

6. Sorghum: An important forage crop

BV Bhat
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Sorghum for green forage is popularly grown over 2.6 m ha area in Western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana, Delhi, Gujarat, Rajasthan and is also popular with farmers in other states. Almost 60-70%
of total forage demand in kharif is met from sorghum. Multi cut sorghum under irrigation in summer
and single cut as rainfed crop in kharif are popular. Its quick growth, high yielding ability, high dry
matter content, leafiness, wider adaptability and drought resistance make sorghum an ideal forage
crop. Sorghum is suitable for silage and hay making and thus supplement the nutritious supply in
lean season.

CROP IMPROVEMENT
Development of improved varieties / hybrids and production technology has led to an average yield
of 500q/ha in single cut forage sorghum and up to 700 q/ha in multi cut hybrids. A number of forage
sorghum varieties have been released in our country. The list of single and multi cut sorghum
cultivars is presented in Tables 1 and 2.

The good quality fodder should have good palatability, higher intake, high protein content and better
digestibility. Usually the characters which determine the quality are softness of stalk, high leaf: stem
ration, protein content, low NDF and high dry matter digestibility in stover. The softness and
thinness of stem is more amenable for feeding by livestock. The characters which may contribute to
softness is the pithy type with less silica content. The varieties with stay green trait and resistance
to leaf diseases and stem borer keep the leaf activity for longer period up to maturity and thus have
better quality than others.

The protein content in dual purpose / single cut fodder varieties ranges from 6.54 / 7.39% and the
IVDMD (In Vitro Dry Matter Digestibility) from 45 – 54% with an average of 50% in released
varieties. This may give about 65 – 70 q/ha DDM (Digestible Dry Matter).

CROP MANAGEMENT
Sorghum gave maximum yield when it was preceded by crops like berseem, senji and metha. The
protein, silica and IVDMD percentage and green fodder yield q/ha increase under irrigated
conditions. The leaf diseases (Helminthosporium, Cercospora, Ramulispora and Gloeocercospora)
and stem borer reduce the protein content, zinc content and IVDMD.

a) Field preparation and sowing time

In general 2-3 harrowings followed by planting is sufficient for most of the soil types to prepare the
field for sowing of forage sorghum. In unirrigated areas, sorghum for fodder should be sown
immediately after onset of monsoon.

b) Cultivation practices for multi cut forage sorghum:

Seed rate : 10 kg/ha
Spacing : 45 cm between rows
Time of sowing : April – Mid May
Fertilizers : 60 kg N/ha and 60 kg P 2 O 5 /ha as basal. Top dressing with 40 kg N/ha
after each cut
Irrigation as and when required or at 7 to 10 days interval in summer season.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 30 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

c) Cultivation practice of single cut forage sorghum:

Seed rate : 25 kg/ha
Spacing : 30 cm between rows
Intercropping : Intercropping of sorghum with Cowpea in 2 : 1
Time of sowing : June (with onset of monsoon)
Fertilizers : 80 kg N in 2 split doses + 40 kg P 2 O 5 /ha

d) Agronomic Management
The suitable cultural practices for forage production are:

i) Sowing time: The single cut and two cut varieties may be planted between 15 June to 30 June,
with onset of monsoon. In Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh, the best time of sowing is from last week
of May to first fortnight of June. This helps in avoidance of major pests. The multi cut varieties /
hybrids can be planted early under irrigation as a summer crop.

ii) Seed rate and method of sowing: Depending on seed size 25 kg seed/ha in small seeded
varieties and 40 kg/ha in bold seeded varieties is recommended. The row to row spacing of 30 cm
is optimum for higher fodder yield and better quality.

iii) Fertilizer: Sorghum being a cereal and high biomass crop requires balanced fertilizer
application to get high yields. In case of single cut varieties 80 Kg N per ha in two split doses is
optimum under irrigated condition. First half as basal at the time of last ploughing or at the time of
sowing and remaining half after 35-40 days after sowing when there is adequate moisture in the soil.
In rainfed areas, 40 kg N/ha as basal is preferred. In multi cut varieties, 100-120 kg N per has is
recommended in three split doses. First, one-third of it should be applied at the time of sowing. The
second dose of 1/3 is given after the first cut and remaining 1/3 after second cut. These split doses
should be given when there is an adequate moisture in the soil.

iv) Irrigation: In summer season the crop should be irrigated 3-4 times at the interval of 10-15 days
to get better fodder yields. During kharif season, irrigation is adjusted according to rainfall
distribution and 1-2 irrigation may be given during long dry spells.

v) Weed control: Weeds are a major problem in initial stage of crop growth and compete for water
and nutrients. Summer ploughing to keep field weed free, 1-2 hand weeding after 15-20 days of
crop sowing reduce weeds considerably. The per-emergence spray of Atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i/ha
effectively control the weeds. The soil surface need to be moist. Spray of weedicide should be
taken immediately after sorghum sowing.

vi) Mixed cropping: The planting of fodder legumes like cowpea and guar along with sowing in 2 :
1 ratio increases fodder yield and quality. In low rainfall or less irrigated areas mixed cropping of
sorghum and guar is desirable. In irrigated or high rainfall areas, mix cropping with cowpea gives
high greed fodder yield. The erect variety of fodder cowpea is preferred.

vii) Crop rotation: The yield of sorghum is high when planted after taking the leguminous crop like
berseem, senji and metha. It saves nitrogen application to sorghum crop. The crop rotation of
fodder sorghum – wheat; fodder sorghum – Bengal gram or pea are popular. Thus, early flowering
variety or early planting is useful to get higher yields of forage sorghum as well as rabi corp.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 31 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

viii) Harvesting:
Single cut varieties: Such varieties are harvested from 50% flowering to full flowering.
Multi cut varieties: In multi cut varieties first cut taken 60 days after sowing gave significantly
higher yield of green fodder, where as dry matter production was more when crop was harvested at
70 days after sowing. Subsequent cut at 40 days interval was invariably found to be the best as it
gave the highest green as well as dry matter production. Harvesting of sudan grass, 5 cm above
the ground level produced significantly higher forage yield over 10 cm stubble height. The variety
HC 136 may give two cuts where first cut can be taken at 75 days and second cut at 90 days of first
cut.

ix) Management of HCN poisoning: HCN is maximum at early stages up to 35 – 40 days stage of
crop growth. It decreases gradually with the growth of the crop. The HCN in excess of 200 ppm is
toxic. HCN content increases under moisture stress. In most of sorghum varieties, HCN decreases
below toxic level after 40 days of the crop growth. In summer, crop should be irrigated 2-3 days
before harvesting or else it is safer to harvest crop after flowering.

x) Seed production: Maximum seed yield of single cut forage types was obtained when 25 kg
seed/ha was used with 45 cm row spacing and 10-15 cm spacing between plant to plant.
Application of 50 kg P 2 O 5 /ha found to increase seed yield in forage sorghum. However, in dual
purpose variety, the seed rate 8-10 kg/ha is optimum.

Strategies for improving fodder quality: The quality of sorghum fodder can be improved
nutritionally by various means, such as mixing with berseem, or groundnut cakes + maize or urea +
molasses. Berseem or groundnut cake has associative effect towards the better utilization of dry
matter due to increase in the activity of cellulytic microflora of rumen. Similarly the supplementation
with uera + molasses or concentrates also increases dry matter digestibility.

Table 1: Single cut varieties of forage sorghum

S. Variety Fodder Yield Characteristics

No. (q/ha)
Green Dry
1 HC-308 415 128 Tall, leafy and medium maturity, stem is sweet and juicy, highly resistant to all foliar
diseases, midrib green, panicle semi compact.
2 HC 171 410 122 Its stem is sweet and juicy and leaves have green midrib. Panicles are semi compact
with small and creamy white seeds. It is highly resistant to most of the foliar diseases
being tan pigmented. It is highly resistant to mites.
3 CSV 15 440 110 Tall, juicy, sweet stem, resistant to leaf spot diseases; Grown for fodder +grain purpose
in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Northern MP and Bundelkhand
4 HJ-513 470 119 This variety was developed by CCS HAU, Hisar and released in 2004 for north-west
zone of the country. It is a derivative of S-305 (PJ-7R × SPV- 80) × HC-136. The variety
is recommended for cultivation in Haryana under timely sown/ normal fertility/irrigated
conditions. The plant height is 245–260 cm. It is tolerant to major foliar diseases
5 Pusa Chari-6 440 165 It flowers in 85-90 days. Stem is medium thick, non-sweet, pithy and nonjuicy. Leaves
are medium long and broad with white midrib. Panicle is semi-compact. Seeds are
medium bold and white. It matures for seed in 135-140 days and gives 8-9 q/ha seed.
6 GFS-5 380 135 This is an early maturing variety developed by GAU, Surat and was released for
cultivation during Kharif season in arid and semi-arid areas of Gujarat state. Average
plant height is 276 cm with thin stem. It is resistant to most of the leaf spot diseases and
grain mold.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 32 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Table 2: Multi cut cultivars of forage sorghum

S. Variety / Fodder Yield Characteristics

No. Hybrid (q/ha)
Green Dry
1 CSH 24 MF 914 232 This hybrid was released in 2009 with the parentage of ICSA 467 x Pant Chari 6.
(hybrid) Plant height at first cut is 200-210 cm. Has high digestibility (55-58% IVDMD), high
protein (7.5-8.0%) and low HCN (80-95 ppm). The stem is thick, juicy and semi-
sweet with 2-3 tillers. This hybrids is resistant to major foliar diseases and amenable
for 3-4 cuttings. The female parent has good hybrid seed yielding ability. This hybrid
is recommended for cultivation in multi-cut hybrid growing areas of India for
irrigation-protected summer season.
2 CSH 20MF This variety was developed by GBPUA&T, Pantnagar by inter-specific hybridization
(hybrid) (2219 A × Pant Chari 6). This variety was notified for cultivation in medium irrigated
summer and rainfed conditions of Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Punjab, Bihar and Gujarat. It has low HCN content and is highly resistant to foliar
diseases and lodging under natural conditions. It is tolerant to drought and water
logging. It is tall (215 cm), tan and has medium thick juicy stem with many basal
tillers and long and medium broad semi-erect, stay-green leaves. This hybrid shows
fast regeneration after cutting
3 M.P. Chari 300 95 Tall, thin stemmed, leaves medium long and narrow with white midrib. Non-sweet,
non tan, non-juicy and pithy. Takes 65-70 days to become ready for fodder.
Panicles are erect and lax with purple or black glumes. Grains brown coloured.
Better generation and for two cuttings. Crop matures for seed in about 110 days.
Leaf spot disease susceptible.
2 SSG 59-3 570 138 A popular multicut sudan grass, this variety is suitable for 4 cuts for green fodder
during the crop season. It is thin stemmed, sweet with profuse tillering early flower
in 55-60 days. Tolerant to drought and water logging. Panicle is laxed with profuse
lateral spikes. Seeds purple red coloured with glumes adhered to them. Matures in
95-100 days and yields 10-12 q/ha seed.
4 Pusa Chari 23 550 160 A multicut variety with thin stem, sudan type non-sweet and non-juicy. Leaves
narrow with white midrib. Plants have narrow leaves with white midrib. Plants have
lateral branches. Seed yield 14 q/ha under North Indian conditions.
6 Punjab Sudex 592 170 Multicut hybrid 3-4 cuts, 8-10 tillers under irrigation, takes 60-64 days for flowering,
(Hybrid) 10 leaves, profuse tillering habit, quick regeneration, thin stem, non-juicy, non-tan
and palatable. It is recommended for Punjab state.
7 PCH 106 640 180 Multicut forage hybrid (Pedigree 2219 A x PC 23), suitable for 3-4 cuts, profuse
(Hybrid) tillering, quick regeneration, thin stem, non-tan, flowers in 60-63 days.
Recommended for all sorghum growing areas in the country.
8 PCH 109 820 210 It is a multi-cut hybrid developed by IARI, New Delhi and recommended for
(Hybrid) cultivation during early summer and normal kharif under timely sown irrigated/
rainfed areas in Delhi. The plants are 225 cm tall, semi-erect, stay green type, leafy
(13/plant) with juicy stem. Its leaves are long (83 cm), broad (6.5 cm) with dull green
mid rib. The panicles are semi-loose, the grains are creamy white. It attains 50%
flowering in 61 days and matures in 101 days. The variety is tolerant to major foliar
diseases, shoot fly and stem borer.
9 Pant Chari-6 800- 250-350 This variety was developed from selection in Zimbabwe germplasm line EC-438401
1000 by GBPUA&T, Pantnagar. The variety has been recommended for cultivation in
Uttarakhand state under rainfed conditions during kharif season and under irrigated
conditions in summer season. It reaches mid bloom in 65–70 days and matures in
105–110 days. The plants are tall, erect, tan pigmented and stem is sweet and juicy
(TSS-6– 7%). The seed is red, semi-bold and circular in shape. It is resistant to
major foliar diseases namely, zonate leaf spot, downy mildew, gray leaf spot and
moderately resistant to anthracnose and sooty stripe under natural field conditions.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 33 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

7. Value addition in sorghum-Potential of sorghum for

industrial uses in India and entrepreneurship development
B Dayakar Rao
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Abstract
Much less is known about the industrial utilization of the sorghum and its market
opportunities; this presents for poor sorghum producers.The prospects of sorghum in
industrial sectors lie in animal feed, alcohol distilleries, and starch industries. Only rainy-
season sorghum is used for industrial purposes. Postrainy-sorghum is a highly valued
foodgrain, and thus too expensive to be used as industrial raw material, which is therefore
used solely for food purposes. However in recent past, the processing intervention in
sorghum has created a wide scope to enter them in food industry, which ultimately
encourages entrepreneurship development for optimum utilization and higher revenue from
the produce.

1.0 Introduction
Sorghum (Jowar) is one of the most important cereal crops in the world and is one of the four major
food grains of our country. It is a staple food for millions of poor rural people in Asian and African
countries. Besides being a major source of staple food for human beings, it also serves as an
important source of fodder, animal feed and industrial raw material. Jowar (common name of
sorghum in India) is grown in semi-arid climate where other crops do not stand well. The crops
withstand in drought condition.

Normally sorghum is mainly cultivated by resource poor farmers to meet household requirements of
food and fodder and a small surplus for the market. After harvest, sorghum grain may be retained on
farm, to be used for home consumption or as seed or for payment in kind. The surplus grain is sold
either in a regulated market through commission agents in the markets or through a broker
(middleman) at the village. In general sorghum marketable surplus is not huge but because it is one
of the main food staples, it is reported that the movement of sorghum from surplus areas to deficit
areas and between rural markets within each state is common. Sorghum was found in all the rural
and urban markets. However, it was observed that sorghum supply is very limited in all the rural
markets as well as in the urban markets.

Although significant amount of sorghum is traded, markets are not well developed, value added and
ready to use products need to popularize sorghum as a food. While, industrial liasoning and
understanding the market players behaviour and channels for promotion of alternate uses like
syrup, industrial products and jaggery from sweet sorghum, sorghum grain for potable alcohol and
sweet stalks for fuel alcohol can auger good prospects for sorghum. Grain sorghum marketing fits
no ordinary marketing model. Traditionally, only 8 to 9% of the crop carries over to the next
marketing year. However, gradual commercialization of Indian agriculture and integration with the
world markets on one hand, and decreasing consumption as food, and slow increasing demand for
Sorghum on the other, marketing of sorghum, an erstwhile subsistence crop, assumes great
importance.

1.1 Alternative Uses of Sorghum

Sorghum grain is primarily grown for direct food uses and fodder for animal.However, with the
advance in technology and processing intervention, sorghum grain produced during rabihas found to

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 34 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

have dedicated food uses while its counterpart kharif sorghum grain has found niche in alternate
uses which is elaborated below.

The utilization of kharif sorghum grain as a raw material in various industries is increasing, given the
limited prospects of rainy season (kharif) sorghum for human consumption (Table 1)). The main
industries currently using sorghum in India are the poultry feed, animal feed and potable alcohol
distilleries. At present poultry feed sector is using approximately 2.0 million tonnes sorghum
annually; animal feed sector uses about 0.60 million tonnes sorghum followed by alcohol distillers
(about 0.49 million tonnes). Sorghum is used when maize is in short supply and priced up to 20%
higher than sorghum.

The estimated utilization in 2013-14 shows that poultry feed industry is going to be the major
industry which will absorb huge quantity of sorghum (3.18 million tonnes), followed by dairy feed
industry (1.3 million tonnes). This estimate is made with the current trends, but if government policy
on allocating food grain to potable alcohol making is implemented, 4 million tonnes of sorghum may
be needed for brewing industry alone.

Table1. Estimates on various uses of Sorghum grain

Utilization Estimated utilization in 2013-14
Type
patterns (million tonnes)
Direct a. Rabi 3.5
use/human b. Kharif (partly) 0.7
consumption
Other uses
1. Poultry feed Kharif 3.18
2. Animal feed Kharif 1.30
3. Alcohol Kharif 2.50
Total 11.18

2.0 Industrial utilization of sorghum

Poultry feed/ Animal Feed: Poultry feed industry in the country is progressing well. Several
independent feeding trials conducted on layer and broiler birds could conclusively demonstrate that
sorghum is as good as maize although, the latter is marginally superior in total energy value.
Sorghum based feed in layer birds has to be supplemented with carotene to ensure yellow colour to
egg yolk. With the current price advantage over maize, sorghum is used more and more in poultry
feed. Demand for grain from poultry and animal feed industry is rising. While maize is the preferred
coarse grain by this industry, sorghum has potential to emerge as a major feed grain with favourable
pricing till recent years and with demonstration that it could largely serve the role of maize in feed.
In the case of cattle, sorghum based feed is found satisfactory. Molded kharif grain is found as an
acceptable grain component in the feed of goat and swine too.

Starch: Sorghum is rarely used by the starch industry in view of processing problem and starch
yield as the starch extraction machineries are adapted to the bigger grain size of maize. While there
is scope to improve starch recovery from sorghum by modified extraction, selective breeding and
use of specifically suited machineries, starch production from the present sorghum cultivars be
economically viable only if the grain price is 20% lesser than that of maize. Sorghum grain is found
more suitable for production of glucose and liquid glucose.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 35 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Potable alcohol: Molded kharif grain which fetches lower market value is a cheap raw material for
production of potable or industrial alcohol. Much often this grain is available at prices lower than the
minimum support price. It is found to produce good quality potable alcohol which could be exported
for blending purpose. Sorghum is the second best grain, after barley, for malting.

Malt: Another potential area could be the use of sorghum malt and as an adjunct in brewing
industry. Malted sorghum is used for brewing beer in Ghana and Nigeria. Sorghum’s comparative
advantage would be its low output price, especially in production regions of rainy sorghum in India
over that of existing raw material.

Sorghum for bio-energy harvest (bio-fuel production)

Sweet stalked and high energy sorghum has the potential to emerge as a major bio-energy crop for
production of industrial alcohol, gasohol and even electricity. While the national trials on sweet
sorghum had shown its potential productivity as 50-60 t stalk and 2-3 t grain/ha in 125-130 days,
reports from China indicate a far high productivity to the tune of 90 t stalk and 6 t grain/ha from the
crop in 140-150 days. This productivity potential places the crop at an undoubtable advantage over
sugarcane or molasses at their ruling prices for ethanol production. As a bio-energy crop sweet
sorghum is more efficient than sugarcane because of its high productivity with relatively low levels of
fertilisation and irrigation. Sweet sorghum, in this context, could be effectively exploited as an
energy crop. However, government policy support in declaring high ethanol pricing will determine its
current utilization andfuture demand
Production of jaggery and brown or colourless syrup or high fructose syrup are other opportunities
from sweet sorghum. These diversifications could be done at village or farm level as small scale
enterprises.

3.0 Diversified food uses of Sorghum

Post-rainy season sorghum is a highly valued food grain, and too expensive to be used as industrial
raw material. Due to inconveniences attached with direct food use of sorghum, there was an
increasing need for processing interventions which are not attempted in the past. Through
processing there are efforts made to revive demand for sorghum. Processing interventions provide
wider consumer choices, consumer acceptability through increased shelf life and marketability. In
addition, discovering many new potential health benefits from sorghum, such as high levels of anti-
oxidants, improved cholesterol profiles of the consumer, and as a source of safe food for persons
with celiac disease has gain wide momentum from the consumers’ point of view. Sorghum grain has
high fibre content, moderate digestibility and rich mineral content compared to other cereals such as
rice and wheat. Therefore, sorghum foods are recommended for diabetic and for fighting obesity.
Being free from gluten, sorghum is the ideal food for celiac patients and other life style diseases

3.1 Sorghum in food industry

So far sorghum foods are not significantly exploited to commercialize their importance as health or
prophylactic food, despite offering well-balanced composition of carbohydrates, proteins and
minerals together with high dietary fibre. Sorghum possesses unique nutritional and functional
properties that can lead itself to the development of healthy and nutritious foods at low costs. It is
gluten-free, have unique phenolic compounds, which are being identified as antioxidants. It
contains proteins and starch characteristics that lend itself as functional foods. Sorghum can be
used in similar fashion with slight modifications, as with other cereals through processing
technologies that are currently available for rice, wheat and maize. . Utilization of sorghum can be
increased by various processing treatments including blanching, malting, dry heating, acid

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 36 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

treatments, popping. All these treatments decrease the level of anti-nutrients, improve digestibility
and increase in shelf-life.

Traditional techniques that are commonly used include decorticating (usually by pounding followed
by winnowing or sometimes sifting), malting, fermentation, roasting, flaking and grinding. These
methods are mostly labour intensive and give a poor-quality product. Sorghum would probably be
more widely used if processing were improved and if sufficient good-quality flour were made
available to meet the demand (Eastman, 1980). Therefore to some extent, methods have been
developed to make traditional foods to suit local tastes and are appropriate for these purposes.

There was declined direct Sorghum consumption and other millets over the past three decades.
Sorghum monthly per capita consumption was declined from 1.2 kg to 0.33 kg in rural, whereas in
urban areas from 0.6 kg to 0.22 kg during 1987-88 to 2005-06. In 2011-12 monthly consumption of
Sorghum declined to 0.32 kg in rural and 0.21 kg in urban areas. The reason for the decrease in
Sorghum consumption is laborious and time-consuming process in preparation of food and also the
policy of the Government to supply fine cereals at subsidized prices. However, of late the
importance of millets in health and nutritional security has been realized in wake of many surge in
lifestyle diseases in the country. This calls for change in food habits and shift towards nutritional
millets. This is expected to revive demand of sorghum cultivation for the benefit of dryland sorghum
farmers. It has become necessary to reorientation the efforts on Sorghum to generate demand
through value-addition of processed foods, feed and industrial products.

To create demand for millets, DSR has worked on identification of suitable genotypes for improved
cultivation and production of sorghum in rabi and kharif seasons. A set of 51 lines including parental
lines, released varieties, germplasm lines and breeding lines were evaluated for protein digestibility,
an important nutritional trait which enhances the nutritive value of sorghum. End-specific improved
cultivars CSH-14, CSH-16, CSH-23, CSV-20 and SPH-1148 in kharif and M 35-1, CSV 216 R
(Phule Yashoda) & SPV 1411 (Parbhani Moti), Phule Vasudha and Phule Revati in rabi were
identified for production of sorghum foods. The end-product specific on-farm production was
facilitated on the lines of successful models of ITC’s e-choupal. In this model, farmers were given
market buy-back assurance for (Fairly Accepted Quality) FAQ grain (In case if they do not find a
market or appropriate price, ITC will procure and is aggregated from small holder’s marketed
surplus). ITC-ABD facilitated integrated farm extension services in private-public partnership (PPP)
mode on procurement, extension, dissemination of knowledge and information including daily
market prices in various markets through the computers placed in e-choupal sanchalak’s (village
representative) house which is accessible to all the participating farmers in the village. The
procurement of participating farmers’ produced through buy-back mechanism, and sharing the
knowledge are either facilitated or undertaken directly by ITC Ltd. The assurance of buyback gave
motivation to the participating farmers to employ gainful crop management practices which led to
higher income. In fact, the income of those participating farmers whose produce was procured,
increased by 44 per cent over the baseline income, while those whose produce was not procured,
income increased by 36 per cent. From the study we could infer that sorghum when cultivated on an
intensive scale with backstopping of technology and farm extension services impacted yield and
income levels. The end-product specific production also had another advantage of linking up with
entrepreneurs who actually bought the identity preserved produce which was procured and
aggregated for engaging in small-scale production of specific sorghum products.

Processing technologies for the production of sorghum foods were developed at DSR, CFTRI,
Mysore and ANGRAU. More than 50 technologies were developed using different methods such as

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 37 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

soaking, malting, germination, dehulling, parboiling, milling, baking, flaking, fermentation, and
extrusion cooking. Sorghum foods such as dehulled sorghum, malted sorghum, sorghum flour,
multi grain flour , coarse, medium and fine semolina, parboiled semolina, flakes, roasted flakes,
vermicelli and pasta, biscuits, protein rich snacks, cakes, fermented foods such as lassi, Instant
foods, tastemakers and technologies for utilization of byproducts of sorghum. With DSR, taking the
key role in value addition, more than 35 sorghum recipes were standardized. Studies were
conducted for the extension of shelf life of millet foods (sorghum & pearl millet) using different
packaging materials and suitable packaging material has been used for commercialization.
Nutritional evaluation of sorghum foods were done at NIN, Hyderabad. Results from various studies
such as organoleptic evaluation, glycemic index and glycemic load, evaluation of sorghum foods in
diabetic patients and school children and protein digestibility in animals proved that sorghum can be
used as a safe food in for all age groups and benefits can be attained on inclusion of sorghum in the
diet.

Creation of awareness about millets has been done successfully through various possible mediums
such as pamphlets, leaflets, newspapers, books, jingles, participating in various road shows,
campaigns, exhibitions, TV shows, radio talks, seminars, conferences, workshops and conducting
training programs for entrepreneurs and farmers. With the launching of DSR brand ‘EATRITE’ and
already partnered 17 entrepreneurs with whom the DSR has entered into MoUs, the DSR has
started building a wide network of sorghum products marketing by involving government agencies,
more entrepreneurs, wholesalers and retailers by making Hyderabad as the main centre and also
the main market while also targeting the national capital and later in different parts of the country.
Branding, labeling with nutritional profile, recipes, mandatory information and packing was unique in
sorghum as there were no products available in the market. This has huge impact on consumer
perception on product diversification and flagging of nutritional superiority. The interventions also
sensitized policy makers about the importance of sorghum and millets for potentiality of uplifting the
living standards of dry-land farmers. Line departments of government are sensitized in state
governments so that they may also take up millets in public distribution schemes. This has resulted
to implementation of millets in Mid-Day Meal programme on the pilot scale by the 3 states of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. Lastly it is coincidence that Govt of India heeded to
include sorghum and millets in PDS.

In order to find out the consumer acceptability, feasibility and sustainability of newly developed
sorghum RTE and RTC products under the DSR brand name ‘Eatrite’ in the market, the study was
conducted in traditional sorghum consuming city of Hyderabad and Pune, and non-traditional Delhi
during 2013. The techno-economic feasibility of sorghum-processed products viz., Jowar rich
multigrain atta, Jowar rawa, Jowar vermicelli, Jowar pasta, Jowar biscuits, Jowar flakes was
conducted. The result shows feasibility and profitability of sorghum processing with respect to cost
incurred and market demand.

3.2 Techno-Economic feasibility of sorghum foods processing

Besides laudable efforts of various government agencies viz., Directorate of Sorghum (DSR),
ICRISAT, ANGARU, NIN etc in terms of preparation of various recipes from Jowar, developed
technologies for incubating entrepreneurship in Jowar based foods going a long way in
commercialization of Jowar based foods. However, technology related to production of Jowar
based production is still in the evolutions stage. Besides the government agencies viz., DSR, there
other numerous private agencies and small entrepreneurs are working with various technologies for
production of jowar based products. Owing to which taking a bench mark technology and price
becomes difficult.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 38 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Nevertheless, an attempt has been made to analyse the specified jowar based products from
various financial parameters. The following table depicts the summary of few parameters on which
all the products are evaluated.

Product Recovery V F Cost Net Cost/S Price Competitor’s Price

% Cost (dep.) returns/s KU /SKU Price (Bambino) Advantage
ku MRP
Jowar Rich 95 3196 3.11 13.33 33.67 47 50 -3
Multigrain Atta
Jowar Flakes 60 1730 2.27 1.14 28.86 30 100 (jowar) -70
Jowar Rawa 70 +30 977 3.74 1.99 28.01 30 55 (jowar) -25
(flour)
Jowar Pasta 90 1448 87.15 12.54 5.46 18 16 +2
Jowar Vermicelli 90 1448 87.15 17.54 5.46 23 13 +10
Jowar Biscuits 85 518 23.81 4.37 10.63 15 18 -3

These value added products are not available in the market. Efforts can be made to popularize
sorghum products low cost, high protein and energy rich products among urban population across
the country through ongoing nutritional intervention programs. The preparation and production of
such products at home and commercial level would initiate the production units and small scale in
rural and urban areas to raise the income level of housewives. The developed value added baked,
supplementary and health foods in spite of being in expensive, acceptable and nutritionally superior
are not taken up by industries for commercialization as people are not aware about the production
technology and health benefits. There is a scope for commercialization of various products from
health and cost point of view. Industrial linkages for development and commercialization of these
food products will secure market for sorghum. Not the least, there is a need to create awareness
about the technical know-how of the processing and product development.

4.0 Entrepreneurship Development

In order to keep up the momentum and the sustainability of commercialization process,
Entrepreneurship development of the stakeholders is necessitated through interventions in food
processing and product development and nutritional evaluation. Creating sustainable value chain
has been one of the greatest challenges for the social scientists and research institutions at large.
Therefore the ultimate goal of entrepreneurship development programmes is to disseminate
thorough knowledge of post-harvest management which includes linkage of farmers with market,
processing, nutritional importance of sorghum, and how to promote and market the value added
products.

5.0 Future prospects of sorghum

The future prospects of sorghum lie in developing and commercializing various nutritive and
consumer friendly food products in the market. With the advance of modern technology, it has
become possible to retrofit the processing machineries for sorghum processing. However, for full
operation of sorghum processing and commercialization, industry will require consistent supply of
required quantity and quality of grain. Rabi sorghum grains are almost all good for human
consumption and therefore suitable for food processing, whereas kharif sorghum are inferior for
human consumption due to their poor quality and prone to pest and mould. Hence, promoting
alternative uses of kharif sorghum grain is the best solution in this regard. Studies have found the
prospects of kharif sorghum for production of ethanol, beer, animal feed, etc. Sorghum can make
good malt as an adjunct in brewing industry. Sorghum beer is popular world over, but India is yet to
catch-up with big possibility.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 39 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

In this context of increasing demand for Sorghum, value-addition has acquired a great importance
which will have a striking impact on socio-economic conditions of dry-land. The efforts of DSR and
partner institutes in creating industrial linkages for development and commercialization of Sorghum
products is seeing positive aspects with more entrepreneurs coming forward to tie up in any kind of
intervention as per business plans made by the DSR. Very shortly, M/s Britannia Industries Ltd is
also going to launch sorghum-rich biscuit, which is a positive outcome of the initiative made by DSR
in creating demand of sorghum and millets in the country. The successful PPP (public private
partnership) model of NAIP-Millets Value Chain model is being replicated for promotion of millets at
national level through NFSM (initially under INSIMP) by the DAC, Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India which is seen to be the ideal model of uplifting the dry-land farmers of India
which in fact constituted 60 percent of the farming area in India. It also encouraged entrepreneurs
dealing with food products to include Sorghum in their business exclusively or in combination with
other millets.

5.1 Challenges
The ultimate challenge today is to provide technologies that will enable transformation of
subsistence sorghum farming into a commercial and profitable production system that can compete
at global level. This can be realized through realistic reassessment of crop research needs in terms
of current and future demand, resolving specific production constraints, development of post-harvest
processing and value-addition technologies, marketing strategies and policies that may result in
additional income and employment without sacrificing overall goal of attaining sustainable food and
nutritional security, especially of the sorghum farmers in dry regions and the urban poor.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 40 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

8. Post harvest management of grain sorghum

G Shyam Prasad and K Srinivasa babu
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad, AP

Sorghum is one of the important staple food crops of India. It is cultivated in about 7.7 million hectares of land
with a production of 6.98 million tons during 2009-2010. If we look closely the Rabi accounts for nearly 60%
of the total area and production. The kharif production is mostly utilized for industrial purpose because of its
inferior quality (mold infected) whiles the Rabi production goes for human consumption. Sorghum crop is
mostly grown by small and marginal farmers with limited resources who cannot afford to store it in scientific
way to avoid storage losses. The four million tones grain sorghum of Rabi production and seed requirements
of farmers which accounts to about a lakh tons needs proper storage to avoid the storage losses.

In India, about 12 to 16 million tons of food grains lost due to poor storage techniques as per the world bank
report, 1996. If we put this in monetary terms, it amounts to huge Rs 50,000 crores annual foodgrain losses
(www.indiawaterportal.org). The government of India spent Rs.46,456 crores towards food subsidies during
2009-10. In other words whatever, the amount government is giving for food subsidies is being lost in storage
due to improper storage methods, defeating the basic purpose of food security of the union government.
Though the Food Corporation of India (FCI) has the storage capacity of about 30.5 million tones with a
network of 1800 plus storage godowns, it doesn’t store sorghum in its godowns. A traditional estimate of
about 80% of the grain produced is retained by the farmers and is stored at farm level only 20% is traded in
the market. Grain sorghum and millets are important staple foods for the rural poor in India and African
countries in arid and semi-arid tropical regions.

During storage, either at household, rural or trader level, the commodities are attacked by several species of
insect pests including Sitophilus oryzae, Rhyzopertha dominica Tribolium castaneum and Sitotroga cerealella
resulting in loss in quantity and nutritional quality. Research studies on stored sorghum and millets are mainly
concerned about the susceptibility of different cultivars to insect pest damage, physicochemical changes in
the produce due to infestation and germinability of infested grains. Studies on pest control methods in grain
sorghum or millets are rather limited. In developing countries, traditional control measures like sun-drying and
use of local plant materials like neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves are still popular (Rajendran and
Chayakumari, 2003). Traditional storage methods carried out by farmers in Africa are well anchored in the
culture of local people, though they are ineffective in containing the heavy losses caused by pest infestations
(Trematerra et al., 2003).

Storage pests are categorized into two types viz., primary and secondary storage pests based upon the type
of material infested by them. Insects that can damage sound, whole grains are called as Primary storage
pests. (Eg: Rice weevil, lesser grain borer, Angoumois grain moth, Rice moth). Secondary storage pest
damage broken or already damaged grains (Eg. Red flour beetle, Saw-toothed beetle etc.)

Storage insects of sorghum

Storage pests are categorized into two types viz., primary and secondary storage pests based upon the type
of material infested by them.

Primary storage pests

Insects that can damage sound, whole grains are called as Primary storage pests. (Eg: Rice weevil, lesser
grain borer, Angoumois grain moth, Rice moth).

Secondary storage pests

Insects that damage broken or already damaged grains (Eg. Red flour beetle, Saw-toothed beetle etc.) The
details of pest biology are summarized in Table 1.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 41 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Table 1 : Storage pests of sorghum and their life cycle

Primary pest
Insect Host range Nature of damage Egg Larvae/grub Pupa Adult
Rice weevil: Wheat, Grubs and adults Translucent White with Pupates Small, reddish brown
Sitophilus rice, maize, hollow out kernels white, plugs the yellowish brown inside the to chocolate coloured
oryzae, sorghum, and reduce it to mere egg hole with head, apodous, grain. with characteristic
Curculionidae, paddy powder. Attack starts gelatinous fleshy, curved, snout, elbowed
Coleoptera in the field itself secretion, laid remains within antennae slightly
cutting circular holes. singly. the grain. clubbed. Hindwings
Heating takes place present.
during heavy
infestation, which is
known as ‘dry
heating’.
Lesser grain Paddy, Heating is very Eggs are laid White, apodous Grubs Brown to blackish,
borer: wheat, common. Infestation on the surface with brown enter the head deflexed
Rhyzopertha maize and is confined to a small or on the head, free living grain after downwards below the
dominica, sorghum area. Grubs and interstices of up to third third instar prothorax. There is a
Bostrychidae, adults are voracious grains singly or instar. for prominent constriction
Coleoptera feeders reducing the in clusters. pupation between prothorax and
grain kernels to mere elytra. Antenna
frass. Grubs eat their clubbed with large
way into the grain or three loose segments.
feed on the grain
dust or starchy
material and are
capable of attacking
grain externally.
Angoumois Paddy, Only larvae damage White eggs are White coloured Pupates in Dirty yellowish brown
grain moth: maize, grains, adults are laid on the with yellow cocoon moth with narrow
Sitotroga sorghum, harmless. Grains are surface of head. inside the pointed wings folded
cerealella, barley and hollowed out. It damp grains in grain. over back in a sloping
Gelechiidae, wheat attacks both in fields stores or fields. manner.
Lepidoptera (rarely) and stores. In bulk
grain, infestation
remains confined to
upper 30 cms only.
Caterpillar enters the
grain through crack
or abrasion on grain.
It feeds inside and
remains in a single
grain only.
Secondary pest
Rust red flour Broken, Grubs feed on milled White, Worm like, Pupa Oblong, flat, brown in
beetle: damaged products. They are translucent, whitish cream remains colour. Antennae have
Tribolium grains, secondary pests of sticky, slender coloured with loosely a clear 3-segmented
castaneum, germ all grains and primary and cylindrical. faint stripes. lying in the club.
Tenebrionidae portion and pests of flour and Two spine like grain and is
, Coleoptera milled other milled products. appendages are naked.
products of In grains, embryo or present at the
all cereals. germ portion is end of terminal
preferred. They segment.
construct tunnels as
they move through
flour and granular
food products. Heavy
infestation causes

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 42 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Primary pest
Insect Host range Nature of damage Egg Larvae/grub Pupa Adult
stinking odour in flour
affecting the dough
quality.
Saw toothed Rice, Adults and grub Whitish eggs Grub is slender, Matured Narrow, flattened,
grain beetle: wheat, cause roughening of laid loosely in pale cream with grub makes thorax bears six teeth
Oryzaephilus maize, grain surface and off cracks of two slightly cocoon like like serrations on each
surinamensis, sorghum, odour. Grains with storage darker patches covering side. Antenna clubbed.
Silvanidae, oil seeds higher percentage of receptacles. on each with sticky Elytra cover abdomen
Coleoptera and dry broken, dockage and segment. secretion. completely.
fruits foreign matter sustain
heavy infestation,
which leads to
heating of grain.

Storage losses
In India, post-harvest losses caused by the unscientific storage, insects, rodents, micro-organisms etc.,
account for about 10 per cent of total food grains (Anonymous, 1971). Reported storage losses vary widely
between 5 and 50 % (Swaminathan, 1977). Adults and larvae of Sitophilus oryzae feed on sorghum grain
causing 2-21% losses for improved cultivars in India. The major economic loss caused by grain infesting
insects is not always on account of the actual material they consume, but also on the amount contaminated
by them and their excreta which makes food unfit for human consumption. Reduction of weight losses in bulk
storage of grain and grain deterioration in storage is caused mainly through (a) bio-deterioration, (b) insects
and pests, and (c) moulds and fungi. Bio-deterioration is due to the activity of enzymes present in the seed.
The extent of deterioration depends upon the level of enzyme activity, which in turn is determined by moisture
and temperature.

According to one estimate, the harvest and post harvest losses are as follows:

Sl. Losses (during and other causes) Percentage

No. (of Losses)
1. Threshing 1.0
2. Transport 0.5
3. Processing -
4. Rodents 2.50
5. Birds 0.5
6. Insect 3.0
7. Moisture 0.5
Total 8.00
(Source : Report of the Committee on Post Harvest Losses of Food grains In India, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, GOI, 1971.)

It has been estimated that about 2.20 percent of jowar is lost at farmers’ level during harvesting, threshing,
winnowing, transportation and storage. Estimated post-harvest losses at producers’ level are given in the
following Table.

Estimated post- harvest losses of jowar at producers’ level

Sl. Operations Losses (% to total

No production)
1. Losses in transport from field to 0.68
threshing floor
2. Losses in threshing 0.65
3. Losses in winnowing 0.32

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 43 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

4. Losses in transport from Threshing 0.21

floor to storage
5. Losses in storage at farmers’ level 0.34
Total 2.20
(Source: Marketable Surplus and Post Harvest Losses of Jowar in India, 2002, Directorate of Marketing & Inspection, Nagpur.)

To minimize post harvest losses, the following measures should be followed.

• The crop should be harvested on attaining physiological maturity and moisture brought down to
below 9 5 moisture.
• Use strong, and clean packaging material for storage and transport.
• Use pest control measures (fumigation) before storage.
• Provide aeration to stored grain and stir grain bulk occasionally.
• Seed should not be exposed to direct sunlight.
• Seed should be inspected at fortnightly interval.
• Use proper techniques while handling (loading & unloading), to avoid losses during transport.

Food Corporation of India Grade Standards:

The Jowar shall be dried and matured grains shall have uniform size, shape and colour. It shall be in sound
merchantable condition and also conforming to PFA standards.
Jowar shall be sweet, hard, clean, wholesome and free from Argemone mexicana and Lathyrus sativus
(khesari) in any form, coloring matter, moulds, weevils, obnoxious smell, admixture of deleterious substances
and all other impurities except to the extent indicated in the schedule below:

SCHEDULE OF SPECIFICATION

S.No. Refractions
Maximum Limits (%)
1. Foreign matter *
2. Other foodgrains
3. Damaged grains
4. Slightly damaged & discoloured grains
5. Shrivelled & Immature grains
6 Weevilled grains
7. Moisture content
*Not more than 0.25% by weight shall be mineral matter and not more
than 0.10% by weight shall be impurities of animal origin.

N.B.:
1. The definition of the above refractions and method of analysis are to be followed as given in Bureau of India ‘Standard “Method of Analysis for
foodgrains” Nos. IS: 4333 (Part-I): 1996 and IS:4333 (Part-II):2002 and “Terminology for food grains” IS : 2813-1995 as amended from time to time.
2. The method of sampling is to be followed as given in Bureau of Indian Standard `Method of sampling of Cereals and Pulses ` No. IS : 14818-2000
as amended from time to time.
3. Within the overall limit of 1.0% for “Foreign Matter” the poisonous seeds shall not exceed 0.5% of which Dhatura and Akra seeds (Vicia species)
not to exceed 0.25% and 0.2% respectively.
4. Kernels with glumes will not be treated as unsound grains. During physical analysis the glumes will be removed and treated as organic foreign
matter.

The Codex Alimentarius Commission has established global standards for sorghum grains under Codex
Standard 172-1989. However, individual producing countries have their own standards for internal
procurement from farmers or by import. In commercial trading the quality standard for sorghum is agreed
between buyer and seller and is usually associated with the intended use of the crop. Nevertheless, the
principles of the Codex standard may be included within the specifications.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 44 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Summary of Codex Standard 172-1989: The standard applies to sorghum for direct human consumption.
• Grains shall not have abnormal odour or taste.
• Grains may be white, pink, red, brown orange or yellow or may be a mixture of grains.
• Grains must be sound, clean and free from living insects.
• Moisture content will not exceed 14.5 percentage
• Ash not more than 1.5 percentage on dry matter
• Protein (N x 6.25) not less than 7 percentage on dry matter basis
• Tannins: For whole grains - not to exceed 0.5 percentage on dry matter.

Hygiene
Grain should be prepared in accordance with the Recommended International Code of Practice, General
Principles of Food Hygiene (CAP / RCP 1-1969, Rev. 2, 1985).
Free from micro-organisms, substances originating from micro-organisms, or other poisonous substances in
amounts which may represent a hazard to health.

Packaging
Packed in containers (including sacks) which will safeguard the hygienic, nutritional and technological
qualities of the grain. A summary of general tolerances for grain defects is given in Table 2

Table 2. Tolerances for defects in sorghum

Defect Limit Definition

Blemished grains including 3.0% Insect or vermin damaged. Sprouted, diseased, frost
diseased grains 0.5% damaged or other. Evidence of decay, mould or
bacterial decomposition.
Broken kernels 5.0% Pieces which pass through a screen with round holes
1.8 mm in diameter
Other grains 1.0% Non-sorghum - legumes, pulses, other edible cereals.
Foreign matter including 2.0% All organic and inorganic material which is not sorghum,
inorganic matter 0.55% broken kernels, other grains and filth. Includes loose
(inorganic sorghum seedcoats.
matter)
Filth 0.1% Impurities of animal origin.
Toxic or noxious seeds Free from amounts which may be a hazard to health.
Contaminants Free from heavy metals in amounts hazardous to
health.

Requirements for safe and scientific storage: Following requirements should be considered for safe and
scientific storage of jowar:

• Selection of site: The storage structure should be located on a raised well drained site. It should be
easily accessible. The site should be free from water logging, dampness, excessive heat, insects,
rodents, termites etc.
• Selection of storage structure: The storage structure should be selected according to the quantity
of jowar to be stored and the period of storage. In godowns sufficient space should be provided
between two stacks, between stacks and walls, so that proper aeration can be available.
• Cleaning and fumigation: Before, storage of jowar, godown/structure should be properly cleaned
and fumigated. There should be no cracks, holes or crevices in the structure.
• Drying and cleaning grains: Before storage jowar grains should be properly dried and cleaned to
avoid quality deterioration.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 45 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

• Cleaning of bags: Always use new gunny bag. In case of second hand gunny bags, it should be
disinfested by boiling in one percent Malathion Solution for 3 to 4 minutes and fully dried.
• Separate storage of new and old stock: To prevent contamination from the old stock to new
stock, it is advised to store them separately.
• Use of dunnage : Bag of jowar should be kept on wooden crates or bamboo mats along with cover
of polythene sheet to avoid absorption of moisture from the floor.
• Proper aeration: Proper aeration should be provided during dry and clean weather but care should
be taken to avoid aeration in rainy season to protect the stock from moisture.
• Cleaning of vehicles: The vehicles used for transportation of jowar should be cleaned by phenyl to
avoid infestation.
• Regular inspection: To maintain proper health and hygiene of stock regular inspection of stored
jowar is necessary. Periodic fumigation should be carried out in case of long term storage.

Management of insect pests

Physical control measures: The infestation of stored grains by insect pests largely depends on the three
factors temperature, moisture content of grain, availability of oxygen. All these factors are required for normal
development and multiplication of insects. Hence, they have to be properly manipulated through design and
construction of storage structures/godowns and storage practices so as to create physical conditions
unfavorable for attack by insects.

i. Use of low and high Temperatures: The insects can be controlled either by increasing or decreasing
storage temperature. Optimal temperature for most of the storage insects is between 25 and 330 C.
Temperatures between 13 and 250 C will slow development. High temperatures of 35o C and above will stop
development. Refrigerated aeration of grains stored in bins gave results on par with insecticide treatment in
Australia, USA and Israel in controlling storage pests (Navarro and Calderon, 1982). High temperature
disinfestations using heated air grain driers, fluidized beds, spouted beds, pneumatic conveyors, a counter
flow heat exchanger, high frequency waves, microwaves, infra red waves and solar radiations have been
satisfactorily used for in disinfesting grains.

ii. Irradiation: Low dose irradiation completely kills or sterilizes the common grain pests, and even the eggs
deposited inside the grains. Moreover, only a single radiation exposure of grains is sufficient for
disinfestations. This, therefore, is ideally suited for large-scale operations, thereby offering substantial
economic benefits. Irradiation can also serve as an effective process for disinfestations of certain prepacked
cereal products like atta, soji (rava) and premixes. Low dose applications (Less Than 1kGy) has been found
useful for Insect disinfestation in stored grain, pulses and products

iii. Use of controlled atmosphere: In grain storage, insects can be controlled by decreasing O 2 or
increasing CO 2 or N 2 concentration in the atmosphere thereby interfering with the normal respiration of
insects. This is achieved by modified atmospheric storage, controlled atmospheric storage or airtight storage.
In case of modified atmosphere, the storage atmosphere is modified by introducing CO 2 or N 2 replacing O 2 .
Controlled atmosphere is precisely maintaining the composition of selected gases such as CO 2 , O 2 and N 2 at
specified concentration under normal pressures or under partial vacuum.
Airtight or hermetic storage of grains/seeds lead to decrease in available O 2 and increase in CO 2 due to
respiration and metabolism of the seeds.

b. Use of plant products: The powders of leaves of Neem, and Nochi, Vitex negundo when mixed with
grains gives protection from insects. Experimental results show that the fresh leaves of Begunia mixed with
paddy at the rate of 2% w/ protected the grains from insect attack for 9 months. Neem leaf powder, turmeric
powder, Sweet Flag (Vasambu) Rhizome powder all at 10g /kg have been found to be effective against
storage pests.

c. Chemical control measures: Amongst the present methods of insect control, chemical control is the
most popular and perhaps most effective one. They may be used for both types of treatments.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 46 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

a. Prophylactic treatment
b. Curative treatment

a. Prophylactic treatment

1. If the produce is meant for seed purpose, mix 1 kg of activated kaolin or malathion 5% D for every/100
kg of seed and store/pack in gunny or polythene lined bags.
2. Apply one of the following pesticides at the specified dosage over the bags. Malathion 50 EC : 10 ml
per litre of water and 3 litres of spray solution per 100 sq.m. (or) DDVP 76% SC : 7 ml per litre of
water and 3 litres of spray solution per 100 sq.m.
3. Air charge alleyways or gang ways with one of the following chemicals. Malathion 50 EC : 10 ml/litre of
water (or) DDVP 76% SC : 7 ml/litre of water. Apply one litre of spray solution for every 270 cu.m. or
10,000 cu. feet. Spray the chemicals on the walls and floors and repeat the treatment based on the
extent of flying and crawling insects.
4. Gunny bag impregnation: Empty bags are soaked in 0.1% malathion emulsion for 10 minutes and
dried before using for seed storage.

b. Curative treatment
1. Draw samples of seeds or grains at fortnightly intervals and classify the infestation as follows. When
there is no pest - nil infestation. Up to 2 insects -mild infestation More than 2 insects -severe
infestation

2. Decide the need for shed fumigation (entire store house or godown) or cover fumigation (only selected
blocks of bags)
3. Choose the fumigant and work out the requirement on the following guidelines.

i. Aluminium phosphide: The dosage of Aluminium phosphide for cover fumigation is 3

tablets of 3 grams each per ton of grain and for shed fumigation is 21 tablets of 3 grams
each for 28 cu. Metres. The period of fumigation is 5 days.

ii. Methyl bromide (MB): MB which has been widely used in temperate regions of the world
has been found unsuitable for Indian conditions as it affected seed germination drastically
at temperature above 20°C. Among the above three chemicals, Aluminium phosphide is
most commonly used. In case of cover fumigation, mix clay or red earth with water and
make it into a paste form and keep it ready for plastering all round the fumigation cover or
keep ready sand-snakes. Insert the required number of aluminum phosphide tablets in
between the bags in different layers. Cover the bags immediately with fumigation cover.
Plaster the edges of cover all round with wet red earth or clay plaster or use sand-snakes
to make leak proof. Keep the bags for a period of 5 – 7 days under fumigation Remove the
mud plaster after specified fumigation period and lift cover in the corner to allow the
residual gas to escape. Allow aeration and lift cover after a few hours. Follow similar steps
in case of shed fumigation also.

“GRAIN SAVED IS GRAIN PRODUCED”

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 47 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

9. Disease management in sorghum and sweet sorghum

I. K. Das
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Introduction
Diseases of sorghum affect productivity, production of quality grain and fodder in sorghum, and
sugar yield in sweet sorghum. In grain sorghum grain mold, downy mildew, anthracnose and ergot
are major diseases during kharif whereas; root and stalk rot and chlorotic stripe virus are common
during rabi season. Other diseases like leaf spots and smuts occur sporadically and assume
economic significance under specific environments depending on relative humidity and temperature
in a particular season.

Foliar diseases are important mainly for forage sorghum which are grown in northern part of India.
Diseases like zonate leaf spot, anthracnose, sooty stripes, leaf blight and rust are of economic
significance and reduce yield and quality of forage. Others like virus diseases (maize stripe virus),
sugary disease (ergot) and head mold (grain mold) assume significance under specific
environments. Leaf diseases destroy active leaf area required for photosynthesis, adversely affect
accumulation of sugar in stalk and thus interfere with the quantity and quality of fodder.
Management approaches are mostly concentrated towards the use of genetic resistance with limited
use of agrochemicals.

Sweet sorghum or high energy sorghum has immense potential as bio-energy producer and has
great relevance in the national renewable energy security. Most of the diseases of grain sorghum
also occur in sweet sorghum depending on growing conditions and environment. Leaf anthracnose,
red stalk rot, leaf blight, downy mildew, rust, sugary disease, head mold and virus diseases are
common in sweet sorghum. Leaf diseases cause destruction or reduction of active leaf area for
photosynthesis, and thus adversely affect accumulation of sugar in stalk. As sweet sorghum is a
crop having commercial value, cost intensive management practices can be advocated for such
crop.

The word ‘management’ conveys the concept of a continuous process. It implies that diseases are
inherent component of an agro-ecosystem that must be dealt with a continuous knowledge based
input. Approaches of management may be directed to a single disease or planning for overall health
of a crop (IDM). Three major component of disease management are management of host
(achieved by improving genetic resistance, nutritional status or by protecting plant with chemical),
pathogen (reduction and eradication of pathogen or preventing inoculum from coming in contact with
the plant), and environment (management of soil, water and crop). In sorghum, diseases
management approaches are concentrated mostly towards the use of genetic resistance with limited
use of agrochemicals. Though there are more than a dozen of foliar diseases are reported in
sorghum only few are important. Economic importance and management of major diseases are
described in the following sections.

Panicle diseases
Grain mold
Grain mold causes a kind of total damage to grain, reduces seed germination, market price and
contaminates grain with hazardous mycotoxins. Loss in grain yield up to 50% and reduction in grain
price around 20% are common for grain mold. Many fungi are involved in mold development and
most of them are saprophytes which grow on grain mostly after physiological maturity of grain.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 48 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Among the pathogenic fungi Fusarium moniliforme Curvularia lunata and Alternaria alternata are
predominant which can grow even on immature grain. F moniliforme produces mycotoxin fumonisin
in fresh as well as stored grain and such grains are harmful for animal and poultry bird.

Avoidance is the best option for grain mold management. Adjust sowing time; if possible, in such a
way that crop may not be caught in rain during maturity. Photosensitive sorghum generally escapes
grain mold because they flower near the end of the rainy season. Use of tolerant cultivars reduces
development of pathogenic mold before physiological maturity. Harvesting of genotypes at
physiological maturity and quick drying in a community dryer to bring down the moisture content to
less than 12% protects from saprophytic mold development. Need base spray with fungicide (Tilt
25% EC @ 0.2%) and bioagents (fluorescent Pseudomonas) reduce mold and significantly improve
grain and seed quality. Spray is useful especially for high value crop like nucleus and breeder seed
production, sweet sorghum etc.

Sugary disease
After grain mold sugary disease (Sphacelia sorghi) or ergot is the next important disease among the
panicle diseases. The pathogen damages ovary, interfere with grain formation and thus reduces
grain yield. The disease may become serious under favorable conditions (minimum temperature 18-
20oC, RH 67-84% and cloudy weather). It is a major problem in hybrid seed production plots
especially when there is lack of synchrony in flowering between parental lines. Yield losses ranging
from 10-80% is common in seed crop. The ergot produced by the pathogen has potential to create
health hazard in livestock.

Early sowing avoids the occurrence of the sugary disease. Removal of collateral host plants
(Penniseum typhoides, Ischaemum pilosum and Panicum maximum) from the field bunds helps to
reduce pathogen inoculum and disease. Mechanical removal of sclerotia from seeds, by washing in
30% salt water followed by 3 rinsing in plain water before sowing reduces seed contaminated
infection. In seed production plots, ensuring synchrony of flowering between A and R lines avoids
the occurrence of disease. Spraying panicles with fungicides (0.1% Bavistin/ 0.2% Tilt/ 0.2%
Mancozeb) minimizes disease and its subsequent spread. First spray should be done at 50%
flowering stage and rest two sprays at 10 days interval.

Smuts
There are 4 types of smut in sorghum of which 3 are seed-borne. In covered smut, sori are formed
in the place of healthy grains. Most of the grains of an infected ear are replaced by smut sori. The
membrane like structure covering the spore masses generally persist up to threshing. In loose smut,
the affected plants are stunted, produce thinner stalks, more tillers and earlier to flower than the
healthy plants. All the spikelets of an infected earhead get malformed and hypertrophied. The
membrane like structure covering the spore masses generally ruptures soon after head emergence.
In head smut, a sorus fully covered with a grayish-white membrane emerges from the boot leaf in
place of normal inflorescence. When fully emerged the fungal membrane ruptures releasing spore
masses in the air leaving filamentous vascular tissues of the host. In long smut, the sorus is covered
by a whitish to dull yellow, fairly thick membrane and is much longer (about 4.0 cm) than those of
the other two smuts.

Loose and covered smuts are externally seed-borne and easily controlled by seed dressing with
sulphur (@ 4g kg-1 seed). Since head smut is only sporadic and of minor importance, no serious
attempts have been made to work out the control measures. However, collecting smutted heads in
cloth bags and dipping in boiling water to kill the pathogen will reduce the inoculum potential for the

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 49 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

next year’s crop. Long smut is air-borne and difficult to control. Adjusting sowing dates seems to
help in avoiding the disease.

Foliar diseases
Downy mildew
Sorghum downy mildew (Peronosclerospora sorghi) (SDM) is serious problem in kharif sorghum
particularly in southern states such as Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Recently the
disease is occurring during rabi season too. SDM is one of the potentially destructive diseases that
can reach epiphytotic proportions under favorable conditions. It poses possible quarantine risk in
grain export. Grain yield loss varies from 6-86% depending on incidence level, and host resistance.
The fungus produced numerous conidia on the under surface of infected leaf and are borne on
conidiophores protruding through stomata. The infected leaf shows chlorosis on the lower part of the
lamina, which further grows to cover larger part of the leaf. As the plant grows, new emerging leaves
exhibit parallel stripes of green and white tissue; the white interveinal tissue dies and leaf shredding
occurs.

Management of SDM is focused mainly by using combination of host plant resistance and
fungicides, but emphasis is obviously on host resistance. Seed dressing or seed dressing + spray
with different formulation of Metalaxyl effectively control downy mildew in sorghum. Seed treated at
1.0 or 2.0g a.i./kg, could be preserved at room conditions for 9 months without affecting seed
germination. Foliar spray with systemic fungicide (Metalaxyl) can manage the disease but there is
risk of resistance development in pathogen. A large-scale screening technique for SDM resistance
has been standardized. Good amount of resistance is available in present day cultivars. Some of the
resistant varieties are; QL3, IS 3547, CSV4, CSH5, SPH196.

Anthracnose
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum sublineolum) is an important disease causing substantial economic
losses to grain, forage and sweet sorghum. It is prevalent and severe in warm and humid
environments. The disease appears on several plant parts causing seedling blight, leaf blight, stalk
rot, and head blight. Among these, leaf anthracnose is the most pronounced and devastating.
Anthracnose may defoliate plants markedly, reducing growth and further development. Red rot
symptoms are seen on mature plants. Yield losses of 50% or more can occur under severe
conditions. The sugar content of sweet sorghums is severely affected.

Use of clean seed, destroying plant refuse, crop rotation and removal of susceptible weeds such as
Sudan grass and Johnson grass are some of the practices that reduce field incidence of the
disease. Use of resistant genotypes has often met limited success because of the large genetic
variation in the pathogen population. IS 3547, SPV 386 and ICSV 247 are sources having
resistance to anthracnose.

Zonate leaf spot

Many types of leaf spots are reported in sorghum. But all are not economically important. Zonate
leaf spot, Gray leaf spot, Target leaf spots and Sooty stripes are frequently observed on forage
cultivars in India. Disease incidence is more on purple or red pigment genotypes and relatively less
on tan cultivars. Zonate spot is identified by circular lesions with concentric banding formed out of
fungal growth. In gray leaf spot spread of the oval to rectangular lesion becomes limited by the
veins. Sooty stripe is characterized by small, circular to elongated reddish brown spots on leaf with
distinct yellow haloes.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 50 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

These pathogens mainly survive in crop residues and weed hosts. Incidence of such diseases can
be minimized by use of clean seed, clean cultivation practice and use of tan pigmented lines. Need
based fungicide application will help check the disease and its spread to healthy plants within the
field.

Leaf blight
Leaf blight (Exserohilum turcicum) is an economically important and widespread disease of sorghum
in highly humid areas. In susceptible cultivars, grain yield losses of up to 50% may occur, if infection
starts early in the growth stage. However, disease development in mature plants is slow and yield
losses are minimal. In older plants, the typical symptoms are long elliptical necrotic lesions, straw
colored in the centre with dark margins. Very long lesions may develop and coalesce destroying
large areas of leaf tissue giving the crop a distinctly burnt or blasted appearance. The disease is
considered more important in fodder and sweet sorghums than in grain sorghum.

Use of disease free clean seed and destruction of plant refuse reduce field incidence of the disease.
Use of resistant varieties is recommended for disease prone areas.

Rust
Rust (Puccinia purpurea) is important in a year of high rainfall and humidity. Rust has the potential
to damage the whole crop under favorable conditions. Reddish brown rust pustules appear first on
both the surfaces of the lower leaves, the upper half being more severely affected than the lower
half. As the disease advances the infection spreads to the younger leaves. The rust sori are minute,
round to elliptical and 1.0 to 2.0 mm in diameter. Several sori may coalesce to form large patch on
leaves and the infected leaves die prematurely giving the plants an unhealthy appearance which
becomes visible from a distance.
Use of resistant cultivars is the best known control measure for sorghum rust as is true in other
cereal rusts too. Foliar spray of Mancozeb @ 0.2% effectively controls rust.

Viral diseases
Twenty-three viruses are reported as pathogens on sorghum in nature and among them nine
viruses are distributed in Asian countries. In India virus diseases on sorghum are distributed in all
sorghum growing regions. Maize stripe virus (MStV), maize mosaic virus (MMV), sugarcane mosaic
virus (SCMV), maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV), johnson grass mosaic virus (JGMV) and red
stripe disease (SRSD) are economically important on sorghum in India. In recent times there is an
increasing trend in incidence of these viruses on sorghum. Studies suggested substantial loss in
grain and fodder yields due to these viruses.

Sorghum stripe disease, caused by a strain of maize stripe tenuivirus (MStV-sorg) is assuming
economic significance particularly in kharif and irrigated rabi crops. Disease incidence ranged from
1-14%. The disease is characterized by chlorotic stripes and bands along the veins of the infected
leaves and stunted growth of the plant. First visible symptom can occur on any leaf starting from 4th
to 11th leaf. Symptom expression frequency increase from 4th to 7th leaf, reach peak on 7th or on 8th
leaf and thereafter gradually decrease on subsequent upper leaves. The growth stages between 36
to 65 DAE are highly susceptible for this disease development. Early infected plants did not produce
any ear head and die prematurely, whereas plants infected later in the growth stages produce either
poor or no panicle. Reduction of plant height, ear head weight and thousand grain weights to the
extent of 73, 93 and 25 per cent respectively have been reported in the variety CSV15. Yield losses
are, however, different when infection occurs at different growth stages.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 51 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

The disease is transmitted by an insect vector, Peregrinus maidis which itself is a major pest on
sorghum in India. The disease can be managed or its incidence can be reduced by practices like
clean cultivation, vector control and adjustment of sowing time. The practice of uprooting and
burning of the infected plants help to reduce source of inoculum for the vector and thus reduce
spread of the disease in the field. Spraying of Endosulfan 35% EC @1.5 ml l-1 of water effectively
reduces vector population and the disease. Disease incidence is greatly reduced as sowing of rabi
sorghum is shifted from September to October. When sowing is delayed from 1st week of September
to 1st or 3rd week of October disease incidence is reduced by 40 and 65 per cent respectively.
Therefore, early sowing of rabi sorghum should be avoided to reduce crop loss by this viral disease.

Root and stalk diseases

Charcoal rot
Root and stalk rot is a complex disease often associated with several fungi of which Macrophomina
and Fusarium are dominant component. The disease is characterized by root rot, seedling blight
during early stage and stalk rot (charcoal rot) and lodging in the later stage. Charcoal rot is a serious
problem and occurs every year on rabi crop. The disease becomes severe in hybrids and high
yielding varieties. The disease is not only important for the loss it incur in sorghum productivity but
also for its potential role in creating animal health hazard which may be created due to feeding of
intoxicated (charcoal rotted) stover to domestic animals. However, major losses occur due to rotting
of stalk tissue followed by lodging of the diseased. Lodging up to 100 per cent and grain yield losses
up to 64 per cent has been reported in CSH-6. Lodging at flowering stage severely affects grain
filling and causes loss in seed weight.

Most of the efforts for management of charcoal rot is and has been oriented towards developments
and use of resistant cultivars. However, resistance is low in high yielding cultivars with desired grain
type. Incidence of the disease can be reduced by cultural practices like clean cultivation, use of less
nitrogenous fertilizer, less plant density, or growing sorghum in mixed cropping. Chemical control
measures have also been tried but results are not encouraging. Drought stress predisposes
sorghum to charcoal rot and lodging. Preventing drought stress to occur (irrigating crop at flowering
stage where water is available) and escaping terminal drought (growing early maturing varieties) are
few other viable strategies for charcoal rot management. Recent studies showed that seed
treatment with selected strains of fluorescent Pseudomonas (P chlororaphis strain SRB127) reduce
charcoal rot and increase 1000 grain weight in high yielding cultivar.

Reference
Aruna C, Bhat BV, Umakanth AV, Shyam Prasad G, Das IK and Patil JV. 2011. Forage sorghum. Directorate of
Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, Andhra Pradesh, India. 52pp. ISBN: 81-89-335-36-7.
Audilakshmi S, Aruna C, Garud T B, Nayakar N Y, Atale S B, Veerabadhiran P, Dayakar Rao B, Ratnavathi C V and
Indira S. 2005. A technique to enhance the quality and market value of rainy season sorghum grain. Crop
Protection 24: 251-58.
Das, I. K., Audilakshmi, S., Annapurna, A., Kannababu, N., and Patil, J.V. 2012. Relationship among seed germination
and other characters associated with Fusarium grain mold disease in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)
using path coefficient analysis. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 34(2): 203–212.
Das I. K., Audilakshmi, S. and Patil, J. V. 2012. Fusarium Grain Mold: The Major Component of Grain Mold in Sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor L. Moench). The European Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology, 6: (Special Issue 1):
45-55.
Das, I. K., Indira, S., Annapurna, A., Prabhakar and Seetharama, N. 2008. Biocontrol of charcoal rot in sorghum by
fluorescent pseudomonads associated with rhizosphere. Crop Protection 27 (11): 1407-1414.
Frederiksen RA. 1986. Compendium of sorghum diseases. The American Phytopathological Society and Depertment of
Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas A&M University, Texas, 82pp

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 52 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Narayana YD, Das IK, Bhagwat VR, Vilas A Tonapi and Patil JV. 2011. Viral disease of sorghum in India. Directorate of
Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, Andhra Pradesh, India. 30pp. ISBN: 81-89-335-35-9.
Peterschmitt, M., A.S. Ratna, W.R. Sacks, D.V.R. Reddy and L.K. Mughogho. 1991. Occurrence of an isolate of maize
stripe virus on sorghum in India. Ann. Appl. Biol. 118: 57-70.
Ratnavathi, C.V., Komala, V.V., Vijaykumar, B.S., Das, I.K. and Patil, J.V. 2012. Natural occurrence of aflatoxin B1 in
sorghum grown at different geographical regions of India. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture,
92:2416-2420.
Thakur, RP, Reddy, BVS and Mathur, K. 2007. Screening techniques for sorghum diseases. Information Bulletin No. 76.
Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: ICRISAT. 92pp. ISBN 978-92-9066-504-5.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 53 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

10. Field demonstrations on improved sorghum

technologies and its impact
Rajendra R Chapke1 and S. Senthil Vinaygam2
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

ABSTRACT
Frontline demonstrations (FLDs) programme is one of the approaches for disseminating farm
technologies generated by research system. The programme which started with the conduct of 220
ha demonstrations in both kharif and rabi season during 1996-97, now they enhanced to more than
5000 ha, seeing the success of the programme in terms of adoption of recently released hybrids and
varieties by the farmers. The results revealed that with the exploitation of the currently available
sorghum production technologies, farmers could realize additional yield more than 50 per cent over
the prevailing farmer’s practices under wide range of agro-ecological sorghum growing regions.

Introduction
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is the fourth largest crop after wheat, rice and maize which is
being cultivated by resource poor, small and marginal farmers in semi-arid regions of the country.
The efforts made by the Directorate of Sorghum Research (DSR), All India Coordinated Sorghum
Improvement Project (AICSIP) and State Agricultural Universities since its inception, has led to
technologies for enhancing production and productivity to meet requirement of food, fodder, feed
and fuel.

In spite of its multiple uses, the area under grain sorghum in India has declined from 18.61 m. ha in
1969-70 to 5.75 m. ha in 2013-14. However, because of significant improvements made in research
and development, its productivity has increased from 522 kg /ha to 912 kg /ha during the same
period. There is a wide gap between average national productivity and yield potential of the
improved sorghum technologies developed from the research institutes. The project aimed to
involve the scientists who developed the technologies in demonstration of their product to the
farmers (user of the technologies) and to have first hand feedback on its performance and problems
for its further refinement. This programme is being organized by the DSR since its inception which
was financially sponsored by the Ministry of Agriculture (Table 3).

Thus, FLD is one of the important programmes to evaluate and demonstrate the production potential
of recently released sorghum cultivars in the farmers’ fields. Besides, building confidence of the
farmers to adopt the latest technologies, it gave valuable feedback to modify the research
programme based on experience gained during the programme. Now-a-days, the farmers
preference is for dual purpose cultivars to meet the requirement of both fodder and food. The
farmers’ choice is also varies at locations to locations. Keeping these in view, FLDs on sorghum
were organized and is being organized at different locations with the help of AICSIP centres. The
results of the kharif FLDs organized during 2009-10 are highlighted in this articles to projects its
implementation and impact.

Guidelines for frontline demonstrations

Including in the guidelines given by the Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation (DAC), the following guidelines are revised for implementing the FLD programme in
different sorghum growing regions of the country.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 54 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Selection of the farmers: Farmers from the different categories including SC and ST, who are
interested, cooperative and responsive, should be selected. The farmers should be within limit, as
20-25 numbers maximum from a single village or from a cluster with one technical field assistance.

Site selection: FLD sites should preferably be selected on road sides of the village in order to get
exposure to the maximum numbers of farmers including non-beneficiaries.

Field layout: The field layout should be included farmer’s practice. The component demonstration
and total package demonstration need to be conducted separately. The field for FLD should be
minimum of 0.4 ha.

Field boards and labels: The trials should be labeled with field boards and plates showing name of
latest cultivars, date of sowing and fertilizers (NPK) dose, etc.

Technology for demonstration

a. Package demonstrations: Details of practices used should be listed out under
demonstrations and made available to the farmers at the beginning. The farmers’ practices
are also need to be enlisted at the beginning of the programme.

b. Demonstrations on high yielding cultivars: The demonstrations should include the

cultivars developed within the last five years period. Their performance should be compared
with local cultivars. All the management practices except the cultivars should be same.

Literature distribution: Handouts or leaflets on the demonstrated technologies in local language

should be distributed to the farmers along with critical inputs as a subscription.

Field book maintenance: The field book having farmer’s details, layout design, date-wise
operations, component-wise cost incurred, labour requirement, yield attributes, yield data, etc.,
along with the farmers’ practice (as a check) must be maintained.

Data support: Data need to be generated or collected on physico-chemical properties of soil,

annual rainfall and district-wise area, production and yield (APY) in addition to the FLDs’ data.

Contact with line departments: These demonstrations should be focused on adoption of critical
technological gaps. The Strategic Research and Extension Plans (SREPs) prepared by ATMAs
have identified such technological gaps for major crops of the district. While preparing plan for the
FLDs, the SREP of the district may be consulted by the concerned scientist of implementing
centres.

Latest approach: Farm Field Schools are being setup at Block / Village level by the ATMA official
on the field of progressive farmers, who may be linked in organizing FLDs on sorghum.

Technology dissemination: Conduct extension activity like, farmers’ day, field days and field visits
and explain superiority of the demonstrated technologies over their own practices involving
maximum number of farmers of the village and surrounding areas.

FLD monitoring: The monitoring team of experts should assess the trials on different parameters
including utilization of funds, crop management, field layout, literature distribution, etc.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 55 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

1. Frontline demonstrations on kharif sorghum

In total, 254 frontline demonstrations (FLDs) on sorghum were organized during the year under
report in 29 districts across the 7 different sorghum growing states viz., Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujrat and Tamil Nadu. Latest sorghum cultivars
(SPSH 1148, CSV 20, CSV 23, CSH 23 and CSV 17) were commonly undertaken and compared
with farmers’ cultivar as local check to evaluate and demonstrate their performance in farmers’ fields
at different locations.

Highlight of the results

The demonstrated improved sorghum cultivars irrespective of the agro-ecological regions yielded
better by obtaining 12 to 67% higher grain yield and 1% to 64% more fodder yield than the local
check. It was also proved more economical than the local checks. On an average, the demonstrated
cultivars could earn net returns of Rs.17,955/- per ha, which was 56.21 per cent more than the local
check (Rs.11,494/- per ha). It was also resulted in to 0.45 more B:C ratio from them. However, the
rate of increase varied at different locations. The higher increase in grain yield 368% was obtained
in Mevad region of the Rajsthan and lowest 12% was in Vidharbha region of the Maharashtra.
Similar trend was observed in case of fodder yields, except in the Mevad region (yield increased
1%) because the local cultivars were also performed better (Table 2).

Yield gaps
The results show that the grain yield of sorghum was lower under farmer’s practice (1.52 t. ha-1) as
compared to FLD’s (2.20 t. ha-1) indicating a wider gap (45%). However, comparatively lower yield
gap (21.53%) was found in case of stover yield (Table 4 and Fig. 1). The cultivars could bridge the
yield gap in grain (45%) and stover (21.53%) through improved sorghum technologies, kharif
sorghum farmers could able to produce the maximum grain and stover yields. Since, the
demonstrated sorghum cultivars shows potential to increase the yields and profits over local one at
almost all the locations, FLDs may be conducted systematically in small area under control with
location-specific sorghum technologies to build up confidence of the farmers for its wide adoption.

Table 1 Economics of kharif sorghum cultivation under FLDs

S. FLD Centre Economic

No.
Cost of cultivation Net return B:C ratio
(Rs.ha-1) (Rs.ha-1)
FLD FP FLD FP FLD Local check
1 Palem 10900 9125 25162 16830 3.29 2.83
2 Udaipur 8500 7700 16950 7160 2.74 1.85
3 Surat 15038 14310 20215 12812 1.34 0.90
4 Indore 8064 6787 17818 12695 3.21 2.91
5 Akola 14109 15501 20321 17298 1.44 1.11
6 Coimbatore 9211 7643 7264 2170 1.70 1.45
Mean 10970 10178 17955 11494 2.29 1.84

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 56 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Table 2 State-wise yield gap between FLDs and farmer’s practice (FP)

S. State Grain yield (t. ha-1) Stover yield (t. ha-1)

No.
FLD FP Yield gap FLD FP Yield gap
(%) (%)
1 Andhra Pradesh 3.5 2.45 42 8.6 6.25 38

2 Rajsthan 1.64 0.35 368 7.82 7.73 01

3 Gujrat 2.16 1.63 33 6.19 5.02 23

4 Madhya Pradesh 2.33 1.86 25 7.10 5.26 35

5 Maharashtra 2.36 2.10 12 8.50 8.08 05

6 Tamil Nadu 1.22 0.73 67 7.20 4.40 64

Mean 2.20 1.52 91.17 7.57 6.12 27.67

Table 3 Details of frontline demonstrations conducted since 2006

Year Varieties/hybrids demonstrated Area Demos States/locations

covered
(ha)
2013- CSV 22R, CSV 18R, Phule Vasuda, Phule 152 341 Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra
14 Suchitra, Phule Revati, Phule Anuradha, PKV Pradesh
Kranti, Parbhani Moti, CSV 26R and CSV 29R
2012- CSV 22R, CSV 18R, Phule Vasuda, Phule 156 280 Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra
13 Suchitra, Phule Revati, PKV Kranti, Parbhani Pradesh
Moti and CSV 26R
2011- CSH 16 (in rice-fallows) 50 126 Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh
12
2010- CSH 23, CSV 23, CSV 20, CSV 17, SPH 250 431 Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
11 1148, CSH 25, SU 1080, CoS 30, CSV 22, (125K+306R) Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajsthan, Gujarat
Phule Yashodha, Phule Vasudha and CSV
18
2009- CSH 23, CSV 23, CSV 20, CSV 17, SPH 283 471 Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya
10 1148, CSH25, PJ1430, SU 1080, JJ 1022, Co (254K+217R) Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
(s)28, PKV-kranti, CSV 22R and CSV18R Rajsthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh
2008- CSH 23, CSV 23, SPV 1616, CSV 17, SPV 47.20 90 Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajsthan
09 1753, PJ 1430, SU 1080, JJ 1041, and JJ
1022
2007- CSV13, CSV17, CSV19SS, SPV1616, 312 479 Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya
08 SPV1430, NSV13, ICSV745, SSV84, GJ40, Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
JJ1041, PVK400, PVK801, PVK809 Rajsthan, Gujarat, Uttarakhand,
Jharkhand, J&K, Uttaranchal
2006- SPV1616, CSV17 and state released cultivars 271 498 Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya
07 Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Rajsthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Uttaranchal
(Source: Report on frontline demonstrations on sorghum, National Research Centre for Sorghum, Hyderabad)

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 57 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Fig. 1 Performance of kharif FLD cultivars over local check (t /ha)

2. Frontline demonstrations on rabi sorghum

Rabi sorghum is valued mainly for direct human food consumption and fodder for livestock. In last
two decades, the rabi sorghum area has increased (3.23 m ha during 1991-96 and 3.59 m ha during
2013-14) with increase in yield (from 539 kg/ha to 840 kg/ha during the same period). Maharashtra
is major sorghum growing state followed by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh in the country. Rabi
sorghum is mostly grown in dryland conditions on residual soil moisture of rainy season. The
productivity of rabi sorghum is dependent on quantity of rains during pre-season monsoon and
water holding capacity of soil, use of moisture conservation practices, use of high yielding cultivars
on basis of soil types and available production technologies. Whereas, in few pockets of Western
Maharashtra and Karnataka, the crop is grown on irrigated conditions with two to four irrigations with
higher productivity up to 3.5 to 4.0 t /ha. The productivity of rabi sorghum is less (840 kg/ha during
2013-14) than that of rainy season (kharif) sorghum (1033 kg/ha). The important reasons for that
are; (i) non-adoption of improved sorghum cultivars on soils type basis and (ii) the crop is grown on
residual soil moisture. Keeping these in view, FLDs on sorghum were organized with latest high
yielding rabi sorghum varieties at different locations.

Highlight of results
During 2013-14, in Telangana, CSV 22R gave 39% more grains yield (1.82 t/ha). Sorghum variety
viz., CSV 18R yielded higher (2.33 t /ha) grains in Marathawada region of Maharashtra.
Performance of CSV 29R was found better in terms of grains yield (1.45 t /ha) at Bijapur centre.
Demonstrated variety; Phule Revati gave higher grain yield (1.87 t /ha) than the local varieties viz.,
maldandi and dagadi (0.52 t /ha) in Solapur area. Phule Vasudha was also performed better (1.86 t
/ha) in Western Maharashtra region. The improved sorghum cultivars increased the grain and fodder
yields over local check in all the locations. The yield advantages were ranged from 29% to 194% in
grain and 28% to 150% in fodder. Among the locations, the highest yield in both grain (1.97 t /ha)
and fodder (5.57 t /ha) was observed in Marathwada region of Maharashtra (Table 5 & Fig. 2).

State-wise yield gaps

It is cleared from Table 5 and Fig. 2 that the grain yields of sorghum was lower under farmer’s
practice (1.06 t. ha-1) as compared to FLD’s (1.64 t. ha-1) indicating wider gap (63%), across the

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 58 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

states. However, lower yield gap (50%) was found in case of stover yields under farmer’s practice
(2.69 t. ha-1) as compared to FLD’s (3.93 t. ha-1).

Table 4 Economics of FLDs on sorghum

S. FLD Grain yield Stover yield Cost of Net return B:C ratio
No. Centre (t.ha-1) (t.ha-1) cultivation (Rs.ha-1)
FLD LC FLD LC (Rs.ha-1) FLD LC FLD LC
1 Parbhani 1.97 0.67 5.57 2.85 14831 44576 14768 3.00 2.00
2 Solapur 1.26 0.52 2.72 1.09 14208 20903 7508 2.39 2.10
3 Rahuri 1.73 1.04 4.40 2.51 29491 17032 6591 1.58 1.31
4 Bijapur 1.45 1.12 2.78 2.19 7867 22136 16013 2.81 2.13
5 Tandur 1.83 1.32 4.78 3.73 14102 40250 31176 2.86 2.38
Mean 1.65 1.27 3.72 2.47 16100 28979 15211 2.53 1.98

Table 5 State-wise yield gap between FLDs and farmer’s practice (FP)

S. Location Grain yield (t.ha-1) Stover yield (t.ha-1)

No.
FLD LC Yield gap FLD LC Yield
(%) gap (%)
1 Maharashtra 1.65 0.74 122 4.23 2.15 96
2 Karnataka 1.45 1.12 29 2.78 2.19 27
3 Telangana 1.83 1.32 39 4.78 3.73 28
Mean 1.64 1.06 63 3.93 2.69 50

Fig. 2 Yield advantage of rabi FLD varieties over local check (%)

Transfer of technology through Extension programmes

The sorghum production technologies developed by the research institutes are disseminated
through various Extension agencies of Central and State Agricultural Universities and also through
Frontline demonstrations, on-farm trials and by conduct of Farmer’s Days.

During last five years, more than 35,000 farmers and different stakeholders were exposed to the
latest sorghum technologies through various extension programmes organized by this institute such

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 59 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

as short duration trainings, hands-on trainings, krishi melas, field day, field visits, video shows,
frontline demonstrations, method demonstrations, etc. The following extension programmes were
also conducted to transfer of the production technologies effectively.

Training
In order to popularize the sorghum production technologies, regular training of the field extension
functionaries of the state department of agriculture and line departments, non-governmental
organizations and others involved in the transfer of technologies of sorghum is organized at DSR,
Hyderabad. Several national level workshops-cum-seminars and training programme are being
organized.

Linkages
The linkages not only with State department of agriculture of different states but also with the line
departments involved in sorghum popularization of sorghum viz., Department of Animal husbandry,
Department of dairy etc., the State Agricultural Universities, other central institutions like NDDB,
MANAGE, NIRD, sister ICAR institutions and various non-governmental organizations involved in
the transfer of sorghum production technologies have been established to popularize sorghum
production technology.

Live demonstrations
Regular demonstrations are being laid at the institute farm with the popular, released and pre
released cultivars of sorghum for the exposing the improved cultivars to the farmers, extension
officials, and visitors to the institute. Apart from these demonstrations, demonstrations are also laid
down in the select farmer’s fields to demonstrate the production potential of the released improved
cultivars.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 60 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

11. Sweet sorghum syrup and jaggery

CV Ratnavathi*, Nandin Nimbkar# and JV Patil*
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030
# Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute, Phaltan, Maharashtra

Introduction
Sweet sorghum syrup, also referred to as sorghum molasses, sorgho, or sorgo, is made by boiling
the sweet juice of the sorghum cane (Sorghum bicolor, formerly known as Holcus sorghum).
Sorghum syrup is not derived from the sorghum grain or from sugar cane. And while it is often
referred to as molasses, molasses is a by-product of the sugar industry--it is what is left when the
granulated white sugar is removed. Sorghum syrup is a natural sweetener produced from the juice
extracted from the stalks of sweet sorghum plants.

They are mostly grown commercially for making sorghum syrup, the stout, corn-like sorghum plants
are handsome and interesting horticultural grasses with plume-like tassels. Members of the
Poaceae family, sorghums have been grown for centuries for grain, syrup, brooms, and forage
crops. Sorghums like sandy soil or garden loam, and need to be cultivated and kept free of weeds
like corn. Sweet sorghum is mostly grown for forage to produce ‘sorghum syrup’ unlike most other
sorghum varieties that are grown for grains. Some of the varieties of sorghum can get as tall as
eight to 15 feet, so these larger canes need to be grown in rows at least six feet apart. The plants
take 120 days to mature

It is sweet sticky syrup, dark amber in color with thick consistency. It does not have any unpleasant
after taste. It can be used as a table sweetener or exchanged for other sweeteners in baking one
cup to one cup. It tastes delicious spread on hot toasts or crisp biscuits. Sorghum syrup may
crystallize like honey, but liquefies when gently reheated.

Jaggery Production:
Jaggery is a lump sugar made from sugarcane juice usually. With high sugar juices like toddy juice
etc also jiggery can be prepared. Preparation of jiggery is also attempted from sweet sorghum juice.
Different cultivars of sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor(L) Moench) were evaluated for quality of
jaggery . Data are presented in Table- I. Among all the cultivars it was observed that BJ-248
yielded good quality jaggery with best crystallization followed by Wray. The jaggery prepared from
BJ-248 possessed good crystallization and appearance, similar to sugarcane jaggery. The
crystalline structure was due to low content of reducing sugar (0.34 g) and high amounts of sucrose
(16.96 g) when compared to other cultivars. Quality of jaggery prepared from SSV-84 and NSS-104
had poor crystallization due to its high reducing sugar content. Jaggery prepared from NSS 104 and
SSV-84 have confectionery taste. However, maximum jaggery production was observed with SSV-
84 yielding 7.67 % followed by BJ-248 yielding 5.88%.

The analysis of jaggery shows a range of 3 to 16 % w/w of reducing sugars when compared to
sugar cane jaggery (9–12%w/w). Significant quantities of Iron (17.9 mg/100g) and Calcium (1457
mg/100g) were also observed in sorghum jaggery as compared to sugarcane jaggery (Table –VII).
The percent yield of jaggery varies from 2.15 in Cowley to 7.67 in SSV-84 (Table –VIII). The yield of
jaggery per 10-L juice was found to be 1.66 (SSV-84) followed by 1.35 (Wary) and 1.32 (BJ-248).

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 61 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Table-I Selected genotypes for Jaggery preparation

S.No Genotypes %Reducing Sugar Cane Yield (t/ha)

1 Keller 1.030 41.63
2 RSSV- 38 1.103 47.67
3 Wray 1.160 37.86
4 NSS-211 1.180 34.71
5 RSSV- 7 1.227 50.30
6 RSSV-15 1.227 45.93
7 NSS- 20 1.383 33.72
8 NSS- 221 1.430 54.00
9 RSSV -44 1.510 48.39
10 RSSV- 49 1.550 62.31
11 BJ-248 1.597 34.49

Table –II Evaluation of Sweet Sorghum genotypes for the production of Jaggery

S. No. Variety pH of Brix Reducing Sucrose Total Yield Yield

Juice (%) Sugars (%) Sugars (%) (Kg/10 L)
(%) (g) Juice
1 SSV-84 4.31 19 1.34 16.61 17.95 7.67 1.66
2 NSS-104 4.64 16 1.50 11.20 12.70 5.79 1.28
3 Wray 4.68 21 0.66 16.80 18.30 5.77 1.35
4 BJ-248 4.65 20.5 0.89 16.96 17.85 5.82 1.32
5 Keller 4.88 20 1.26 16.74 18.0 4.32 1.02
6 Cowley 4.75 16 1.61 11.24 12.8 2.15 0.47
7 BJ-238 4.71 18 2.40 14.30 16.7 5.93 1.35
8 SSV-74 4.60 18 2.00 13.80 15.8 3.72 0.80
Note: Observations are an average of two replications

Table – III Chemical Analysis of Jaggery from NSS-104

Sen. Test Parameters Results

1 Calcium mg/100g 1457.0
2 Iron, mg/ 100g 17.9
3 Chlorides, mg/kg 7375
4 Sulphates, ppm 2343
5 Total Carotenoids, mg/100g 543.0
6 pH 7.25
7 Color (540 NM) 540
8 Moisture 12.85
9 Reducing Sugars 1.45 %
10 Total Sugars 82 %

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 62 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Table – IV Chemical Analysis * of Jaggery in selected genotypes

Variety pH Brix Reducing Sugar (%, w/w) Sucrose Total Sugar

(%) (%, w/w) (%, w/w)
BJ-248 7.08 44.7 3.6 74.8 78.4
Wray 6.43 44.7 14.1 74.3 88.4
SSV-74 5.88 45.0 16.1 65.1 81.2
NSS-104 6.89 44.5 12.8 58.4 71.2
Keller 6.09 44.7 10.7 56.5 67.2
Cowley 5.90 44.7 16.2 62.6 78.8
BJ-238 5.91 44.8 20.1 55.1 75.2
* All observations are mean of five replications.

Syrup Production
Sorghum syrup is produced by extracting the juice from the sorghum stalks, and then boiling it down
to the desired consistency. Sweet sorghum syrup production offers farmers an excellent opportunity
to improve farm income and productivity. Ideally suited for the small landowner with limited capital,
this crop requires only 1 to 3 acres. Sweet sorghum yields 800 to 1200 L of syrup per acre, and
sorghum syrup sells for Rs.1000/L. The marketing outlook for sorghum syrup is also very favorable.
Almost all the sorghum syrup produced is sold within 2 months after it is processed. Sorghum syrup
is generally unavailable from May to October. So, even if syrup production is increased several-fold,
a ready market will be available. Sweet sorghum, or "sorgo," is closely related to other sorghum
crops. It differs from grain sorghum mainly in that its grain yields are low and its stalks are taller and
juicier and have a high sugar content. It reproduces by seed and produces tillers, but it has no
rhizomes. It is a perennial grass under tropical conditions, but it is winter-killed in areas where frost
occurs. Some sweet sorghum varieties are grown for syrup production, while others are grown for
forage (silage).

Processing of Syrup
Juice Extraction
The percentage of juice extracted is an important factor in mill operation. The juice extraction rate
depends upon the mill speed, the moisture content of the cane, the mill adjustment, and the feeding
rate. The rollers must be adjusted to spacings close enough to produce maximum extraction. To set
the mill rollers initially, evenly space the feed roller 3/8 inch from the top roller. As a general rule,
juice is lost if the bagasse ("pomace" or "chews") contains visible juice and is not broken at the joints
as it comes from the mill. Cane ordinarily contains more than 70 percent water and 10 to 15 percent

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 63 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

fiber, but it is impossible to extract all the juice. With a three-roller power mill, the weight of the juice
extracted should be 50 to 60 percent of the weight of the stalks, unless they are very hard and dry.
Often 50 percent more juice can be obtained by "double passing" than by putting the stalks through
only once. Be sure to check the mill to see how much juice it is extracting. Under normal conditions,
an efficient mill will deliver 22 to 25L of juice from 250 Kg of clean stalks. Weigh 250 Kg of stalks,
run them through the mill, and catch and weigh the juice. If necessary, tighten the rollers to increase
the extraction of juice.

Production of natural syrup from sweet sorghum stalk juice (Small scale)
Generally, good quality syrup can be produced from sorghum genotypes with high percentage of
reducing sugars and low percentage of sucrose in their juice, while high quality jaggery production
requires just the opposite composition. For ethanol production the total sugar content of juice is
important and not its composition. Sweet sorghum syrup production offers farmers an excellent
opportunity to improve their income from sorghum crop. The marketing outlook for sorghum syrup is
also very favourable, but the processing of sweet sorghum juice is the most critical aspect of making
high quality syrup. The yield and quality of sorghum syrup are influenced by the equipment and
process used in manufacturing and by the syrup maker’s knowledge and skill.

A protocol was developed for the production of natural, chemical-free, quality syrup from the juice
of sweet sorghum hybrid “Madhura”. Nearly 500 kg syrup prepared from juice of hybrid “Madhura”
has been test marketed mainly in Phaltan and Pune during last three years. A bottling machine
has been used successfully to package the syrup so that its shelf-life is increased. The response
of consumers to the coloured syrup has been very encouraging. Also the syrup is entirely
chemical-free as only natural ingredients such as the aqueous extracts of okra fruits or plants are
used for facilitating scum removal. The nutritional quality of syrup was also found to be excellent.
When extensive screening of a large number of sweet sorghum genotypes was done, it was found
that the entries RSSV-9, RSSV-24, RSSV-45, NSS-221, NSS-104 and SSV-84 gave good quality
syrup. Also the hybrids developed at NARI such as Madhura, NARI-SSH-3, NARI-SSH-15, NARI-
SSH-40 and NARI-SSH-21 produced good quality syrup.

Economic analysis of table syrup production from sweet sorghum hybrid “Madhura” was carried out
for one hectare during one season for a processor as well as a farmer by considering all the costs
of a syrup processing unit as well as raw material and transport. The study revealed that the total
cost of production of table syrup from 22.5 t/ha of stripped stalks of Madhura for a farmer is about
Rs. 55,000 and about Rs. 64,000 for a processor producing 2000 kg of syrup (9% recovery) in one
season. If calculated on per kg basis, the cost of table syrup for a farmer and a processor would be
about Rs. 27 and Rs. 31 respectively. The sensitivity analysis of costs based on variable stalk
production shows that the costs of syrup production for a farmer as well as a processor could be
reduced linearly with a linear increase in stalk yields of sweet sorghum. For example, for 35 t/ha of
stripped stalks of sweet sorghum with 9% syrup recovery, the costs would be Rs. 18 and Rs. 6 per
kg for a farmer preparing table and crude syrup respectively.

Table. 5 Chemical composition of sweet sorghum syrup compared with honey

Sweet sorghum syrup Honey
Calorific value, Cal/g 2.60 3.26
Total soluble solids, % wt 77.00 81.00
Proteins (N X 6.25), % wt 1.65 -
Ash, % wt 3.69 0.59
mg/100 g
Calcium 160.00 5.00
Phosphorous 11.00 4.10

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 64 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Sweet sorghum syrup Honey

Riboflavin (Vitamin B 2 ) 10.00 0.06
Vitamin C 11.50 5.00
Nicotinic acid 153.00 32.00
Iron 0.86 0.59
Sodium 86.00 4.70
Potassium 1810.00 90.00
Sulphur Not detected 8.00
Benzoic acid Not detected
Added colouring matter None
Pesticide residues Not detected
Data for Honey is from literature; Analysis of sample of Madhura by CFTRI, Mysore and ITALAB Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai

Crushing of Stripped stalks Syrup preparation

Temperature recording and scum removal Syrup prepared

Table-1 Nutritional Information per Serving:

Serving Size 100 g of Sorghum syrup

% Daily Requirements

Total Calories 290 14%

Calories from carbohydrates 290

Total fat 0g 0%
Trans fat 0g 0%
Cholesterol 0g 0%

Total carbohydrate 75 g 25%

Dietary fiber 0g 0%
Sugars 75 g

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 65 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Sucrose
Glucose
Fructose

Protein 0g 0%

Minerals

Calcium 150 mg 15%

Iron 3.8 mg 21%
Magnesium 100 mg 25%
Phosphorus 56 mg 6%
Potassium 1000 mg 29%
Sodium 8 mg 0%
Zinc 0.4 mg 3%
Copper 0.1 mg 6%
Manganese 1.5 mg 77%
Selenium 1.7 mg 2%

Vitamins

Thiamine 0.1 mg 4%
Riboflavin 0.2 mg 10%
Niacin 0.1 mg 1%
Vitamin B6 0.7 mg 34%

References

Ratnavathi, C.V. 2005 Developing sorghum as an efficient biomass and bio-energy crop and providing value addition to
the rain damaged kharif grain for creating industrial demand Final Report of the project NATP RNPS 24,
National Agricultural Technology project, pp 40 Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
Ratnavathi, C.V., P.K. Biswas, M. Pallavi, M. Maheswari, B. S. Vijay Kumar and N. Seetharama, Alternative-uses of-
sorghum-and-pearl-millet-in-Asia-Proceedings-of-an-expert-meeting,-ICRISAT,-Patancheru,-Andhra-Pradesh,-
India,-1-4-July,-2003.2004; 188-200.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 66 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

12. Sweet sorghum – Juice quality and ethanol production

CV. Ratnavathi
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Introduction
In recent years, there is an intensive search for suitable alternative feed stock to the existing
sugarcane molasses for ethanol production, which has triggered search for alternate crops due to
the acute water shortages all over the country’s sugarcane growing areas. Further, recent policy of
the Government of India to blend 5% ethanol in petrol has prompted all sugar industries to look for
alternate feed stocks for making alcohol more economically and meet the need in case of shortage
of molasses. Sorghum crop is known for its efficient dry matter production among cereals. Sweet
sorghum is a special type of sorghum that accumulates sugars (sucrose, glucose and fructose) in
stalks, which form 70-80% of total biomass, apart from yielding considerable amount of grain. Sweet
sorghum as a crop has wide adaptability, drought tolerance, and tolerant to water logging, saline
alkali conditions, exhibits quick growth rate and rapid sugar accumulation. Being a C4 plant, sweet
sorghum has a high photosynthetic potential producing 30-50 tons green cane along with 1.5-2.5
tons grain/ha accumulating dry matter at a rate of 50g/m2/ day.

Sweet sorghum, which is a crop close to sugarcane in respect of its sucrose accumulation and juicy
nature of the stem, offers an excellent alternative feed stock apart from others such as sugarbeet.
The advantage of sweet sorghum over sugarcane is that it is a four-month duration crop and can be
raised through seed. The other advantage is that it can be grown with less inputs and water
(maximum 2-3 irrigations) and even can be grown under rainfed conditions. The expected
yield/recovery of ethanol (fuel grade) from sweet sorghum cane is 2000 –2500 litres /ha (50 litres
/ton). The by-product from sweet sorghum i.e its grain can also be utilized for ethanol production as
currently sorghum grain is used for potable alcohol whose recovery is upto 400 litres per ton of
grain. There is a good market for potable alcohol whose price is primarily decided by the molasses
price. However, grain alcohol extraction technology is different from the stalk ethanol.

Sweet sorghum varieties

In addition to fuel alcohol production, Sweet sorghum can also be used for the production of jaggery,
syrup and paper depending on the sucrose content and ratio between sucrose and reducing sugars
content. Sweet sorghum research was started at Directorate of sorghum research in 1988 and many
varieties and hybrids are being evaluated under the All India Coordinated Sorghum Improvement
Programme (AICSIP). Two varieties were released so far, SSV 84 and HES 4, the former being the
national release. Recently, a variety RSSV 9 from MPKV, Rahuri and a hybrid NSSH 104 from
Directorate of sorghum research, Hyderabad were recommended for release. The sugar content
varies from 16-23% brix and the fermentable sugars range from 15-21%. Most of the sweet
sorghum varieties mature between 115-125 days during the rainy season. Stalks can be harvested
either along with grain or 4-5 weeks after the grain harvest. However, sweet sorghum varieties and
hybrids bred under the national programme of AICSIP at Directorate of sorghum research have the
capability to produce high biomass up to 45-50 tones/ha with juice brix between 18 and 22% and a
grain yield of 1.5-2.5 tones/ha. NSS 209, NSS 216, NSS 218, NSS 219, RSSV 24, RSSV 46 and
RSSV 59 are some of the promising genotypes identified from NATP breeding trial.

Findings from pilot study for ethanol production

A pilot study in collaboration with M/s Renuka Sugars in Munoli, Belgaum was conducted during
2002-03 for the production of ethanol (95%) from sweet sorghum juice. This study was first of its

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 67 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

kind in India. Two varieties sweet sorghum (SSV 74 & SSV 84) and one hybrid (Madhura) were
grown in more than 600 acres of dryland in farmer’s fields. Nearly 125
hectares located in 66 villages (157 farmers) were covered with variety
SSV 84. The juice brix was 18% and about 112 tones of cane were
used for one fermentor of capacity 60 KL. Fermentation was carried out
for 48 hrs. The recovery of ethanol was approximately 9% of the juice
and bagasse obtained was 46.44% with 2.58% sugars, which was
successfully used for the cogeneration (2086 calories/tons). The
fermentation of sugars was slow as the left over fermentation still
contained sugars that contribute to 6.4% brix.

Special fermentation strains for sweet sorghum

The Yeast strain that is commonly used in distilleries does not efficiently
ferment sweet sorghum juice sugars and the complete fermentation of
sugars takes 72 hours. Strains that are more effective in terms of thermal tolerance and ethanol
tolerance as compared to distillers strain were isolated and identified at Directorate of sorghum
research. These are the non-pathogenic strains of and Candida tropicalis and Streptococcus Sps.

Further, the quality of rectified spirit obtained from sweet sorghum is of superior quality with good
flavor/odour as it is low in aldehydes and free from sulphates. The bagasse from sweet sorghum
has a higher biological value than that of sugarcane when used as feed for animals with the
available newer technologies and energy efficient industries.

Competitiveness of sweet sorghum versus sugarcane

The net income (at paid out costs) to the farmers from sweet sorghum cultivation accrue higher net
returns (Rs.16625/ha) than sugarcane cultivation by Rs.1125/ha in the area of trials conducted by
Praj industries, Pune while it is lower in sweet sorghum (Rs.16180/ha) than in sugarcane
(Rs.22000/ha) in catchment area of Sagar sugars, Chittoor, which of course has to be ascertained
by repeated field trials. However, interestingly the output-input ratio of sweet sorghum cultivation is
higher than that of sugarcane in both the locations. In other words, the sweet sorghum cultivation
yields higher returns per rupee invested and that too in a shorter period of just 4 months. The key
analytical factors that contribute to sweet sorghum juice quality are mainly juice extractability,
sucrose, reducing sugars content and purity of juice. In this context, juice from sweet sorghum and
sugarcane are compared (Table. 2).

Sweet sorghum genotypes show wide variability in juice quality and juice extractability. Evaluation of
160 sweet sorghum genotypes for juice extractability at physiological maturity using a two-discharge
roller mill indicated variability from 14% to 68%. Recovery of juice during crushing determines the
relative juiciness of sweet sorghum genotypes. Total concentration of sugars was lowest until the
boot stage and it reached highest at the soft dough stage. Sweet sorghum juice mainly contains
sucrose, glucose and fructose. While sucrose is the predominant sugar during the whole
developmental stages, it constituted only about 50% of soluble sugar at the boot stage, glucose and
fructose making the remainder. Concentration of glucose was always higher than that of fructose. A
study on changes of the chemical quality of juice was done in terms of its inversion at different
periods of time after harvesting the cane. The parameters such as Juice brix, pH, total sugars,
reducing sugars and sucrose were evaluated. Cane from NSS-104 was harvested and upto 48
hours with an interval of 6 hours samples was drawn and juice quality was determined. After 48
hours, there is 17% reduction in sucrose content. Inversion of sucrose results in higher production of
aldehydes during fermentation. This is higher compared to sugar cane. The presence of high

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 68 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

reducing sugars and invertase activity make the juice unable to produce good quality jaggery and
sugar. Therefore, sweet sorghum juice is only suitable for ethanol and syrup production.

Table. 2 Comparison of the juice of sweet sorghum and sugarcane

S No. Character Sweet Sorghum Sugar Cane

1. Appearance Juice is thick and turbid. Juice is clear and transparent.
2. Contents High starch & chlorophyll Has no starch.
3. Density High Low almost equal to water.
4. Sugars Sucrose and high amount of Contains more sucrose and less
reducing sugar (2-4%). reducing sugar (0.5 to 1.0 %).
5. Invertase activity High invertase. No Invertase.
6. Time of sugar Starts after flowering. Sucrose accumulates at early stage.
accumulation
7. Purity of juice 70-90%. 90-98%.

Apart from net returns, other issues do not straight away qualify sweet sorghum to compete with
sugarcane molasses rather to complement with the latter from industry point of view The sugarcane
industry is active for six months in a year and it is proposed that the existing machinery and
operating system can optimally be used for sweet sorghum in the lean period of sugarcane crushing
season, thereby generating employment and increased capacity utilization of sugar industries.
Sweet sorghum can be grown successfully in June and February planting for maximum green cane
yield and sugar content to ideally suit the lean periods of sugarcane. Sugarcane is a long duration
crop and highly demanding in terms of water and it can be grown only some areas with assured
irrigation. In contrast sweet sorghum is highly adapted to a variety of growing environments.

Options available for entrepreneurs

While majority of the distilleries approached us are in favor of undertaking whole process from
contact farming to ethanol marketing by them selves, few entrepreneurs expressed their interest in
manufacturing intermediate product such as crude syrup concentrate from sweet sorghum juice
using the available boilers which is equivalent to sugarcane molasses and selling to distilleries for
ethanol preparation. The other possibility is hiring the closed down distilleries and other infra
structure, machinery to manufacture rectified spirit (95% ethanol) and market to the user industries
that make fuel ethanol (100%).

Seed production and distribution

In the wake of high enthusiasm shown by sugar industries Directorate of Sorghum Research
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad made attempts to produce breeders seed of sweet sorghum variety SSV
84. The crop was raised in four hectares at Hyderabad during rabi 2003-04 producing about 13.5
tons seed. The seed was distributed to different sugar industries in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Orissa. Apart from this, Directorate of sorghum research is
continuously producing seed of CSV19SS, SSV 84 and CSH 22SS.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 69 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

13. Prospects for sorghum biofortification

Hariprasanna K.
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Malnutrition - the silent epidemic

Malnutrition is not defined as a lack of food, but rather the right kind of food. Globally malnutrition is
responsible for more deaths than any other cause, accounting for >20 million mortalities annually
(Kennedy et al., 2003). Micronutrient malnutrition, often known as hidden hunger, primarily the result
of diets poor in bio-available vitamins and minerals, causes blindness and anaemia (even death);
afflicts more than one-half of the developing world’s population or more than 2 billion people,
especially the women and preschool children (Bouis, 2002; Welch and Graham, 2004). The poor
people living in the arid and semi-arid tropics suffer from deficiencies of calories and micronutrients
as they cannot afford a variety of food items in their diet. The main objective of breeding in staple
food crops remained productivity enhancement and increased profitability to farmers and agricultural
industries till recently, and nutritional improvement of the agricultural produce was never given due
consideration, especially in developing countries, though the primary source of all nutrients for
people comes from agricultural products. Of late micronutrient malnutrition is increasingly being
recognized as a serious food-related health problem world-wide.

Three of the most widespread micronutrient deficiencies are that of iron, zinc and vitamin A. Iron is a
redox-active constituent of the catalytic site of heme and non-heme iron proteins. Iron deficiency
affects nearly 3.7 billion people (Welch, 2002). Iron deficiency adversely affects cognitive
development, resistance to infection, work capacity, productivity and pregnancy, and about half of
the anaemia cases can be attributed to it. Zinc is involved in RNA and DNA synthesis, and is a
constituent of many zinc-containing enzymes critical to cellular growth and differentiation. An
estimated 49% of the human population is at risk for inadequate zinc in their diet (Brown et al.,
2001). Zinc deficiency leads to impaired growth, immune dysfunction, increased morbidity and
mortality, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and abnormal neuro-behavioural development. Vitamin A is
a group of fat soluble nutritionally unsaturated hydrocarbons, which include retinol, retinal, retinoic
acid, and several pro-vitamin A carotenoids. Preformed vitamin A is found in animal products such
as meat, fish, poultry and dairy foods, while pro-vitamin A is found in plant-based foods such as
fruits and vegetables, the most common is beta-carotene. It is important for growth and
development, for the maintenance of the immune system and good vision – both low-light and
colour. Vitamin A also helps in skin and cellular health, and maintenance of teeth, skeletal and soft
tissues and mucus membranes. Vitamin A deficiency is the leading cause of preventable blindness
in children leading to blindness in 2.5-5 lakh children each year and increases the risk of disease
and death from severe infections (http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/vad/en/).

Biofortification - a powerful intervention tool

Many agricultural tools (e.g., diversification, cropping systems, fertilizers and soil amendments,
small livestock production, aquaculture, etc.) could be used to increase the nutrient output of
farming systems (Graham et al., 2007). Food fortification and diet supplementation with
micronutrients can directly facilitate easing of micronutrient malnutrition to some extent. But, these
interventions require infrastructure, sophisticated processing techniques and product control,
purchasing power, or access to markets and health care systems for their success. Hence, new
approaches are needed to address the persistent problem of micronutrient malnutrition in a
sustained manner, especially to reach the poor population in the remote rural areas. The
development of micronutrient-dense staple crop cultivars using the best traditional breeding

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 70 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

practices and modern biotechnology or in other words ‘Biofortification’ is a powerful intervention tool
in this regard.

Biofortification provides a comparatively cost-effective, sustainable, and long-term means of

delivering more micronutrients to people with poor access to markets or health care systems.
Consumption of micronutrient-enriched staple plant foods, can significantly improve the nutrient
status in the target populations. Biofortification is a scientific method for improving the nutritional
value of foods already consumed by those suffering from hidden hunger (Bouis et al., 2011).
Biofortified cultivars can be obtained through conventional breeding when sufficient genetic
variability for micronutrients is present in the target crop or by exploiting transgressive segregation
or heterosis. In the absence of such variability genetic engineering tools have to be explored.

Advantages: (i) Biofortification capitalizes on the regular daily intake of a consistent and large
amount of food staples and hence, implicitly targets low-income households where staple foods
form major part of the diet. (ii) After the one-time investment to develop seeds that fortify
themselves, recurrent costs are low, and the varieties can be shared internationally and thus making
it cost-effective. (iii) Nutritionally improved varieties will continue to be grown and consumed year
after year, making the system highly sustainable, even if government policies change or funding
weakens. (iv) It provides a feasible means of reaching undernourished populations in relatively
remote rural areas, where access to commercially marketed fortified foods is limited. (v)
Biofortification may have important spinoff effects for increasing farm productivity in developing
countries in an environmentally beneficial way. Seeds rich in minerals would produce more viable
and vigorous seedlings, and higher plant stand in less fertile soils resulting in enhanced crop yields
(Nestel et al., 2006). Moreover, these trace minerals may also help plants to resist diseases and
other environmental stresses.

Criteria: Before developing and distributing micronutrient-dense staple food crops certain criteria
have to be met, which will ensure that the benefits of biofortification reach the target people. The
criteria include: (i) The crop productivity must be maintained or enhanced to guarantee widespread
farmer acceptance. (ii) The micronutrient enrichment levels must have significant impact on human
health. (iii) The micronutrient enrichment levels must be relatively stable across various growing
environments and climatic zones. (iv) Bioavailability of micronutrients in enriched lines must be
tested in humans to ensure that they improve the micronutrient status of people preparing and
eating them in traditional ways within normal household environments. (v) Consumer acceptance
(taste and cooking quality) has to be tested to ensure maximum impact.
Three primary issues have been identified that are required to make biofortification successful
(Bouis and Welch, 2010): (i) A biofortified crop must be high yielding and profitable to the farmer. (ii)
The biofortified crop must be shown to be efficacious and effective at reducing micronutrient
malnutrition in humans. (iii) The biofortified crop must be acceptable to both farmers and consumers
in target regions where people are afflicted with micronutrient malnutrition.

Breeding for micronutrient enrichment: The basic steps include: (i) Identification of genetic
variability within the range that can influence human nutrition. (ii) Introgressing this variation into
high yielding, stress tolerant genotypes possessing acceptable end-use quality attributes. (iii)
Testing the stability of micronutrient accumulation across the target environment. (iv) Large-scale
deployment of seed of improved cultivars to farmers. The biofortification programme requires that
agricultural researchers make direct linkages with various specialists like nutritionists, public health
officials, sociologists, political scientists, food technologists and economists, thus requiring a
multidisciplinary research approach.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 71 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

HarvestPlus
HarvestPlus, a global alliance of research institutions and implementing agencies, is the
Biofortification Challenge programme of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research (CGIAR), which seeks to reduce micronutrient malnutrition among the poor by breeding
staple food crops that are rich in micronutrients (http://www.harvestplus.org). It is coordinated by the
International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and the International Food Policy Research
Institute (IFPRI). It is directed at using plant breeding as an intervention strategy to address
micronutrient malnutrition by producing staple food crops with enhanced levels of bioavailable
essential minerals and vitamins that will have measurable impact on improving the micronutrient
status of target populations. This programme has been able to assemble a multi-CGIAR Centres
team along with collaborators from Universities, NGOs and International Institutions comprising
scientists from plant breeding, food science, nutrition, economics and sociology to tackle the
problem of micronutrient malnutrition (Bouis and Welch, 2010). HarvestPlus’s strategy for
biofortification involves three phases – discovery, development and dissemination (Fig. 1).

In the first phase of HarvestPlus (2004-2007) the target crops were rice, wheat, maize, common
bean, cassava and sweet potato that are consumed by the majority of the world’s poor in Africa,
Asia and Latin America. Good genetic variability for iron and zinc contents in the target crops has
been reported (discovery phase). Where sufficient
variability for desired trait is not available, genetic
engineering and genomics tools are being
explored. In 2008, HarvestPlus received one-year
funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
to bridge from Phase I to Phase II. The Phase II
(2009-2013) is aimed at specific biofortified crop
variety development for target countries and
populations, and breeding feasibility and
germplasm discovery studies for 10 additional
staples, namely banana/plantain, barley, cowpea,
groundnut, lentil, pearl millet, pigeon pea, potato,
sorghum and yams. Impressive progress has been
made at meeting the goals of the HarvestPlus
programme since its inception in 2003. The high
micronutrient content discovered in the germplasm
(donors) is being introgressed to adapted high
yielding background in many of the target crops in Figure 1. The Biofortification process
several institutions world-wide. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation funded Grand Challenges 9
is developing several transgenic crops. More than 25 countries primarily in Asia and Africa are
expected to benefit from spillover effects following initial release of biofortified crop cultivars in target
countries. A summary of biofortified target crops and country-wise release schedule is given in
Table 1. HarvestPlus III (2014-2018) will demonstrate the viability of biofortification as a global
solution and lay foundation to scale up delivery in target countries and expand delivery to new
countries, strengthen the pipeline of biofortified varieties, and research, communicate and advocate
strategically.

Success stories
As a first product of HarvestPlus efforts, vitamin A-rich orange fleshed sweet potato (OSP) was
released in 2007 in Mozambique and Uganda. Under Reaching End Users project (REU) OSP was
released to 24,000 households in these two countries. As of now 68% of households in

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 72 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Mozambique have adopted the orange varieties, and 61% have adopted OSP in Uganda. The
intake of OSP among children and women increased by two-thirds or more in both countries when
OSP was available, leading to a significant rise in vitamin A intake. Notably, for children aged 6-35
months, OSP contributed 78% of their total vitamin A intake in Mozambique and 53% in Uganda.
Since the first release seven years back, more than 1.5 million farming families have adopted OSP
and other nutrition-smart crops. Policy makers from around the world met in Kigali during April 2014
and made a commitment to scale up these types of nutritious food. By forging new partnerships
across sectors, HarvestPlus and its partners aim to reach more than 100 million people with such
nutrition-smart crops by 2018 (Bouis, 2014).

Table 1. Biofortified target crops and country-wise release schedule (Saltzman et al., 2013)
Crop Nutrient Target country Lead institutions Release
year
Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Cameroon, IITA, Bioversity Unknown
Banana/ Provit. A
Burundi, DR Congo
Plantain
Uganda Queensland University of 2019
Provit. A, Iron*
Technology, NARO
Rwanda, DR Congo CIAT, RAB, INERA 2012
Bean Iron (Zinc)
Brazil Embrapa 2008
DR Congo IITA, CIAT, INERA 2008
Provit. A Nigeria IITA, CIAT, NRCRI 2011
Cassava Brazil Embrapa 2009
Nigeria, Kenya Donald Danforth Plant Science 2017
Provit. A, Iron*
Center
India G.B. Pant University 2008
Cowpea Iron, Zinc
Brazil Embrapa 2008
Irish potato Iron Rwanda, Ethiopia CIP Unknown
Nepal, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India, ICARDA 2012
Lentil Iron, Zinc
Syria
Zambia CIMMYT, IITA, ZARI 2012
Nigeria CIMMYT, IITA, IAR&T 2012
Maize Provit. A Brazil Embrapa 2013
China Institute of Crop Science, YAAS 2015
India DBT Unknown
Pearl millet Iron (Zinc) India ICRISAT 2012
Pumpkin Provit. A Brazil Embrapa 2015
Bangladesh, India IRRI, BRRI 2013
Zinc (Iron)
Brazil Embrapa 2014
Philippines, Bangladesh, Golden Rice Network, IRRI 2013
Rice Provit. A*
Indonesia, India
Iron* Bangladesh, India University of Melbourne, IRRI 2022
Iron China Institute of Crop Science, CAAS 2010
Zinc, Iron India ICRISAT 2015
Sorghum
Provit. A* Kenya, Burkina Faso, Nigeria Africa Harvest, Pioneer Hi-Bred 2018
Uganda CIP, NaCCRI 2007
Mozambique CIP 2002
Sweet potato Provit. A
Brazil Embrapa 2009
China Institute of Sweet Potato, CAAS 2010
India, Pakistan CIMMYT 2013
Wheat Zinc (Iron) China Institute of Crop Science, CAAS 2011
Brazil Embrapa 2016
* Denotes transgenic variety; ( ) Denotes secondary nutrient

n 2011, three varieties of conventionally bred vitamin A-rich cassava were released in Nigeria with
the goal of reaching 50,000 farming households by 2013. These cassava cultivars that are naturally

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 73 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

rich in pro-vitamin A were identified by the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture in Columbia
(CIAT). New cultivars with a total carotenoid content range of 100–10,000 mg/100 g in fresh
cassava have been developed by selective breeding of cassava with high-carotene germplasm by
CIAT and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria (Chavez et al., 2005).
These cultivars were introduced in Kenya for an efficacy trial conducted in 2012 among school aged
children (Talsma et al., 2009). Caretakers and children perceived a significant difference in taste
between white and pro-vitamin A-rich cassava. Both preferred pro-vitamin A-rich cassava over white
cassava because of its soft texture, sweet taste and attractive colour (Talsma et al., 2013). It was
found that the yellow color of pro-vitamin A-rich cassava is no barrier for consumption in the target
population. In 2014, a new set of vitamin A cassava varieties were released that can provide up to
40% of the vitamin A recommended daily allowance for children under five. They are 25% richer in
beta-carotene than the first set of vitamin A cassava varieties released in 2011 and which are now
being grown by over 250,000 Nigerian farmers. The newer improved varieties are expected to
gradually replace the earlier ones. HarvestPlus and partners expect to reach more than 350,000
Nigerian households with vitamin A cassava in 2014 alone through an innovative e-market system.
The system involves commercial multiplication and sale of the varieties by medium-scale farmers
and a farmer-to-farmer dissemination arrangement that ensures poor farmers receive stems freely.

In 2012, five conventionally bred iron-rich bean varieties, bred by the Rwanda Agriculture Board and
the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), were released in Rwanda to reach more
than 200,000 farming households by the end of 2013. In the same year two conventionally bred
vitamin A maize varieties were released in Nigeria and three in Zambia (to reach up to 25,000
Zambian farming households by the end of 2013. Field tests found that these new varieties yield
three to four times more than local varieties. HarvestPlus research shows that consumers like
orange maize as much as white maize, and they are able to distinguish the orange maize from the
more stigmatised yellow maize, commonly associated with food aid. Three nutrition feeding trials are
either underway or in preparation, to test the efficacy of orange maize on public health.

Since 2012, conventionally bred iron pearl millet was commercialized and sold to farmers in India.
The high-iron pearl millet variety ICTP 8203Fe developed by ICRISAT was released as ‘Dhanshakti’
in Maharashtra during April 2013. Dhanshakti is the first mineral biofortified crop cultivar to be
officially released and reaching farmers’ fields in India. In the field trials conducted during 2010 and
2011, ICTP 8203Fe had 71 ppm of iron density. Based on its superior performance, Nirmal Seeds
company produced and marketed truthfully labeled seed of ICTP 8203Fe to reach 25,000
households in Maharashtra in 2012. Test marketing of five zinc wheat ‘Zinc Shakti Sai’ through 1000
mini-kits in 2013-14 was also tried in India. The agencies involved are DWR, Karnal; IARI, New
Delhi; PAU, Ludhiana and BHU, Varanasi.

Since 2013, the first high yielding rice varieties in Bangladesh that are rich in zinc have been made
available to farmers. Over time more productive, more climate-smart and more nutrition-smart
varieties will be released regularly. In the case of zinc rice there will soon be varieties which can
provide up to 80% of an adult women’s or child’s daily zinc needs, 35% more than ordinary rice
varieties.

The world's first human trial of pro-vitamin A-enriched banana with orange coloured flesh, expected
to lift the health and well-being of millions of Ugandans and other East Africans will start very soon.
The bananas have been harvested from the Queensland University of Technology field trial in
Innisfail, north Queensland and transported to the United States for the world-first human trial. The
human trial will last for six weeks with conclusive results known by the end of the year.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 74 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Indian scenario
The malnourishment, especially deficiency of micronutrients has been a persistent problem with
alarmingly high deficit among children, adolescents, and pregnant and lactating women (Singh,
2007). Most recent surveys show that 40-50% preschool children and over 30% adults show
anthropometric evidence of undernutrition. The intake of micronutrients in daily diet is less than 50%
RDA in over 70% of Indian population (NIN, 2002). Deficiency of micronutrients is rampant. The loss
due to micronutrient deficiency costs India 1% of its GDP, which amounts to a loss of about Rs.
27,720 crores per annum in terms of productivity, illness, increased health care costs and death
(Kotecha, 2008). About 57% of preschoolers and their mothers have subclinical vitamin A
deficiency. Iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) is the most serious public health problem (NFHS, 2011).
Estimates of IDA in women and children have varied from 50-70%; pregnant women being
particularly susceptible. The Micronutrient Initiative (http://www.micronutrient.org) reports that 62%
of pre-school children are deficient in vitamin A, leading to an annual 330,000 child deaths; and
58.7% of pregnant women, 63.2% lactating mothers and 69.5% of pre-school children are anaemic.
The prevalence of zinc deficiency has not been adequately investigated, partly due to lack of
suitable biomarkers.

The two most cost-effective approaches to alleviate micronutrient malnutrition would be dietary
diversification and crop biofortification. In the year 2004, Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has
initiated the India Biofortification Programme to develop and disseminate varieties of rice, wheat and
maize biofortified with iron, zinc and pro-vitamin A. In March 2007, HarvestPlus signed an MoU with
DBT; and in August 2010, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), DBT and HarvestPlus
signed agreement of cooperation to achieve high-quality research on developing and disseminating
biofortified varieties in India. The India Biofortification Programme focuses on three projects:
biofortification of wheat for micronutrients through conventional and molecular breeding; rice
biofortification with enhanced iron and zinc in high yielding non-basmati cultivars through marker
assisted breeding and transgenic approaches; and development of micronutrient enriched maize
through molecular breeding. During 2005-06, a programme on nutrition biofortification -
incorporation of quality traits like essential amino acids, mono unsaturated fatty acids, iron and zinc
in staple food crops was initiated. Work on the structural and functional genomics of tomato, and
functional genomics of rice, sugarcane and shrimp was also initiated.

The DBT has funded projects on biofortification of groundnut and pigeon pea for alleviating vitamin
A, and sorghum biofortification for high grain iron and zinc content during 11th Plan period.
HarvestPlus is a collaborator in the development of some of these crops and also focuses on
biofortified pearl millet in collaboration with ICRISAT.

Prospects for sorghum biofortification

Sorghum is the dietary staple of more than 500 million people over 30 countries in Africa and Asia.
In India, sorghum is the fourth most important cereal consumed. Unlike other cereals sorghum is
mostly consumed in the regions in which it is cultivated. Sorghum is the staple of central and
western regions of Maharashtra and the northern regions of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Though over India as a whole the consumption of sorghum has declined both in rural and urban
areas, in inland regions of Central, Eastern and Western Maharashtra and Northern Karnataka
sorghum is still an important crop with annual per capita consumption in rural areas ranging from
31.8 to 54.2 kg and in urban areas from 9.9 to 34.0 kg (Basavaraj and Parthasarathy Rao, 2012).
Maharashtra (47%) and Karnataka (20%) grow a large proportion of sorghum compared to Andhra
Pradesh (9%) and other states. In terms of nutrient intake, sorghum accounts for about 35% of the
total intake of calories, protein, iron and zinc in the dominant production/consumption areas

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 75 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

(Parthasarathy Rao et al., 2006). Sorghum is a cheap source of energy, protein, iron and zinc next
only to pearl millet among all cereals and pulses. The intake of iron and zinc appears to be below
the recommended dietary allowance (RDA), particularly in low-income rural households in sorghum
consuming regions. Targeting micronutrient-dense sorghum cultivars to these regions would help in
alleviating micronutrient malnutrition. Biofortification of sorghum by increasing iron and zinc contents
in grain is of widespread interest (Pfeiffer and McClafferty, 2007; Zhao, 2008; Ashok Kumar et al.,
2009, 2013; Hariprasanna et al., 2012, 2014).

Sorghum grain has a nutritional profile better than that of rice, the chief staple food of majority, but
the bioavailability of iron and zinc in sorghum is poor compared to other cereals and pulses. Levels
of tannin, phytate, fibre, etc. determines the bioaccessibility of grain iron (4.13 ± 0.33%) and zinc
(5.51 ± 0.32%), which is very low in sorghum compared to rice (8.05 and 21.4%, respectively),
maize (7.83 and 7.82%, respectively) or wheat (5.06 and 8.93%, respectively) (Hemalatha et al.,
2007). Reports from NIN, Hyderabad indicate that sorghum is superior to rice for contents of protein,
minerals and iron, while the values are on a par or marginally better than that of wheat. Sorghum
has only limited information base and research related to biofortification.

Preliminary studies at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT) have indicated limited variability for grain iron and zinc contents (Reddy et al., 2005) in
sorghum hybrid parents, advanced breeding lines and germplasm accessions. Later on, large
genetic variability for grain iron and zinc concentrations has been reported in sorghum (Ashok
Kumar et al., 2009 & 2012a, Sanjana Reddy et al., 2010). Over the years ICRISAT has evaluated a
large number of landraces (2246), hybrid parents (>500 B-lines and 100 R-lines), breeding lines and
commercial sorghum cultivars (67) for assessing grain iron and zinc concentrations and important
agronomic traits, and the vast variability observed has been put on public domain in the form of a
database (Ashok Kumar et al., 2012a). Characterization of popular Indian cultivars, hybrid parents,
elite breeding lines and some selected germplasm accessions collected from the major sorghum
growing states indicated sufficient variability for grain iron (12-83 mg/kg) and zinc (6-51 mg/kg)
contents as well as high heritability (Hariprasanna et al., 2014). Based on the grain iron and zinc
concentrations observed in the commercial cultivars and ICRISAT bred parental lines, the base level
estimated is 30 mg/kg for iron and 20 mg/kg for zinc. Considering the level of sorghum consumption,
nutrient retention in grain storage, milling and food preparation and nutrient bioavailability,
HarvestPlus suggested a target of 70 mg/kg for iron and 40 mg/kg for zinc in sorghum (Ashok
Kumar, personal communication). However, based on the extent of genetic variability observed
among landraces, the target level for genetic enhancement has been put at 60 mg/kg for grain iron
and 32 mg/kg for zinc at ICRISAT. The landraces identified can be used in the crossing
programmes as donors for grain iron and zinc to develop improved varieties and hybrid parents.

Significant and positive association between the grain iron and zinc concentrations have been
reported in most of the material studied at ICRISAT (Reddy et al., 2006; Ashok Kumar et al., 2009,
2010 & 2012b; Sanjana Reddy et al., 2010). At DSR also the grain iron and zinc contents were
found to be significantly and positively correlated (0.2 – 0.5, p < 0.05) among the cultivars and
parental lines, breeding lines and germplasm accessions, but not in some of the elite low-amylose
lines. Close association between iron and zinc indicate that genetic control of iron and zinc content
are linked, or physiological mechanisms for uptake or accumulation of iron and zinc in the grains are
interconnected. Significant positive association between grain iron and zinc can result in
simultaneous genetic improvement for both the micronutrients.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 76 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Limited studies have also been conducted to determine whether grain micronutrient status can be
improved by external application of iron and zinc fertilizers (agronomic management), either as soil
or foliar application or in other words possibility of ferti-fortification as reported in other crops like
wheat and rice. The results suggest that soil type or micronutrient application have only a limited
influence on sorghum grain iron and zinc concentrations when the soils are not deficient in these
minerals (Reddy et al., 2007; Ashok Kumar et al., 2011). Experiments at DSR also revealed the
same trend with no statistically significant difference in grain iron and zinc status due to external
application of iron (FeSO 4 ) and zinc (ZnSO 4 ) fertilizers compared to control in any of the cultivars.
However, mean iron content in the grains was higher in combined application of FeSO 4 +ZnSO 4
compared to individual treatments. Significant cultivar × year (Ashok Kumar et al., 2010) or
genotype × environment (G × E) (Hariprasanna et al., 2012) interactions have been reported for
both grain iron and zinc content. As sorghum is grown in varied soil types with varying levels of
fertility and nutrient management, it would be worthwhile to assess the stability of grain
micronutrients through multi-location as well as multi-season evaluation for biofortification.

A unique biofortified sorghum hybrid, 3204, has been launched by Hytech Seed Company in the
early July 2014. It is a dual season (kharif and late rabi) and dual purpose (grain and dry fodder) tall
hybrid with bold shiny white grain. The iron and zinc in 3204 are one-and-half-times higher than
common sorghum grain. The iron content in 3204 is 46 mg/kg grain compared to 30 mg/kg of
common sorghum. Similarly 3204 contains 29 mg/kg zinc compared to 20 mg/kg in common type.
With funding support from HarvestPlus, ICRISAT is working on increasing grain iron and zinc
concentration in sorghum to reach the revised targets of 60 ppm iron and 32 ppm zinc. Among the
different hybrids being evaluated, five hybrids ICSH 14001 (Fe 49 ppm and Zn 38 ppm), ICSH
14002 (Fe 46 ppm and Zn 32 ppm), ICSA 661 × ICSR 196 (Fe 45 ppm and Zn 36 ppm), ICSA 318 ×
ICSR 94 (Fe 45 ppm and Zn 34 ppm), ICSA 336 × IS 3760 (Fe 45 ppm and Zn 40 ppm), and a R
line/variety ICSR 14001 (Fe 42 ppm and Zn 35 ppm) are promising and meeting the current
breeding targets for grain zinc (ICRISAT, 2014).

To conclude, biofortification in sorghum appears to be a feasible strategy to alleviate the

micronutrient malnutrition among the rural poor considering the high prevalence of micronutrient
deficiency and significant intake of sorghum in the major consumption regions in India. The
availability of high variability for grain micronutrient contents holds promise to develop superior
varieties with enhanced nutritional quality. Once suitable donor parents for high iron and zinc
content are identified, they can be utilized in breeding programmes to combine agronomic
superiority and high micronutrient content in the grains. Proper understanding of micronutrient
accumulation in the grains, genetic control and identification of genotypes that accumulate high iron
and zinc contents irrespective of growing conditions will pave the way for development of
micronutrient rich sorghum varieties. Wide adoption of such biofortified varieties and consumption
by the target population will gradually ease the micronutrient malnourishment. Inclusion of sorghum
in the Public Distribution System (PDS) in the target regions can also encourage the consumption
by the poor people leading to better health status.

Suggested readings:
Ashok Kumar A, Anuradha K and Ramaiah B. 2013. Increasing grain Fe and Zn concentration in sorghum: progress
and way forward. Journal of SAT Agricultural Research 11: 1-5.
Ashok Kumar A, Reddy BVS and Ramaiah B. 2012a. Fe and Zn concentrations in sorghum - datasets,
http://hdl.handle.net/11038/10081, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics [Distributor] V6
[Version].

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 77 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Ashok Kumar A, Reddy BVS, Ramaiah B, Reddy PS, Sahrawat KL and Upadhyaya HD. 2009. Genetic variability and
plant character association of grain Fe and Zn in selected core collection accessions of sorghum germplasm and
breeding lines. Journal of SAT Agricultural Research, 7: 1-4.
Ashok Kumar A, Reddy BVS, Ramaiah B, Sahrawat KL and Pfeiffer WH. 2012b. Genetic variability and character
association for grain iron and zinc contents in sorghum germplasm accessions and commercial cultivars. The
European Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 6 (Special Issue 1): 66-70.
Ashok Kumar A, Reddy BVS, Ramaiah B, Sahrawat KL and Pfeiffer WH. 2011. Options for Enhancing Grain Iron and
Zinc Concentrations in Sorghum. Proc. Oral Presentations, 3rd International Zinc Symposium, Hyderabad, 10-14
Oct. 2011.
Ashok Kumar A, Reddy BVS, Sahrawat KL and Ramaiah B. 2010. Combating micronutrient malnutrition: Identification of
commercial sorghum cultivars with high grain iron and zinc. Journal of SAT Agricultural Research, 8: 1-5.
Basavaraj G and Parthasarathy Rao P. 2012. Regional analysis of household consumption of sorghum in major
sorghum-producing and sorghum-consuming states in India. Food Security 4: 209-217
Bouis H. 2014. Why nutrition-smart agriculture matters (https://www.devex.com/news/why-nutrition-smart-agriculture-
matters-84050)
Bouis HE and Welch RM. 2010. Biofortification-A sustainable agricultural strategy for reducing micronutrient malnutrition
in the global south. Crop Science 50:S-20–S-32.
Bouis HE, Hotz C, McClafferty B, Meenakshi JV and Pfeiffer WH. 2011. “Biofortification: A New Tool to Reduce
Micronutrient Malnutrition.” Supplement, Food and Nutrition Bulletin 32: 31S-40S.
Bouis HE. 2002. Plant Breeding: a New Tool for Fighting Micronutrient Malnutrition. Journal of Nutrition 132: 491S-494S.
Brown KH, Wuehler SE and Peerson JM. 2001. The importance of zinc in human nutrition and estimation of the global
prevalence of zinc deficiency. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 22:113-125.
Chavez AL, Sanchez T, Jaramillo G, Bedoya JM, Echeverry J, et al. 2005. Variation of quality traits in cassava roots
evaluated in landraces and improved clones. Euphytica 143: 125–133. doi: 10.1007/s10681-005-3057-2.
Graham RD, Welch RM, Saunders DA, Monasterio I, Bouis HE, Bonierbale M, de Hann S, Burgos G, Thiele G, Liria R,
Meisner CA, Beebe SE, Potts MJ, Kadiajn M, Hobbs PR, Gupta RK and Twomlow S. 2007. Nutritious subsistence
food systems. Advances in Agronomy 92:1-74.
Hariprasanna K, Agte V, Elangovan M and Patil JV. 2014. Genetic variability for grain iron and zinc content in cultivars,
breeding lines and selected germplasm accessions of sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench]. Indian J. Genet.,
74: 42-49.
Hariprasanna K, Agte V, Prabhakar and Patil JV. 2012. Genotype × environment interactions for grain micronutrient
contents in sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench]. Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding 72: 429-434.
Hemalatha S, Platel K and Srinivasan K. 2007. Zinc and iron contents and their bioaccessibility in cereals and pulses
consumed in India. Food Chemistry 102: 1328-1336.
ICRISAT. 2014. Progress of sorghum biofortification research at ICRISAT reviewed. In: ICRISAT Happenings, In-house
Newsletter, No. 1614. www.icrisat.org/newsroom/latest-news/happenings/happenings1614.htm
Kennedy G, Nantel G and Shetty P. 2003. The scourge of “hidden hunger”: Global dimensions of micronnutrient
deficiencies. Food, Nutrition and Agriculture, FAO. 32:8-16. (ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/005/y8346m/
y8346m01.pdf)
Kotecha PV. 2008. Micronutrient malnutrition in India: Let us say "no" to it now. Indian Journal of Community Medicine
33:9-10
Nestel P, Bouis HE, Meenakshi JV and Pfeiffer W. 2006. Biofortification of Staple Food Crops. Journal of Nutrition 136:
1064-1067.
NFHS. 2011. National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3). International Institute of population Sciences, Mumbai, India,
2005-2006; Jan.2011, 96 (1).
NIN. 2002. National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau, NIN, Hyderabad.
Parthasarathy Rao P, Birthal PS, Reddy BVS, Rai KN and Ramesh S. 2006. Diagnostics of Sorghum and Pearl Millet
Grains-based Nutrition in India. International Sorghum and Millets Newsletter 47: 93-96
Pfeiffer WH and McClafferty B. 2007. HarvestPlus: Breeding crops for better nutrition. Crop Science 47: S88–S105.
Reddy BV S, Ramesh S, Longvah T, Elangovan M and Upadhyaya HD. 2006. Prospects of breeding Fe, Zn and b-
carotene-dense sorghums. In: Book of Poster Abstracts, International Plant Breeding Symposium, Mexico City,
20-25 Aug., 2006. p. 75.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 78 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Reddy BVS, Ramesh S and Longvah T. 2005. Prospects of breeding for micronutrients and b-carotene-dense
sorghums. International Sorghum and Millets Newsletter 46: 10-14.
Reddy BVS, Ramesh S, Sanjana Reddy P and Sahrawat K. 2007. Effect of Soil Micronutrient Fertilization on Sorghum
Grain Fe and Zn Contents. Proc. Zinc Crops 2007- Conference on Improving Crop Production and Human Health,
Istanbul, Turkey, 24-26 May 2007
Saltzman A, Birol E, Bouis HE, Boy E, De Moura FF, Islam Y, Pfeiffer WH. 2013. Biofortification: Progress toward a
more nourishing future. Global Food Security 2: 9-17
Sanjana Reddy P, Reddy BVS, Ashok Kumar A, Ramesh S, Sahrawat KL and Rao PV. 2010. Association of grain Fe
and Zn contents with agronomic traits in sorghum. Indian Journal of Plant Genetic Resources 23: 280-284.
Singh P. 2007. Micronutrient deficiency in India. Journal of Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics 61: 128-131.
Talsma EF, Melse-Boonstra A, de Kok BPH, Mbera GNK, Mwangi AM, et al. 2013. Biofortified Cassava with Pro-Vitamin
A Is Sensory and Culturally Acceptable for Consumption by Primary School Children in Kenya. PLoS ONE 8(8):
e73433. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073433.
Talsma EF, Mwangi AM, Mburu-de Wagt A, Brouwer I, Melse A, et al. 2009. Yellow cassava and vitamin A status in
Kenyan school children: proposed investigation design. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 55: 378–378.
Welch RM and Graham RD. 2004. Breeding for micronutrients in staple food crops from a human nutrition perspective.
Journal of Experimental Botany, 55: 353-364.
Welch RM. 2002. The impact of mineral nutrients in food crops on global human health. Plant and Soil 247: 83-90.
Zhao Z. 2008. The Africa biofortified sorghum project–Applying biotechnology to develop nutritionally improved sorghum
for Africa. Pages 273–277 in Biotechnology and sustainable agriculture 2006 and beyond. Proceedings of the 11th
IAPTC&B Congress, Aug 31–18, 2006, Beijing, China (Xu Z, Li J, Xue J and Yang W, eds.). The Netherlands:
Springer.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 79 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

14. Current status of sweet sorghum biofuel industrial

experiences for pilot–production of bioethnol
S.S. Rao*, J.V. Patil, B. Dayakara Rao, C.V. Ratnavathi, AV Umakanth, JS Mishra, and RR Chapke
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Rationale for producing biofuel from sweet sorghum: India’s growing dependence on petroleum
imports and concomitant vulnerability to external price shocks lead to economic setbacks, and trade
imbalance. The Government of India mandate blending of ethanol (10%) with gasoline has
necessitated the searching alternative feedstocks other than sugarcane molasses. The prices of
molasses are highly variable with its inadequate supply and inconsistency over the years led to the
search for alternate feedstock such as sweet sorghum. Sweet sorghum is a multi-purpose crop
grown for food, feed, fodder, and fuel. The stem accumulates sugars up to 10-15% in its stalk as
similar with sugarcane. The ethanol is produced from stem sap, while, the grains are produced on
the top of the plant are used as food. Thus, ethanol production from sweet sorghum does not
compromise food security. Ethanol is produced from sweet sorghum stem juice through
fermentation technology as similar with molasses based process. The crop matures in about 3.5-4.0
months contrary to sugarcane of 12-18 months.. Thus, ethanol production from sweet sorghum does
not compromise food security unlike corn. Ethanol is produced from stalk juice through fermentation
technology as similar with molasses based process.

Agricultural yields: The yields realizable in optimum conditions include fresh stalk yields (35 to 40 t
ha-1), juice brix (16-18%), sucrose (8-11%), and juice yield (12-14 KL ha-1 ).

Industrial yields: The yields realized in various pilot studies include ethanol recovery (6-9% of
juice), unit ethanol yield (35-40 L per one tonne of stalks crushed), and total ethanol yields (1200-
1500 L/ha /one crop cycle, bagasse yield (5-7 t ha-1). Power from bagasse cogeneration process
can be produced to the extent of 3.5 MW ha-1 of crop.

Cultivar option: Currently available crop cultivars are CSH 22SS, SSV84, SSV74, and CSV 19SS,
CVS 24SS (public sector), and Madhura, & SPSSV 11 and SPSSV 30 (private sector).

Economics: The cost of cultivation of sweet sorghum is about Rs15, 000 ha-1 comprising of paid-
out costs with a net income of Rs.16, 250 –25, 000 ha-1 based on yield levels and price (Rs.500-
700/ t) offered by the biofuel industries.

Industries tested sweet sorghum feedstock in pilot-studies in collaboration with DSR: DSR
had organized pilot-studies in collaboration with biofuel distilleries such as M/S Renuka Sugars,
Belgaum; Sagar Sugars, Chittoor AP; Praj Industries, Pune; National Sugar Institute, Kanpur;
Somaiya Organo-chemicals, Sakarwadi; India Glycols Ltd, Khashipur; KCP Sugars, Laxmipuram,
AP; Nav Bharat Ventures, Samalkot, AP; M/S Tata chemicals Ltd, at Nanded, Praj Industries Ltd,
Pune, etc.

Bioethanol (biofuel) from sweet sorghum stalks produced in pilot studies

Juice from stalks of sweet sorghum can be fermented to produce ethanol using the existing crushing
machinery and distillery available at sugar factories complexes. The details of pilot studies
organized are presented below.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 80 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

1. Renuka sugar factory, Belgaum, Karnataka

DSR organized first pilot-study in collaboration with Renuka sugar factory, Belgaum, Karnataka
(during 2001-2003) and the recovery of ethanol obtained was about 40-50 L/ tonne of stalk crushes(
Huligol et al 2003),

2. DSR successfully organized pilot test on sweet sorghum for ethanol production in
collaboration with National Sugar Institute (NSI), Kanpur, 2005 (Image 1).
Subsequently in 2005, second pilot-study was successfully organized in collaboration with National
Sugar Institute (NSI), Kanpur (Min of Food, Government of India). At NSI, 100 TCD experimental
mill was used to produce bioethanol from sweet sorghum juice (syrup). The alcohol yield realized
was about 40L per tonne of stalks crushed (Image 1).

Image 1. Sweet sorghum pilot study: Sweet Sorghum cane being put in the cane carrier and
Prof GK Shukla, Director, NSI , Kanpur and other faculty are overseeing the crushing process
( Shukla et al 2006)

3. NRCS collaborated in organizing the big mill test( BMT) of sweet sorghum at Sagar Sugars
& Allied Products, Nelavoy, Chittoor, AP, 8 -10 Sept 05.( Image 2)
In the BMT of sweet sorghum the 100 tonnes sweet sorghum cane was used comprising both
Cvs.PAC 52093 and SSV 84. The crops were planted during the last week of May 2005 and grew to
a height of over 3.0-3.5m. The detrashed (excluding sheath) cane was fed to the feeder channel
either directly from trucks or from conveyors and the cane was crushed in the fibrizer and passed
through diffuser. Water was added to the juice at the last mill for facilitating higher juice extraction.
Subsequently, the extracted juice was dewatered and sent to clarification tank from where it was
directed to fermentation and subsequent distillation of ethanol.

During this process, juice and bagasse sample were analyzed for quality parameters such as POL%
juice, purity, TRS (%), Juice Brix etc. Initial results given by the process lab shows that sweet
sorghum clarified juice recorded following quality parameters. Juice Brix: 7.64%, POL%: 3.08,
Purity: 40.31%, pH: 8.5, TRS: 5.30% etc. It is estimated about 35-40 Lit of ethanol per one tonne of
sweet sorghum cane. The Management of M/S Sagar Sugars had expressed happiness over
successful conduct of first big mill test and fermentation and distillation process.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 81 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Other personnel who has involved in BMT include R Venugopal, Sr GM (Agri.), Mr Surendran, Asst.
VP, Mr. Pandian, DGM (Cane), Surendra Naidu (DCM), Balasubramanian, AGM (Distl), SN Murthy,
Sr Mngr (Process) etc.(Sagar Sugars, Chittor); Anil Mandke,(Praj Indust., Pune) and, Mr Rama
Krishnaiah, Asst Cane Commi, (Chittor), etc

Image 2. Sweet Sorghum bigmill test organized at Sagar Sugars, Chittoor, AP, October 2006

4. Tata chemicals sweet sorghum based bioethanol plant at Nanded and experience of sweet
sorghum plantation in farmers’ fields at Nanded (Image 3):
Under contract farming, farmers were supplied with 5kg of Phorate granules, 3kg seed, and 1 bag of
Urea (50kg) on credit basis. Majority of the farmers applied phorate in soil along with seed as
prophylactic measure followed by endosulfon spray at about 3-4-leaf sage. The sowing was done
with locally available bullock drawn seed drills wherein the row to row distance was just 30cm only.
Although TCL advised them to followed wider row 45 or 60 cm, this could not be adopted as farmers
followed their traditional practice. Thinning is done in some farmer fields. Because of closer row
planting, the crop lodged in some places especially when crop reached the hard-dough stage. The
crop produced good ear heads.

In general, the pest infestation was less because of plant protection measures taken as required.
However, there were few pests that occurred on sorghum and recorded infestation due to stem
borer (< 10%), aphids (< 5%) and shoot bug (< 3%). The brix content observed from ten farmer
fields varied from 10.5 to 16.5%. Brix at hard-dough (15.5%) was higher than at soft-dough or
flowering (10.5-12.0%). In demonstration fields laid out by TCL R&D, where different grades of TCL
customized fertilizers are under test with sweet sorghum. More aphid population (10-30%) was
noticed where Tata’s customized fertilizers (TCF) were applied. Relatively dark green leaves were
noticed due to application of TCF treatments. In another trial on dates of planting, 4 sweet sorghum
cultivars (CSH 22 SS, SPSSV 11, NTJ2, JK Recova) were planted in combination of three
management practices (recommended, farmers method, need based). The experiments were
planted at 10-day interval and so far 5-dates of sowing were completed (22/07/08 to 26/09/08). As
sowing delayed the more incidence of shoot fly was noticed besides reduction in plant height. CSH
22SS is showing better performance in different sowing dates.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 82 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

The constraints expressed by the TCL officials include whether sweet sorghum can be staggered
beyond middle of July, whether there are any suitable varieties for rabi with high sugar and stalk
yields? Under the buy-back arrangement farmers are paid @ 500/ tone (excluding harvesting and
transporting charges) where TCL bear all harvesting & transportation costs. Alternatively, the TCL is
exploring to use the PKV developed harvester in the coming season which needs modification of
machinery. The farmers which are growing the sweet sorghum are the active members of the Tata
Kisan Sansar (T KS). The plant has capacity to crush the 900 tonnes/day (TCD) and produce 30
KLPD that means it requires the stalks to be harvested from at least 60 acers @ 15t/acre and
supplied daily. The Engineers suggested that the stalk girth of sweet sorghum should be more to
avoid jamming in the rollers. Based on the earlier experiences from previous pilot studies, the sweet
sorghum fermentation process generates almost zero-effluents in the spent wash. The spent wash
is conveniently mixed with press mud to make organic fertilizers.

Even rectified spirit or ENA produced for sweet sorghum is of excellent quality to that of grain
alcohol based with no aldehydes, sulphur, etc. The TCL officials acknowledged the services
rendered by the DSR in arranging the planting materials, production technology, training and other
services.

Image.3. 30 KLPD, 900 TCD; 4 tandem mills -sweet sorghum based plant set by M/s Tata
chemicals Ltd, Nanded, processing of sweet sorghum for bioethanol. Sweet sorghum is
grown over 7000 acres in 2008 and 2009.

5. KCP.SICL, Lakshmipuram(AP)sweet sorghum big-mill test (BMT) experience, 17 April 2007

As per the invitation received from AGM (Cane), DSR scientists visited the KCP Ltd., participated
the BMT test and evaluated the sweet sorghum stalk yield and quality for ethanol production. The
company planned to introduce sweet sorghum as relay or sequence crop after paddy/ turmeric to
suit the availability feedstock after the sugarcane crushing in mid April. The company has grown and
developed the sweet sorghum crop as per the technical advice and seed materials supplied by
NRCS. Three cultivars namely SSV 84, CSV19 SS and Urja (from Praj Ind. Pune) were planted in
one acre (0.407 ha) field (deep Vertisols (≥ 1.0 m deep) belonging to the sugarcane contract farmer
of Kokkiligadda vill. during first week of January 2007.

The crop was raised with supplemental irrigation (one in every 15 days) with adequate fertility. The
days taken to 50 % flowering were 60d in SSV 84, 67 d in CSV 19SS and 72 d in Urja. Quality data
collected at weekly interval from flowering to hard dough stage indicated that Urja has the highest
brix (15.6%) followed by SSV 84(10.30%) and CSV 19SS (7.70%). Similarly, CV Urja recorded
highest POL, Purity, and TRS than others.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 83 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

The crop was harvested manually and brought to the factory on the next day. The detrashing was
partly done (30% only) as the stalks grew very tall and the laborers have difficulty in removing the
leaves with sickle. Leaves were removed manually only as leaf removal with sickle, which is a
common practice in sugarcane, may cause breakage of stem in the middle part for sweet sorghum.
The entire stalk from one acre was fed to the cane carrier after the sugarcane crushing is over. The
crushing and extraction process was similar to sugarcane as there was no problem of jamming of 3
tandem rollers etc. The total stalk yield obtained from one-acre crop (avrg. 3 cultivars) as weighed at
the electronic weighbridge was 14t/ acre (35 t ha-1).

Samples from primary, mixed and last mill juice were collected for quality analysis on TRS, RS, Brix,
CCS ethanol recovery (%) etc. The data from the primary juice revealed that sweet sorghum mixed
sample has the 17-19% of brix, 11-12 % of POL with a purity of 62-64%. The results obtained in the
big mill test on quality parameters are encouraging to upscale this crop for ethanol in the factory
command area late rabi/ early summer situation but under contract farming of sugarcane model.
The company expressed the need for cultivars to realize more stalk yield with superior quality traits.

6. Sweet sorghum pilot plantation at India Glycols, Kashipur, Uttrakhand, 16 Oct 2006
Met Sr. Vice President, adviser Cane & AGM (ETP) and discussed on the potential of utilizing
sweet sorghum feedstock as supplementary to sugarcane in Uttaranchal.The SSV 84 & RSSV 9
sweet sorghum cultivars were planted on 8th May, 8th June and 8th July in the fields close to the
distillery. The Crop grew to height of 2.8-3.3 m height. The crop development was good excepting
some incidence of Anthracnose& Zonate leaf spot especially after flowering. The crops planted on
8th June were better than May and July fist week planted ones. Although the spacing adopted
within the rows was ≤15 cm. It is estimated about 45 t/ha of stalk yield is realized. The brix values
recorded at mid grain filll stage varied from 10-11.5%, while it has increased to 13.5-16.3% at
harvest maturity. In general, the June first week planted crop recorded higher brix than May and
July first week planted crop.

R&D Lab fermentation results for both May and June planted crops indicated that alcohol recovery
was from 3.0-4.3% and 5.13-7.26% in May and June planted crop respectively. The results on
alcohol recovery from sweet sorghum with SSV84 and RSSV 9 were encouraging at India Glycols
Ltd. The company has decided to extend to large pilot study in the next summary, Kharif seasons
in collaboration with NRCS. M/S India Glycols Ltd. proposes to compare competitiveness of
sugarcane Juice with sweet sorghum Juice rather than molasses since it has already a facility
(RAB plant) to utilize sugarcane juice directly to ethanol production. The company already planned
to produce ethanol from cereal grains especially broken rice etc. We suggested to utilize sorghum
grains as feedstock in comparison with Maize or broken rice etc. It has been decided that
company will invite Director, NRCS in New Delhi in the next month for undertaking MOU/possible
collaboration for joint projects under NAIP. Mr RS Sharma of M/S Compro Ltd. Delhi took a brief
15 min. live video coverage of the talks given by Dr N Seetharama Director NRCS, and Cane
Adviser, Dr Jaising Saroj. The matter covered includes both current efforts and potential of sweet
sorghum as a biofuel and biobased products crop in Uttaranchal and future plans.

7. Somaiya Organo chemicals (SOC), Sakarwadi, MS, 10, Oct. 2007 ( Image 4)
The SOC has planted 200 acres of sweet sorghum crop during kharif 2007. The seed materials of
SSV 84 supplied by NRCS were used for large scale planting. The crop condition and growth were
good and it was grown to a height of > 3.0m.The technical guidance of NRCS was followed for
implementing the crop development and management.The company had commissioned a three

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 84 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

mill tandem crushing unit with 240 TCD capacity exclusively for sweet sorghum and this facility
helped the SOC in production of bioethanol in the existing stand alone 90 KLPD disillery.

Image 4. Sweet sorghum mill established at SOC, Sakarwadi, MS

Conclusions: Producing bioethanol from sweet sorghum with appropriate economic, environmental
and social policies will enhance the India’s food & energy security, and environmental sustainability;
besides creating remunerative markets to the farmers. The large-scale crop cultivation is
recommended under contract farming with buy-back arrangement between growers and agro-
industry or entrepreneurs’ as similar to existing sugarcane industry.

Way-forward:
• Pre-feasibility, commercialization and scaling-up of cultivation in collaboration with biofuel
industries, entrepreneurs, farmers, NGOs, etc.
• Develop cultivars producing high stalk yield & biomass per unit time, input, energy and land area
in different agro-ecologies.

References
Huligol RV, Ramakrishna and Govind Misale. 2004. A trial with sweet sorghum. CFC and ICRISAT. 2004. Pages
333−337: In Alternative uses of sorghum and pearl millet in Asia: proceedings of the Expert Meeting,
ICRISAT, Andhra Pradesh, India, 1−4 July 2003. CFC Technical Paper No. 34. P.O. Box 74656, 1070 BR
Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Common Fund for Commodities; and Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh,
India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 364 pp.
Rao, S.S., Patil J.V., Prasad P.V.V., Reddy D.C.S., Mishra J.S., Umakanth A.V., Reddy B.V.S., and. Kumar A.A. 2013.
Sweet sorghum planting effects on stalk yield and sugar quality in semi-arid tropical environment. Agronomy
Journal. 105:1458–1465: Doi:10.2134/agronj2013.0156. (A072-NAAS Rating 7.6).
Hunter EL and Anderson IC .1997. Sweet sorghum. Horticultural Revi. 21:73−104. John Wiley and Sons, NY.
Planning Commission, GOI. 2006. Report on Integrated Energy Policy. Planning Commission, Government of India,
New Delhi dated 09.08.2006. Pp 148.
Rao SS. 2005. Collaboration on sweet sorghum big mill test –NRCS and Sagar Sugars. Jowar Samachar. 1(2): pp 2.
Rao, S.S., Patil J.V., Prasad P.V.V., Reddy D.C.S., Mishra J.S., Umakanth A.V., Reddy B.V.S., and. Kumar A.A. 2013.
Sweet sorghum planting effects on stalk yield and sugar quality in semi-arid tropical environment. Agronomy
Journal. 105:1458–1465: Doi:10.2134/agronj2013.0156. (A072-NAAS Rating 7.6).
Shukla GK, Gupta SK, Singh Lakhendra, Rao SS, Ratnavathi CV and Dayakar Rao B. 2006. Successful pilot production
of bio-ethanol from sweet sorghum in sub-tropical north India. Jowar Samachar. 2(1):1.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 85 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

15. Nutritional benefits of sorghum with special emphasis

on value addition
M.P.Rajendra Prasad
Scientist E, National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad.

Introduction
Sorghum is one of the most drought tolerant cereal crops currently under cultivation. It offers
farmers the ability to reduce costs on irrigation and other on-farm expenses. Sorghum when
regularly consumed offers us adequate fibre which is lacking in refined and polished cereals and
many other millets. On an average around 28 g of fibre has to be taken per day from all sources by
an adult. Most of the below mentioned benefits of sorghum are due to the fibre. Another striking
feature is the absence of gluten (an amino acid) in sorghum as it can safely be consumed in celiac
disease.

Sorghum on primary and secondary processing, the value addition can be brought about. By adding
other foods in required quantities we can prepare other finished foods such as noodles, vermicelli,
pasta etc.

Sorghum or Jowar can be used to prepare delicious recipes from the flour or rava in combination of
other ingredients. In this way most traditional recipes can be prepared economically
These prepared foods were subjected to sensory evaluation on a 5 point scale for different
properties like the appearance, color, shape, size, texture and taste by a panel of judges. Total
score of points for different properties were averaged to assess the overall acceptability of the food
product.

Health Benefits Associated with Consumption of Sorghum

Sorghum matches in composition as well as the nutritive value of many other cereals and grain
products. There are some additional substances naturally found in sorghum which have proven to
be associated with many health related benefits. Health benefits associated with consumption of
Sorghum in various disease conditions is discussed as below.

Sorghum and Diabetes

Diabetes is a disease condition that presents with abnormally high levels of glucose and inability of
the body to breakdown it for energy purposes. As a result of these high levels of glucose tend to
accumulate leading to damage in organs. There are many causes related with the disease
occurrence. Diets and consumption of certain food substances also play an important role in
disease process. Foods like refined or processed rice, removal of bran from wheat flour, intake of
highly refined wheat flour like ‘maida’ typically consumed in western diets making more prone for
non-communicable diseases like diabetes. Sorghum is a coarse grain containing abundant amount
of complex substances. These complex substances include a type of long chain sugars known as
starch. Resistant nature of this type of starch delays the absorption leading to slow rise of glucose in
the blood. This is in contrast to the highly refined foods consisting of less starch which are readily
absorbable causing rise in blood glucose levels. Sudden increase of glucose increases the release
of insulin in to the blood. Insulin is a naturally secreted hormone in response to high levels of
glucose which leads to increased uptake and breakdown of glucose in the cells. These rapid
changes in insulin levels can lead to insulin resistance and diabetes.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 86 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Studies conducted on supplementation of sorghum foods in human subjects are few and limited to
show any related benefits in diabetic subjects. A study is being conducted at National Institute of
Nutrition, Hyderabad with supplementation of sorghum rotis over two months in diabetic subjects.
Of the 150 Diabetics who participated, 121 completed the trial. Results have been encouraging
showing a better control of blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin. Glycosylated hemoglobin is
the most specific form to assess control of blood glucose over a longer period.

Glycemic Index of Sorghum: GI of a food denotes the amount of glucose rise in the blood when
50 g of available carbohydrate from a particular food is consumed vis.a.vis a reference food such as
white bread or glucose, given at the same level. It is measured for the first 2 hours after partaking a
food on empty stomach. GI essentially takes into account only carbohydrates. The purpose is to
approximately understand how much a food delivers glucose and is useful in planning diet for
diabetes and obesity. A few sorghum foods with corresponding reference food is shown below.

When GI is multiplied with the usual portion size it give the Glycemic Load which is more
appropriate in arriving at an individual’s blood glucose rise when that particular food is consumed in
the usual quantity.GL varies from country to country and within the country from region to region.

Glycemic Index of Test Foods and corresponding reference food.

Test Foods Sorghum Wheat ‘t’ Value

Multigrain roti 68+12.02 64 +9.24 0.83NS
Coarse rawa upma 53 +2.84 58 +6.85 2.16*
Fine rawa upma 56 +9.83 67 +10.8 2.31*
Flakes Poha + 45+6.30 74 +11.4 6.96**
Pasta 46 +5.27 72+ 4.89 10.74**
Biscuits 54+ 6.47 57 +6.51 1.024 NS
+ compared with rice flakes
Sorghum and Obesity
Obesity is termed as a condition in which excess amount of fat deposits are present in the reserve
stores of the body leading to complications such as diabetes, coronary heart disease etc. Increased
amount of fat deposits in arteries supplying various organs and “a condition called as
atherosclerosis” occurs. Involvement of arteries of vital organs like heart and brain can lead to clot
formation decreasing the blood supply to them. These types of patients do often have increased
appetite and less satiety feeling at the end of a meal. This in turn leads to overeating.
Supplementation of foods with sorghum varieties could be helpful in these patients. Sorghum
contains increased amount of fiber as compared to other grains. Fiber helps to curb food intake by a
sense of stomach fullness thus leading to an increased satiety feeling which in turn leads to
decreased food intakes.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 87 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Presence of resistant starch in sorghum impairs its digestibility, notably for infants . This resistance
is desired in other applications to fight human obesity and to feed diabetic people. Edible products
incorporating slowly digestible starch are known to exhibit a low glycemic index. Moreover sorghum
increases satiety. This is desirable in diabetes and in obesity conditions.

Sorghum in Cancer Prevention

Studies on sorghum consumption have shown to reduce risk of certain type of cancers in humans
as compared to other cereals in certain organs like rectum, breast and ovary. The role of sorghum in
prevention of these cancers may be related by neutralizing the toxic substances which initiate
changes in cells and hence called as antioxidant effect. Tiny parts of sorghum do have high
antioxidant activity as observed in laboratory findings as compared to other cereals and fruits, thus
offering similar health benefits commonly associated with fruits.

Sorghum and Gastro-intestinal Tract Disorders

Diverticular disease is a condition in which small or large round shaped swelling arise leading to
obstruction of the gut. This manifests in the form of constipation. One of the reasons associated with
this condition is with decreased consumption of less fibre foods. Sorghum has higher levels of fibre
which helps for smooth passage of feces thus preventing diverticular disease and erosions in the
tract. These conditions are found to be rare in habitual consumers of sorghum and more frequent in
refined cereal consumers. Gluten enteropathy or celiac disease is another condition in which
patients are sensitive to consumption of a protein called gluten present in outer layer of wheat. Thus
they are allergic to wheat and loose vital nutrients in feces. Sorghum is free of gluten thus its
consumption is beneficial in these patients.

Sorghum and hypercholesterolemia:

The grain sorghum has waxes containing policosanols. These have been shown in animal studies to
inhibit endogenous cholesterol synthesis. The grain sorghum lipids significantly reduce plasma non-
HDL cholesterol concentrations in a dose dependant manner in laboratory animals. This effect may
be due to plant sterols. It is now thought that these components of GSL extract may work
collectively in lowering plasma and liver cholesterol concentrations. It is further indicated that grain
sorghum contains beneficial components that could be used as food ingredients or dietary
supplements to manage cholesterol levels in humans.

Precaution: Sorghum causes aberrations in protein metabolism. This may lead to a condition called
pellagra if sorghum is consumed for long periods without proper correction for aminoacid
imbalances. A combination of aminoacids from different pulse/ cereal food intermittently is advisable
to avoid pellagra.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 88 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

16. High yielding sorghum cultivars for kharif

Aruna C.
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Sorghum with its ability to survive in water limiting conditions provides an option for marginal farmers
and fits very well in a sustainable agricultural model. It is a major dry land cereal grown as a dual
purpose crop for food, feed and fodder over million hectares, primarily in Maharashtra, Karnataka,
M.P., A.P., Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, U.P. and Gujarat. Sorghum research in the country can be
illustrated as a glaring example which has significantly contributed towards the green revolution in
drier areas. Sorghum has originated in East Africa with its secondary centre of origin in India. Due to
its wide range of adaptation in tropical and temperate climates and free gene exchange among
various races, sorghum is endowed with wide range of variability.

Efforts have been made to improve the sorghum cultivars in India since 1930s. Most of the varieties
till 1960s were the result of pure line selection practiced in local land races. The locals were tall,
photosensitive, late maturing, flowering after the rainfall seized, and characterized by localized
adoption and low harvest index. However, hybridization among the local cultivars reflected about 5%
yield improvement at experimental level which could not make any impact on production till the
1960s. The hybridization and selection up to a limited extent among improved land races could not
bring genetic improvement to a perceptible level but basic traits for local adaptation were preserved.
Notable among the varieties developed during this period and cultivated till recently are the Co
series in Tamil Nadu, The Nandyal (NT), Guntur (G) and Anakapalle series of A.P., the PJ kharif and
rabi selections, Saonar, Ramkel, Aispuri, the Maldandi and Dagadi selections of Maharashtra,
Bilichigan, Fulgar white, Fulgar yellow, Kanvi, Nandhyal, Hagari, Yanigar varieties of Karnataka,
Budh Perio (BP 53), Sundhia and Chasatio of Gujarath, selections of Gwalior and Indore from M.P.,
RS selections of Rajasthan. Since most of these locals are tall, photosensitive and late maturing
with low yields, production of relatively short duration photoperiod insensitive sorghums had become
the primary objective of almost all the sorghum improvement programmes. In rainy season genetic
improvement of varieties was achieved during 60’s by production of relatively short duration
photoperiod-insensitive sorghums with short height by manipulating the gene for height and maturity
by introducing American germplasm and adopting temperate x temperate and temperate x tropical
crosses. The major genotypic changes brought about during the 1960s triggered cultivar-input-
management interaction and resulted in quantum jumps in productivity imparting stability to
production. This resulted in quantum jump in the productivity from 560 kg/ha in 1970 to 1000kg/ha in
2000.

In 1962, ICAR launched the “Accelerated Hybrid Sorghum Project” with an objective to initiate the
hybrid breeding in sorghum. Through the efforts of Rockefellar Foundation, a wide range of
germplasm was made available in India which involved male steriles, several converted lines and
tropical varieties collected from Indian sub continent and several African countries. During the next
four decades, remarkable progress has been achieved by diversifying the parental lines for yield,
maturity, height, disease and insect tolerance and quality by utilizing indigenous and exotic
germplasm. The early efforts made to identify heterotic combinations among male sterile and
converted dwarf lines, resulted in the development of the hybrids, CSH 1, CSH 2 and CSH 3. CSH
1, an early duration and dwarf hybrid was released in 1964 for all India cultivation. This hybrid
became most popular with the farmers as it had high yield potential, suited to light soils and low
rainfall areas. Subsequently, CSH 2 in 1965 and CSH 3 in 1970 were released. Inspite of their better

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 89 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

yield potential and suitability of growing in both kharif and rabi seasons, these hybrids could not
become popular because of the seed production problem in both these hybrids due to their common
male parent IS 3691 being shorter than respective male sterile lines.

The use of dwarfing, earliness and photo insensitivity traits was helpful to realize higher grain yield
in these hybrids which ultimately proved to be a disadvantage for fodder production. Further genetic
improvement was thus oriented to rectify the problems through genetic enhancement and use of
improved derivatives. As new male steriles and dwarf derivatives became available, further hybrid
breeding was based on these genetically enhanced indigenously bred parental lines. Efforts were
augmented to develop new dual purpose hybrids. During the decade, 1970-79, three hybrids CSH 4,
CSH 5 and CSH 6 were released. Though CSH 4 had better fodder yields than CSH 1, due to
shorter duration grain deterioration remained to be the major impediment for the spread of this
hybrid. The real breakthrough in grain yield and apparent quality was made by developing hybrids
like CSH 5 in 1975 and CSH 6 in 1976 based on new male sterile lines 2077B and 2219B
respectively and new restorer CS 3541. These hybrids showed less grain deterioration and good
quality of seed along with remarkable improvement in yield (Table 1). CSH 6 due to its short
duration of 100 days became popular for intercropping with other pulse crops. Further increase in
yield levels were achieved by the development of superior male sterile line 296 B. 296 B being a
very good combiner when combined with CS 3541, (restorer of CSH 5 and CSH 6) resulted in
development of a superior hybrid CSH 9. During 1980-89, the hybrids CSH 9, CSH 10 and CSH 11
were released. CSH 9, a medium duration hybrid yields about 39 q/ha. This hybrid is widely adopted
and is extensively grown. Later two hybrids, CSH 10 and CSH 11 based on the same male sterile
line, 296 B were released. CSH 10, a tall hybrid though produces 30-40% more fodder than CSH 9
could not be promoted due to seed production limitation. CSH 11, another hybrid of CSH 9 range,
has marginal advantage in grain yield productivity. Due to smaller seed size, this hybrid is not
popular among farmers. Among medium maturity hybrids of 110-115 days, CSH 5 and CSH 9 are
most popular, with an average of 35 and 38 q/ha grain yield respectively and a matching fodder
yield of 95-100q/ha.

In the subsequent decade (1990-99) most of the hybrids tested in AICSIP trials were based on 296
B with different restorers but could not make any remarkable dent for grain yield except for the
hybrid CSH 13. Though the grain yield levels of this hybrid are marginally improved, the fodder
yields are 40% higher than that of CSH 9. It is an ideal dual purpose hybrid and is recommended for
both grain sorghum and fodder sorghum growing areas of the country. Another hybrid CSH 14
based on male sterile line AKMS 14A is an early duration hybrid with a maturity comparable to CSH
1 and has yield on par with CSH 9. It provides a better choice for the areas of CSH 1 adaptation,
light soil and deficient rainfall areas. The hybrid is popular with farmers of Karnataka and
Maharashtra.

The introduction of the rainy season sorghum hybrids like CSH 1, CSH 5 and CSH 9 brought a
remarkable increase in the sorghum production in India. After the release of the hybrid CSH 9 in
1981, the yield level of experimental hybrids has not advanced over this hybrid to any significant
level and thus yield plateau is reached. However, useful diversification for early maturity and higher
fodder yield has been achieved with the release of CSH 14 and CSH 13 respectively. Seed growers
are facing problem in seed production of the hybrids particularly based on 296 A due to low
temperature at flowering time in major seed production areas in Andhra Pradesh during October-
November sowings. The need for diversification of female parent of hybrids was felt in view of above
seed production problems and stagnating yield levels. As a result of intensive breeding programme
to develop improved male sterile line and restorer a productive medium maturing hybrid CSH 16

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 90 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

was developed. It is based on a new male sterile line 27 A and a new restorer C 43. CSH 16 yields
about 42 q/ha of grain yield and 97 q/ha of fodder yield. The hybrid has bold seed and is preferred
by the farmers. It has better level of tolerance to grain moulds and downy mildew and its fodder
quality is good. This was found to be good for ethanol production.

Another early maturing hybrid CSH 17 based on the male sterile line AKMS 14 A has been released
for the states of TamilNadu, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. It yields about 40q/ha of grain
and 90q/ha of fodder. Another medium maturing hybrid CSH 18 developed at Indore centre yields
about 41 q/ha of grain and 130 q/ha of fodder. The grain and fodder quality of this hybrid are
superior. The parent of this hybrid IMS 9A is based on a local variety Vidisha. This local not only
contributes to high stover yield but also for improved grain quality.

CSH 23 is another early maturing hybrid released in 2005 for the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka,
AP, MP, Gujarath, Rajasthan and UP. It takes 101-103 days to mature and yields about 43 q/ha of
grain. One more medium maturing hybrid, CSH 25 was released for zone II in 2008. It is developed
from the parents PMS 28A and C 43. It yields 43 q/ha of grain and 120 q/ha of fodder and was
found to have good tolerance to shoot fly and grain moulds.

Another medium maturing hybrid, CSH 27 was released recently in 2012 for zone I involving the
states of Rajasthan, N.Gujarat, UP, AP and Tamilnadu. It is a dual purpose hybrid with 39 q/ha of
grain and 136 q/ha of fodder yield. It is developed based on the parents 279A x CB 11. It has better
level of tolerance to grain moulds. The latest hybrid which has been recommended for release in
zone II comprising of the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and MP, South Gujarat, North AP. CSH
30 is an early maturing hybrid with good level of tolerance to grain moulds.

The varietal improvement programme has also been taken up simultaneously and till date CSV 1 to
CSV 27 were released through AICSIP. However, popular recent kharif varieties are SPV 462, CSV
15, CSV 20, CSV 23 and CSV 27.

In the first phase of varietal improvement, besides release of swarna (CSV 1), a pure line selection
from IS 3924 in 1968, six more varieties derived from temperate x tropical crosses were released.
CSV 1, CSV 2 and CSV 3 are early maturing (100-105 days) tend to yield 138-207% higher than
local. CSV 4 and CSV 5 are relatively dwarf varieties maturing in 110-115 days and combine good
grain quality and resistance to grain deterioration even when caught in rains. CSV 6 is a relatively
tall variety. The sources of resistance to grain mould and leaf diseases were located in zera-zera
germplasm from Ethiopia, mechanism of resistance studied and resistance was consciously
transferred in high yielding back ground. The resistance to these diseases was located in CS 3541
which is a dwarf derivative of IS 3541, a zera-zera from Ethiopia. Tan plant pigment conferring
resistance to most of leaf diseases was discovered and it was augment in various breeding
programmes of temperate x tropical crosses. Improved temperate and tropical germplasm from
Ehiopia in various breeding programmes enabled to evolve many improved varieties eg. CSV 10,
CSV 11, SPV 462, CSV 13, CSV15 etc. By now all the breeding programmes incorporated tan plant
pigment in their kharif nurseries.

The high yielding kharif variety, CSV 15 was developed from SPV 462 and CSV 13. It is a dual
purpose variety with grain yield as high as the hybrid CSH 5 and fodder yield equal to that of CSH
10. It yields about 36q/ha of grain yield and 121 q/ha of dry fodder yield. An early maturing variety,
CSV 17 was released which was most suitable for low rainfall areas. Another variety, CSV 20 was
released with grain and fodder yields of 31q/ha and 133 q/ha respectively. The latest dual purpose

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 91 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

varieties, CSV 23 and CSV 27 have high yield potentials of 22 and 28q/ha of grain and 155 and
193q/ha of fodder yields respectively.

In kharif yield stagnation and the grain quality are the major problems that needs research attention.
To break the yield plateau it is important to utilize the unutilised germplasm from the world collection
and bring about the useful genetic diversity in the material. Breeding for grain mould resistance is a
high priority area so that the market profitability and food value can be enhanced. Evolving grain
mould resistant male steriles is the immediate requirement to strengthen the resistance in present
day hybrids. Another problem during kharif is shootfly. It is not infrequent to experience aberrant
rainfall where onset of monsoon gets delayed. This builds up unsurmountable pressure of shoot fly
causing economic losses in late plantings. Therefore, in order to stabilize the sorghum production,
incorporation of grain mould and shoot fly resistance in times to come would provide an insurance
against the crop losses.

Table 1: List of popular sorghum varieties and hybrids

Varieties/ Grain Dry- Plant Maturity Salient features

Hybrids Yield Fodder height (Duration)
(q/ha) Yield (cm) (days)
(q/ha)
Varieties
SPV 462 (CO 33 97 208 110-115 Tall, dual purpose, bold round attractive seed, sweet stalk,
26/ DSV 2) tolerant to insect pests, grain deterioration and several leaf
diseases.
CSV 13 35 97 181 110-114 Medium tall, medium bold seed semi-compact head, thin stem,
(SPV 475) tolerant to insect pests, grain deterioration and several
diseases.
CSV 15 36 121 232 107-112 Tall, Dual purpose, medium bold round seed, glume small &
(SPV 946) straw colour, large ear head, oblong shape, semi compact.
Resistant to all leaf spot diseases.
CSV 17 25 68 150 97 Early maturing, tan plant type with dark green leaves, white dull
midrib colour, well exerted, cylindrical, semi compact panicle,
creamy seed colour, free threshing, moderately resistant to
shoot fly and stem borer.
CSV 20 (SPV 31 133 240 109 Tall, semi-compact panicle with dense clustering of grain in
1616) panicle branches, panicle shape oblong and pearly white bold
seed, for All India cultivation.
CSV 23 (SPV 22 155 215 115 dual-purpose variety, Normal rainfall sorghum growing regions
1714) of the nation The variety was found to be tolerant for shoot fly
and stem borer
CSV 27 (SPV 28 193 235 115 Tall, Dual purpose variety, yellow green colour midrib, Well
1870) exerted semi-compact panicle, Greyed yellow seed, resistance
to grain moulds, Non-lodging, non-shattering,
Hybrids
CSH 5 34 93 174 110-115 Medium tall, thick juicy stem, medium bold seed, large long
head, resistant to grain deterioration and leaf spot diseases.
CSH 6 34 81 161 95-100 Early maturing, thin stem, medium bold and hard seed resistant
to grain deterioration, tolerant to leaf spots and other diseases.
CSH 9 39 98 182 110-115 Medium tall, thick juicy stem, vigorous growth, bold round seed,
large semi compact head, tolerant to insect pests and
diseases.
CSH 10 36 120 233 105-110 Tall, dual purpose, vigorous plant, bold seed, tolerant to insect
pests and diseases.
CSH 11 41 92 194 105-110 Medium tall, loose and large panicle, small seed, thick stem
tolerant to insect and leaf spot diseases, some lodging under

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 92 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Varieties/ Grain Dry- Plant Maturity Salient features

Hybrids Yield Fodder height (Duration)
(q/ha) Yield (cm) (days)
(q/ha)
severe drought.
CSH 13 39 144 261 110-115 Tan, Tall, dual purpose, panicle broad, semi loose, spindle
shape, seed round medium bold, light creamy in colour and
free threshing. Tolerant to grain moulds and leaf diseases
CSH 14 38 88 181 102 Medium tall, semi loose panicle, bold seed, tolerant to grain
mould and leaf spots.
CSH 16 42 95 210 110 Medium tall, long loose panicle with open apex, bold seed,
highly tolerant to grain moulds and resistant to leaf diseases.
CSH 17 41 90 185 103 Tall, early maturing, panicle semi loose, white round seed,
tolerant to shoot fly and stem borer.
CSH 18 41 131 212 112 Tall, midrib dull green, thick and juicy stem, white medium bold
seed, medium maturity, resistant to grain moulds.
CSH 23 41 87 178 96-101 Tall (180cm), dull green midrib, medium bold, white seed. Early
maturity (103 days) avoid terminal drought.For Zones – I &
II:Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP, MP, Gujarat, Rajasthan, UP
CSH 25 43 128 205 110 Kharif hybrid- Rainfed kharif sorghum areas under normal time
of sowing especially for Maharashtra and Karnataka and
central zone II areas.
Tan, tall, white midrib, semi-compact ear- head, pearly white
seed, medium almond shape, tolerant to grain-mold and shoot
fly.
CSH 27 39 136 200 106 Tan, cylindrical semi compact earhead, white bold elliptical
seed, medium maturity, tolerant to grainmold and resistant to
lodging. Recommended for rain fed kharif cultivation in
Rajasthan, N.Gujarat, UP, AP and TN.
CSH 30 44 141 216 105 Tan plant color with symmetric semi compact panicle and white
bold elliptical seed. It is early maturing with tolerance to grain
moulds. Recommended for rainfed kharif cultivation in
Maharashtra, Karnataka, MP, South Gujarat, North AP
SPV 462 is released as CO 26 in Tamil Nadu and as DSV 2 in Karnataka.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 93 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

17. Seed production in sorghum & IPRs

Vilas Tonapi
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench.) is grown world wide for food, feed , fodder, fuel, and industrial
products. In India sorghum is the most important cereal for poor people in semi arid zones where
sorghum hybrids were developed from temperate x tropical crosses by manipulating height and maturity
genes; and the critical stages of growth, viz, seedling, flowering and grain filling coinciding with periods of
assured rainfall. This resulted in quantum jump in productivity from 570kg / ha in 1970 to 1000kg / ha in
recent times. Seed is the key input in modern agriculture as the quality of seed determines the quantum
out put of a crop. The high quality seed in terms of high genetic and physical purity, healthiness, high
germination, vigor and viability assures the potential of crop production under suitable and favorable agro
climatic conditions. The seed quality with all its ramifications must be cardinal virtue of a strong seed
production program. The quality of the certified seed class of a hybrid or variety depends on the
maintenance of genetic purity, physical purity, seed health, vigor, and viability potential during total seed
production chain. The seed technological principles those govern the quality seed production in sorghum
are detailed in the following sections.

Plant morphology
Sorghum plant has a single solid erect stem supported by a strong adventitious root system (Figure 1).
Sorghum can tiller, but tillering capacity is dependent on the cultivar and environmental conditions,
especially tillering is profuse at low temperature. The cylinder of stem with the clasping sheath is called as
culm. The culm thickness at the base may vary from 0.5 to 5.0 cm in diameter with 0.5 to 4.0 m long in
height, exhibiting series of nodes and internodes. Leaves are arranged alternately on the stem, usually in
two ranks. Each leaf originates from a node and has a sheath and blade or lamina.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 94 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Sorghum plant morphology

Spikelets of sorghum. A: Pair of spikelets; B: Fertile spikelet

Anthesis: The flowering in sorghum inflorescence resumes from the top and continues successively
downwards for several days. Lodicules swell and create the pressure on the glumes to open the flower.
Usually, the stigmas and anthers emerge at the same time. However, it varies from variety to variety.
There are varieties where anthers emerge first followed by stigmas. The flowering starts sometimes starts
on the vary day of complete panicle exscertion or may start after three to four days after emergence of
panicle emerges from the boot leaf (Schertz and Dalton, 1980). Flowering continues downwards and the
the flowers open in a horizontal plane across the panicle at the same time. Generally, flowering in a
panicle is completed in seven to eight days depending on the size of panicle, ambient temperature and
humidity at flowering and the genotype. Cooler and humid climate usually extend the flowering period.
Thje pedicellate spikelets flower two to four days after the sessile spikelet on the same branches and it
helps in completing the pollination in all remaining flowers. The blooming occurs at early in the morning.
In India, particularly in Southern part, blooming begins at about midnight 2 am and continues until 8am
(Doggett, 1988).

Anthesis and pollination

The floral initiation (Primordial formation) starts at 30 to 40
days after germination (but may range from 19 to 70 days or
more) Floral initiation marks the end of the vegetative growth
and the meristematic activity. Sorghum usually flowers in 55
to 70 days in warm climates, but it could be as early as 30
days or as late as 100 days or more. The flowering (anthesis)
in a panicle starts from the top and it travels successively to
lower whorls. Flowering is completed over a period of 4 to 5
days (6-8 days under cooler conditions).

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 95 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Floral (Primordial) initiation

Sorghum Seed Multiplication Chain
In India, the seed multiplication is in four stage generation system viz., Nucleus seed, b) Breeder seed, c)
Foundation seed, d) Certified seed. The seed certification under law is voluntary. Apart from certified
Seed, the seed is also sold as truthfully labeled seed (TLC). However the certified seed has the
advantages like high genetic and physical purity, freedom from disease and pest, high germination and
seedling vigor. The seed of different classes can be produced based on the forecasting the demand of
annual certified seed requirement based on multiplication ratio, replacement rate and additional seed
requirement. The area to be planted and target seed of each class is calculated by multiplying area and
quantity with a factor X 200 (Table 1).

Table 1: Estimation of seed targets (t) and area requirement (ha) for different classes of seed
multiplication.
Breeder seed Foundation seed Certified seed Grain
Area (ha) 0.5 ha = 100 ha = 20,000 ha = 4 m ha
Quantity (t) 1t 200 t 40,000 t

Seed class
The commercial end-products in sorghum are varieties and hybrids. Once the decision is taken to release
a cultivar with specific characteristics and the variety or hybrid is identified with a name, sorghum breeders
make a limited increase of seed of new varieties and hybrid parents. Seed multiplication of any class
depends upon the actual requirements and the buffer stock. In sorghum, seed is therefore multiplied in
four stages (nucleus, breeder, foundation and certified), called seed classes. The linkage between seed
class is given in Fig. 2.

Fig 2. Linkages between seed classes

A. Nucleus seed
It is the first stage in the chain of seed multiplication of a released variety or hybrid parents. This
fundamental stock of seed obtained from the selected individual plants of parental lines of a hybrid (A, B,
R line) or an open - pollinated variety is the only seed that can be used to produce its own seed class.
Nucleus seed should be of the highest genetic purity and the responsibility of it lies with the originating
breeder.

B. Breeder seed
Breeder seed of a released OPV or hybrid parents is produced by or under the direct control of the
sponsoring plant breeder. This class of seed is the base of the first and recurring increase of foundation

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 96 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

seed and required to be inspected by a monitoring team consisting of a breeder , seed certification officer,
representatives of National Seed Corporation (NSC) and State Seed Corporation (SSC).

Minimum 400m Grow large number of

isolation plants Step I

Self about 500 - 1000 plants those confirm with

Laboratory
distinguishable traits of a parental line / variety. Finally
evaluation
select 200 plants based on field and lab screening.

Keep remnant
Progeny evaluation: Grow individual plant seed in ear
seeds of each Step II
to row plot
progeny after
sowing

Discard the progenies

Identify about 50% progenies confirming
showing even
slightest deviation to varietal traits

Remnant seeds of step Grow nucleus seed nursery in

II of selected progenies isolation and bulk the seed of all
be bulked and used plants after the harvest

Nucleus Seed
Stock

Breeder Seed
Production

Figure 1: Scheme of nucleus seed production in sorghum

C. Foundation seed
Foundation seeds of a released open-pollinated variety or hybrid parents are produced from breeder’s
seed, the production of which is carefully supervised or approved by the breeder and seed certification
agency at the experimental station or recognized seed farms. It is a source for certified seed class and
should satisfy the minimum seed certification standards.

D. Certified seed
Certified seed of a released open-pollinated variety or hybrid is produced by registered seed producers,
duly certified by seed certification agency and produced on a large scale for general farm scale.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 97 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Fig. 3 NUCLEUS SEED PRODUCTION OF OPEN-POLLINATED VARIETY

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 98 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Fig. 4 NUCLEUS SEED PRODUCTION OF MAINTAINER (B) LINE & MS (A) LINE

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 99 of 123

 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

2. Hybrids:
Certified seed of OPV and hybrid is produced in sorghum. The stipulated isolation distance for certified
seed production, both for hybrids and OPVs is 200 -400m. The pattern of planting and production of OPVs
is the same as for the breeder and foundation seed production (Fig. 2). Production must be acceptable to
seed certifying agency and fulfill all requirements of certification.

Certified seed is generally arranged through contract growers. Some private seed companies also
undertake certified seed production programmes.

The certified seed of a hybrid is produced by growing male sterile line with a specified restorers line in an
isolated field (Fig.5 & 6).

Synchronisation of A and R line is crucial for certified hybrid seed production. This can be mainpulated by
(1) differential dates of sowing (2) manipulating of water and fertilizer to one of the hybrid parents and (3)
removal of extra early tillers in A or R line to synchronise the ability of pollen shedding and stigma
receptivity.

Off-type plants in R line and pollen shedders in A line should be roughed out carefully to maintain genetic
purity. A satisfactory certified seed production can be achieved if seed village concept is followed.

--------- Restorer line (R line) Male sterile line (A line)

Fig. 5 Showing pattern for certified hybrid seed production in pearl millet

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 100 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Fig. 6 Scheme for sorghum hybrid seed production in an isolated field

Table 2. Isolation standards for the production of different classes of sorghum seed.
Contaminants Minimum distance (m)
Foundation seed Certified seed
Fields of other varieties 400 200
Fields of same variety but not confirming to purity 400 200
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) 400 400
Forage sorghum with high tillering and grassy panicle 400 400
Note: Different flowering dates for modifying isolation distances are not permitted.

Table 3: Specific certification standards for different classes of sorghum seed production
Factor Maximum Permitted (%)
Foundation seed Certified seed
Off-types (earheads) at any one inspection at and after flowering. 0.05 0.10
*Earheads infected by kernal smut and grain smut and head smut at 0.05 0.10
final inspection.

• Seed fields can however be certified if diseased earheads are removed and burnt and the fields show on re-inspection, infection not
more than maximum permissible level. Only one such re-inspection is permitted.
Note: Seed fields should be thoroughly rouged to remove plants infected by sugary disease (Sphacelia sorghi) / Ergot (Claviceps spp), so
that the prescribed standards are must at seed stage. However the seed fields shall not be rejected on account of presence of sugary / ergot
infected earheads.

Table 4: Specific seed standards for different classes of sorghum seed.

Factor Standards for each class
Foundation seed Certified seed
Pure seed (minimum) 98.0% 98.0%
Inert matter(maximum) 2.0% 2.0%

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 101 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Factor Standards for each class

Foundation seed Certified seed
Other crop seeds (maximum) 5 /Kg 10/ Kg
Weed seeds (maximum) 5/ Kg 10 /Kg
Other distinguishable varieties (maximum) 10/ Kg 20/ Kg
Ergot , Sclerotia, seed entirely or partially modified as Scelerotia, broken 0.020% 0.040%
Sclerotia, or ergotted seed (Sphecelia sorghi-Mc Rae, & Claviceps spp) (by no.) (by no.)
(maximum)
Germination (minimum) 75% 75%
Moisture (maximum) 12.0% 12.0%
For vapour proof containers (maximum) 8.0% 8.0%

b) Seed Drying: Seeds contain varying amounts of moisture at harvest, and if they are to be stored for
subsequent planting it is essential that their moisture content is reduced to a safe level. High moisture in
seeds reduces seed viability and causes mechanical damage during processing. In addition to this, high
moisture in seeds provides favorable atmosphere for pest and disease attack in storage. Sorghum seeds
should be dried to the moisture content of 9% to avoid the breeding and multiplication of insect population
in storage.

c) Seed Cleaning and grading: The sieve aperture sizes of top and bottom screens of air screen cleaner
differ with genotypes. Generally the top screen may be around 12/64” or 4.75mm with round holes and
the bottom screen at 9/64”or 3.5mm with round holes. The specific gravity separator helps in upgrading
the quality of seeds by rejecting the seed that is inferior in specific gravity.

d.) Seed Treatment: Seed treatment also provides protection against storage pests (rice weevil) and shoot
fly. The fungicides like Thiram or captan @ 3g/kg and insecticides like Malathion dust (5%) (premium
grade) @ 0.6g per kg seed are recommended for sorghum seed treatment. Thiram (75 WDP)g in 0.5 lt
water can be used to slurry treat the sorghum seeds in the processing chain.

e) Seed Packing: Processed seed can be packed in cloth bags or poly lined bags @ 3 – 4kg / bag ,
sewed with proper label of particular seed class and can be sealed with lead seal.

Seed storage management

a) Storage under controlled environment: The genetic damage will not show up in the crop grown from
that seed in the first generation, but will begin to segregate in the subsequent generations. Therefore, it is
very important to store breeder seed and germplasm material carefully so that the loss of viability and
genetic damage is minimized. As soon as seed germination falls by 20-30% from the initial seed
germination of 90-95%, the seed should be regenerated. Such seeds should be stored under controlled
conditions at a particular temperature and relative humidity regime (Table 5).

Table 5: Suggested conditions for storing breeder seed and germplasm.

S.No. Duration of storage (years) Temperature (° C) Relative humidity (%)
1 5-7 15 - 20 45 - 50
2 20-25 2–4 40 – 45
3 50 or more -10 40 - 45

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 102 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Design: A design includes features of shape, configuration, pattern, ornament or composition of lines and
colours applied to article in two or three-dimensional form by any industrial process. The process can be
manual, chemical, mechanical or combination of all. The grant is for 10 years initially and non-renewal
leads to it becoming public property. The Indian Design Act, 2000 with its subsidiary legislation is in force
in compliance with TRIPs provisions. (IDA, 2000). For agriculture sector, forms of designs of textiles
patterns, ornaments, embossments that are new, original, and industrially applicable. Traditional heritage
in textiles, folklore, toys, village artifacts are all areas to which protection can be extended under this Act.
Researchers can build portfolios based on indigenous knowledge of communities for grant of IP
protection under this asset.

Trademark: is a sign that individualizes the goods of given enterprise and distinguishes them from the
goods of its competitors. It is limited to word marks, abbreviations, names, elements, and hologram.
When applied to articles of commerce it is with a view to indicate to the purchaser that they are the
goods manufactured or dealt in by particular person as distinguished from similar goods manufactured or
dealt in by other persons. It helps to identify the product and its origin, guarantees its unchanged quality,
and advertises the product. It also confers on the proprietor a kind of monopoly right over the use of the
mark, essential to protect it and the goodwill attached to it, prevents the use of fraudulent marks on
merchandise. Items likely to cause confusion, marks, obscene, religious sentiments, and of society,
Official seals, identical marks are not considered for registration under this protection. Such
distinguishing marks constitute protectable subject matter under the provisions of the TRIPS Agreement.
The Agreement provides that initial registration and each renewal of registration shall be for a term of not
less than 7 years and the registration shall be renewable indefinitely. Compulsory licensing of
trademarks is not permitted. Keeping in view the changes in trade and commercial practices,
globalization of trade, need for simplification and harmonization of trade marks registration systems etc.,
a comprehensive review of the Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958 was made and a Bill to repeal
and replace the 1958 Act has since been passed by Parliament and notified in the Gazette on
30.12.1999. This Act not only makes Trade Marks Law, compliant with TRIPS but also harmonizes it with
international systems and practices.

Geographical Indications: One category of commercial marks more often used in agriculture than
industry is geographical indications, including appellations of origin. Geographical Indications of Goods
(GI) are defined as that aspect of industrial property, which refers to the geographical indication referring
to a country or to a place, situated therein as being the country or place of origin of that product.
Typically, such a name conveys an assurance of quality and distinctiveness, which is essentially
attributable to the fact of its origin in that, defined geographical locality, region or country. Under Articles
1 (2) and 10 of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, geographical indications
are covered as an element of IPRs. They are also covered under Articles 22 to 24 of the Trade Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement.

These are marks associated with products originating from a country, region or locality where the quality,
reputation or other characteristics of the product are essential attributable to its geographical origin. Most
geographical indications relate to agricultural products or those derived from them, more specifically as
in the case of wines and spirits. Protection of such marks prevents third parties from passing off their
products as those originating in the given region. Famous examples are champagne and Scotch whisky.
Art.22 of the TRIPs indicates GI indications to recognize that goods that have originated in an area
where the given quality of goods is attributed to that area. It prevents others to misuse/unfair trade

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 103 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

practice. GI depends on acceptance by members of the group and countries are not obligated to grant GI
if country of origin is not protecting. India has submitted two proposals to WTO along with Egypt, Cuba,
Pakistan, Indonesia where it requested for additional protection as given to wines and spirits be
extended to other products as well. India has put forth that under Article 24 of TRIPS, work needs to be
expedited so that benefits may extend to wider range of products. This was addressed in the Doha
Declaration too but due to subsequent confusion among member countries on other issues, this could
not be sorted out as proposed during the Cancun summit.

Trade Secret: provides protection to persons/institutions on information, which is lawfully under their
control from being disclosed to, acquired to or used by others without their consent. Thus under TRIPs
members shall protect undisclosed information which is secret in the sense that it is not generally known
among or readily accessible to persons, has commercial value because it is secret; and has been
subject to reasonable steps under the circumstances, by the person lawfully in control of the information,
to keep it secret. (Part II, Section.7: Art.39.1 & 2. of TRIPS). Members, when submitting undisclosed test
or other data, for the marketing of new pharmaceutical or of agricultural chemical products, shall protect
such data against unfair commercial use. In addition, Members shall protect such data against
disclosure, except where necessary to protect the public or unless steps are taken to ensure that the
data are protected against unfair commercial use (Art.39.3).

Patent: The purpose of a patent is to provide a form of protection for technological advances. Patent
protection provides a reward not only for the creation of an invention, but also for the technologically
feasible and marketable. This incentive promotes creativity and encourages healthy competition to
develop new technology, which is marketable, useful to the public and desirable for public
good.Characteristics that invention must have in order to be patent protected are:

1. New invention – i.e. the invention must never have been made before, carried out or used before or
made public before the date it is filed. It should be novel.
2. Non-obvious and inventive- A sufficient advance in relation to the state of art before it was made to
be considered worth patenting. It should involve an inventive step if when compared with what is
already known, it would not be obvious to someone with a good knowledge and exposure of subject.
3. Industrially applicable – It needs to be of use in some way. An invention should be applicable or
used in some of kind of industry. This means that the invention must take a practical form of an
apparatus or device a product such as new substance or method of operation.

Plant varieties: Protection of plant varieties is perhaps yet another important issue for researchers in
agriculture. This has been also one of the most discussed issues after TRIPS. Developing countries
were obliged to adopt protection of plant varieties by patents or other means. However, crucial issues on
how IP protection affects the access of farmers to vital inputs like seeds have been long debated. While
formulating its strategy for protection of plant varieties India resorted to consider principles embodied in
other allied international agreements. Intellectual property protection for plant materials is of several
modes. The US model of plant patents which differs from normal or utility patents. Several countries
allow patents on cells too. The sui generis form of plant variety protection (PVP) is yet another type of
plant breeders’ rights. With biotechnology emerging as a major tool in research and developmental
activities, plants on gene constructs, transformed plants can also be patented.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 104 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

References
Hanna, W.W., Bashaw, E.C. and Schertz, K.F. (1972). Apospory in Sorghum bicolor L. Moench. Science, 170:338-339.
Kannababu N, Tonapi, VA and Seetharama N. (2004). Sorghum seed production manual. NRCS TECH / 1 / 2004. ISBN: 81-
89335-02-2. Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India: National Research Centre for Sorghum:
105pp.
Kannababu, N. and Rana, B.S. (2003). The economics of sorghum hybrid seed production. Seed Research., 31 (1): 1-7.
Kannababu, N. and Seetharama, N. (2002). Sorghum nucleus and breeder seed production. Information Bulletin No.4/2002.
NRC Sorghum, Hyderabad – 500 030.
Kannababu, N., Tonapi, V.A., Rana, B.S., and Rao, S.S. (2002). Influence of different synchronization treatments on floral
behavior of parerntal lines and hybrid seed set in sorghum. Indian Journal of Plant Physiology., 7 (4): 362-366.
Murty, D.S. Tabo, R. and Ajayi, O. Sorghum hybrid seed production and management. Information Bulletin No. 41. ICRISAT,
Patancheru, AP. – 502 324.
Murty, U.R. (1986). Milo and non-milo cytoplasm in Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench., II. Fertility restorers and sterility
maintainers on milo cytoplasm. Cereal Research Communication. 14: 191-196.
Murty, U.R. (1992). A noval male sterility system in sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. Current Science., 63: 142-143.
Murty, D.S., Tabo, R. and Ajayi, O. (1994). Sorghum hybrid seed production and management. Information Bulletin No.41,
ICRISAT Patahcneru, India. P.67.
Quinby, J.R. (1974). Sorghum improvement and the genetics of growth. College Station, texas, USA: Texas A & M University
Press.
Sorghum and Millets Diseases. I edition 2002. Edited by John F. Leslie. Publisher: Iowa State Press; 2121, A Black well
Publishing Company, State Avenue, Aures, Iowa 500014. Pages 504.
Sorghum. 2000. Origin, History, Technology and Production. Edited by C Wayne Smith (and) Richard A Frederikhen.
Publisher John Wiley & Sous, Inc 605, Third Avenue, New York. NY 10158-0012 (212), 850-6011. Fax. (212) 850-
6008. Pages 811.
Swarnlata and Rana, B.S. (1986). Inheritance of biological yield and harvest index in Sorghum. India J. Genet. 46: 149-153.
Swarnlata and Rana, B.S. (1987). Significance of performance per se and combining ability of parental lines in sorghum
hybrid production. In: Proc. 2nd Inter. Conf. on Quantitative Genetics. May 31-June 5, 1987. Releigh North
Corolina, U.S.A.
Tonapi, V.A. and Karivaratharaju (2002). Effect of lime induced iron stress on plant growth, seed yield, and quality in
sorghum. International Sorghum and Millets News letter. 43: 51

***

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 105 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

18. Extension reform scheme under NMAET during XII Plan

Dr.S.Senthil Vinayagam,
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030

Introduction
1.1 Agricultural Technology, including the adoption/ promotion of critical inputs, and improved
agronomic practices were being disseminated under 17 different schemes of the Department of
Agriculture & Cooperation during the 11th Plan. The Modified Extension Reforms Scheme was
introduced in 2010 with the objective of strengthening the extension machinery of these schemes under
the umbrella of Agriculture Technology Management Agency (ATMA). NMAET has been envisaged as
the next step towards this objective through the amalgamation of these schemes. National Mission on
Agricultural Extension and Technology (NMAET) consists of 4 Sub Missions:

(i) Sub Mission on Agricultural Extension (SMAE)

(ii) Sub-Mission on Seed and Planting Material (SMSP)
(iii) Sub Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM)
(iv) Sub Mission on Plant Protection and Plant Quarantine(SMPP)

1.2 The common threads running across all 4 Sub-Missions are Extension & Technology: The aim
of the Mission is to restructure & strengthen agricultural extension to enable delivery of appropriate
technology and improved agronomic practices to the farmers. This is envisaged to be achieved by a
judicious mix of extensive physical outreach & interactive methods of information dissemination, use of
ICT, popularisation of modern and appropriate technologies, capacity building and institution
strengthening to promote availability of quality seeds, mechanization, plant protection etc. and
encourage the aggregation of farmers into Interest Groups (FIGs) to form Farmer Producer
Organizations (FPOs).

1.3 SMAE: Sub-Mission on Agricultural Extension will focus on awareness for Personnel trained
under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centres Scheme (ACABC) and Diploma in Agriculture Extension
Services for Input Dealers (DAESI) to provide extension services to the farmers. Use of interactive and
innovative methods of information dissemination like pico projectors, low cost films, handheld devices,
mobile based services, Kisan Call Centres (KCCs) etc.

1.4 SMSP: The interventions included in the Sub-Mission will cover the entire gamut of seed chain
from nucleus seed to supply to farmers. SMSP also envisages strengthening of Protection of Plant
Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Authority (PPV&FRA).

1.5 SMAM: This will focus on farm mechanization and mainly cater to the needs of the small and
marginal farmers through institutional arrangements such as custom hiring, mechanization of selected
villages, subsidy for procurement of machines & equipments, etc.

1.6 SMPP: This envisages increase in agricultural production by keeping the crop disease free using
scientific and environment friendly management practices in diverse and changing agro-climatic
conditions, pesticide management, and Bio-security through capacity building programmes.
Farmers’ skill trainings and field extension as contained in all 4 Sub Missions of NMAET (Viz. SMSP,

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 106 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

SMAE, SMAM and SMPP) will be converged with similar farmer-related activities going on through
ATMA. Five-tiered modes of extension carried out in broadcast or interactive electronic modes will also
cut across extension activities in all the four Sub Missions. The gaps in all farmer centric trainings and
field extension in respect of other Sub-Missions of NMAET would also be included in the SREP at
district level.

SMSP SMAE SMAM SMPP

Seed Village Farm Schools, Demo Capacity Building by Pest Monitoring
Programme Plots, Trainings, Institutions identified by the (including Pest
Exposure Visits State Government Scouts), FFSs, IPM
Training to Farmers

Five Tiered Modes of Awareness Campaign (TV, Newspapers, Booklets, KCC, Internet, SMS) will also
be used for disseminating information or providing services under all schemes and programmes perta
Funds earmarked for such activities under different Sub-Missions of NMAET, Missions & Schemes /
Programmes will be utilized through ATMA. Such convergence arrived at through SREP / SEWP will
avoid duplication and ensure wider coverage in terms outreach to farmers and gamut of activitiesining to
agriculture and allied sectors (including various Sub-Missions of NMAET. Technical, legal,
administrative & regulatory functions and other components (not related to farmer centric extension) will
continue to be discharged independently under the respective Sub-Missions.

Support to State Extension Programmes for Extension Reforms (ATMA Scheme): This Scheme
shall focus on the following key extension reforms:

• Encouraging multi-agency extension strategies involving Public/ Private Extension Service

Providers.
• Ensuring an integrated, broad-based extension delivery mechanism consistent with farming system
approach with a focus on bottom up planning process.
• Adopting group approach to extension in line with the identified needs and requirements of the
farmers in the form of CIGs & FIGs and consolidate them as Farmers Producer Organisations;
• Facilitating convergence of farmer centric programmes in planning, execution and implementation.
• Addressing gender concerns by mobilizing farm women into groups

The above objectives shall be met through strengthened institutional arrangements, dedicated
manpower, Innovative Technology Dissemination component and revamped strategy. The organizational
structure at various levels has been depicted in the following diagram:

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 107 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

2.7 COMPONENTS OF THE SCHEME:

2.7.1 Specialist and Functionary Support at various levels:
It is proposed to re-designate the Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) as Assistant Technology Managers
(ATMs). In order to rationalize number of cultivators per functionary at block level, an average figure of 3
Assistant Technology Managers (ATMs) per block have been envisaged in place of 2 SMSs per block
provided so far.

2.7.2 Cafeteria of Activities:

Optional items form the ATMA Cafeteria from where the States can choose activities as per its priorities.
The Cafeteria also contains mandatory components which include manpower, training of extension
personnel, organization of Farmers’ Advisory Committees, Farmer Friends, joint visits with scientists, low
cost publications etc.

2.7.3 Innovative Technology Dissemination Activities:

Use of interactive & innovative methods of information dissemination like Pico Projectors, low cost films,
hand held devices, mobile based services etc. and other innovative extension approaches (e.g. Kala
Jatha) are included as mandatory activities.

2.7.4 Increasing Coverage of Activities, Inclusion of New Activities and Infrastructure Support:
Funds available under RKVY can be used to supplement extension activities undertaken under this
Scheme which has provisions for the same under the 12thPlan.

2.8 SPECIALIST & FUNCTIONARY SUPPORT:

Extension related manpower is proposed at three levels.
2.8.1 State Level:
(i) State Nodal Cell: the State Nodal Cell (SNC) will consist of State Nodal Officer, State Coordinator,
Gender Coordinator and supporting staff.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 108 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

(ii) SAMETI: The overall staff position at State level is given below.

Posts State HQ. SAMETI

Total
No. of State Coordinator + Dy. Accountant Computer Staff
Director
Blocks Gender Coordinator Director / Clerk Programmer
< 100 1+1 1 4 1 1 9
100 – 400 1+1 1 8 1 1 13
> 400 1+1 1 12 1 1 17

2.8.2 District Level: Each ATMA Unit consisting of

i) Project Director-1; (ii) Deputy PD – 2; (iii) Accountant-cum-Clerk – 1; and (iv) Computer
Programmer/Operator–1

2.8.3 Block Level:

(i) One BTM is provided in each Block to co-ordinate the ATMA related activities of the BTT and
BFAC.
(ii) On an average three Assistant Technology Managers (ATMs) are to be placed in each Block (2
to 4 depending on size of the Block) exclusively for delivery of extension services in agriculture and
allied sectors as per priority areas for various Blocks.

2.10 SUPPORT FOR INNOVATIVE ACTIVITY AT VILLAGE LEVEL (FARMER FRIEND):

(i) It is necessary to identify and groom progressive farmers (including women farmers) with
requisite qualification (Senior Secondary/ High School) & experience as Farmer Friend (FF), one per two
census villages.

3.0 CAFETERIA OF ACTIVITIES

3.1. ATMA CAFETERIA:

(i) Some additional / new activities and revised unit costs for a few existing items in the 11th Plan,
as indicated in bold and italics, have been included in the Cafeteria of Activities.

MAIN ACTIVITIES INCLUDED IN THE CAFETERIA:

3.2. FARM SCHOOLS: In order to have a visible impact and to ensure proper monitoring, cluster
approach needs to be adopted by covering various Blocks in rotation every year.

3.3. DEMONSTRATIONS: It is necessary to follow a cluster approach in organization of

demonstration plots within a block to have a discernible impact on the production of crops/ allied
area.

3.3.2. FORMATION OF COMMODITY INTEREST GROUPS:

I. To ensure household food and nutritional security, Farm Women’s Food Security Groups
(FSGs) @ at least 3 per block are to be formed each year. These FSGs are to be provided support for
training, publication and access to inputs @ ` 10000 per group.

3.3.5 Joint Visits by Scientists and Extension Functionaries: Three visits per month to one visit per
week in the last two years.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 109 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

3.3.6 Incentive for Exemplary Extension Work: It is proposed to have six awards (3 sets of first and
second position) at Districy level each year. The awards will be worth ` 25000 and ` 15000 peraward for
1st and 2nd position in each of the three season viz. Kharif, Rabi And Zaid.Besides the above awards,
best PPP (Public Private Partnership) initiatives in the field of agriculture and allied area may be
supported.

3.4 MAIN ACTIVITIES INCLUDED IN INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY DISSEMINATION (ITD)

COMPONENT:
3.4.1. Display Boards: These Board will also contain broad details of main schemes (including their
major components, eligibility, subsidy pattern etc.) applicable in that area.

3.4.2.Pico/ Ultra-Light Portable Projector + Low Cost Films: Pico projectors (or alternatively ultra-light
portable projectors) have been found to be very appropriate in rural areas and these are easier to
operate without any laptop. 2 Pico Projectors per block are to be provided to field functionaries for
disseminating best agricultural practices. The low cost films would focus on specific themes and
preferably directed by farmers themselves so as to have greater acceptability among the audience.

3.4.3 Use Of Hand Held Devices:

Use of hand-held devices for on the spot data entry and subsequent updation through voice recognition
has been pilot tested with the collaboration of IIT, Chennai. At least 20000 extension workers (average of
about 45 units per district) in 400 districts are to be covered during the XII Five Year Plan.

3.4.4 Kala Jathas, Certified Crop Advisors and Other Innovative Methods: Path-breaking and
interesting methods such as ‘Kala Jathas’ (road shows), Wall Posters, Extension Buses, Certified Crop
Advisors etc. have been tried successfully in some States to deliver the message effectively and
informally in an interactive manner.

3.5 INVOLVEMENT OF AGRI-CLINICS & AGRI-BUSINESS CENTRES AND DAESI TRAINEES

3.5.1 Supplementary Manpower through ACABC: The trained candidates should be involved in
delivering extension services to the farmers.

3.5.2 Supplementary Manpower through DAESI: Another avenue for involvement of private
entrepreneurs in extension related activities is Diploma in Agricultural Extension Services for Input
Dealers (DAESI).

3.5.3. The PD, ATMA may prepare an inventory of agricultural graduates trained under the scheme of
Agri-Clinics & Agri Business Centres and the list of agri-entrepreneurs established in the district by
browsing MANAGE website (www.agriclinics.net) and DAESI trained input dealers.

3.6. SETTING UP OF COMMUNITY RADIO STATIONS (CRSs): During the XII Five Year Plan, 1/3rd of
the districts, on an average should have a Community Radio Station per State. The amount earmarked
for this purpose shall be `6 lakh per district subject to a minimum of `40 lakh per new CRS per year
provided further that this would be the outer limit on aggregate amount for that year subject to break up
of year wise of costs approved for that CRS.

IV. OTHER OPERATIONAL MATTERS

4.1. OTHER OPERATIONAL MATTERS:

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 110 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

4.1.2. In order to carry out the extension activities in difficult areas an additional 5% allocation for 227
districts(36% out of 618) in the difficult areas viz. Left wing affected districts, North Eastern and Hill
States for field activities may be utilized. ATMAs should capture Unique Identification (UID) details of the
farmer beneficiaries under the components of availing training, exposure visits, demonstration plots, farm
schools, revolving fund for the CIGs etc. and upload the details in the Electronic Monitoring System
developed by the Department.

V. CONVERGENCE OF EXTENSION WORK

5.1. CONVERGENCE:
5.1.1. This convergence should be institutionalized by ensuring that State Extension Work Plan [which
emanates from Strategic Research and Extension Plan (SREP)] covers field level training & extension
components for all modes of Mission. SREP is an ideal platform to provide convergence from the
conceptual level and prioritization point of view. IDWG will further underline such a convergent approach
at the State level.

5.1.2 A single ATMA Governing Board headed by the District Magistrate will provide commonality in
approach & implementation and avoid duplication. ATMA Governing Board shall act as an over-arching
umbrella at District level to oversee all extension related activities in other

5.1.3. Convergence with other Farmer Centric Schemes of DAC:

5.1.4. Convergence with Research System:
5.1.5 Convergence with Development Departments:
5.1.6 Convergence with & Involvement of Non-Governmental Sector:

5.2. NETWORKING: State level bodies/ officers viz. State Nodal Officer/ State Coordinator/ Gender
Coordinator will ensure networking of all ATMAs so as to foster information sharing (success stories,
best practices, research/ extension issues, application of innovative technologies & strategies, etc.). All
District ATMAs shall establish their own portals to share information regarding their activities/
innovations/ successes to the outside world. This Portal shall also have links to related websites both at
State and National level.

VI BUDGET ALLOCATION, RELEASE & UTILISATION

6.1. ALLOCATIONS AND SCHEME COST:
6.1.1. Centre–state share: The funding support for the Scheme shall be in the ratio of 90:10 (Centre
: State) for all components except Farmer Friend and ITD components. For Farmer Friend, it will be
50:50 ratio between the Centre and the States. In case of Innovative Technology Dissemination (ITD)
interventions 25% expenditure will need to be borne by the States. 100% GOI funding support to be
provided to UTs (without legislature) for all components.

VII. MONITORING AND EVALUATION

7.1. MONITORING AND EVALUATION (M&E):
7.1.1. Activities of the scheme shall be monitored and evaluated at periodic intervals
through a specific mechanism generated at different levels – Block, District, State & National Level.

7.1.2. Cumulative Monthly Progress Reports (MPRs) for each district are to be uploaded by the
Project Director, ATMA in a web-based interface.

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 111 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

7.1.3. SPECIALIST AND FUNCTIONARY SUPPORT ELIGIBLE UNDER THE SCHEME

Specialist and Functionary Ceiling on Unit Proposed Remarks

Support Cost Norms Ceiling for
Activity
STATE LEVEL
State Nodal Cell Rs.40000/month Rs.4,80,000/ One State Coord.
1. State Coordinator (one) each year for each and one Gender
2. Gender Coordinator (0ne) Coordinator.
SAMETI Pay Scales/ remuneration as Faculty positions
1. Director (one) per Annexure-II (c) linked to No. of
2. Faculty in the thrust areas (4 or 8 or Blocks in the State
12) (HRD, Agriculture Extension (<100 Blocks – 4,
Management, IT & Post Harvest 100-400 Blocks – 8
Management) and
3. Accountant-cum- > 400 Blocks – 12)
Establishment Clerk (one)
4. Computer Programmer (one)/ Rs.16000/month* Rs.1,92,000/ As given in
Computer Operator year Annexure II (b)
DISTRICT AND BLOCK LEVEL
AT DISTRICT LEVEL Pay Scales/ remuneration as As given in
1. Project Director, ATMA (1) per Annexure-II (c) Annexure II (c)
2. Dy. Project Director ATMA(2)
3. Accountant-cum-
Establishment Clerk (1)
4. Computer Programmer / Rs.16000/month Rs.1,92,000/
Computer Operator (1) year
AT BLOCK LEVEL Rs.20000 + Rs. Rs.3,00,000/
1. Block Technology Manager 5000 as opex/ year
(BTM) (1) month
2.Assistant Technology Rs.11000+ Rs. Rs.1,80,000/
Manager (Average 3 per block) 4000 as opex/ year
month

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 112 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Annexure-III(a)
ATMA CAFETERIA
LIST OF ACTIVITIES ELIGIBLE UNDER THE SCHEME ‘ SUPPORT TO STATE
EXTENSION PROGRAMMES FOR EXTENSION REFORMS’ AND
ASSOCIATED COST CEILINGS/ NORMS
(All components with 90:10 cost sharing ratio between Centre and States except in case of Farmer
Friends where it would be 50:50)
Note: Newly included/ modified items in the Cafeteria are given in Bold
and Italics.
(Amount Rs. in Lakh)
Cost norms
Indicative
Tentative
S. No. Activities to be Unit Cost Remarks
Unit Ceiling on
Undertaken Ceiling
Activity
A. State Level Activities
A.1 Monitoring & evaluation
(a)Quarterly review Up to a
workshops and R-E Per workshop/ maximum of 3
0.75 2.25
Interfaces (pre- Interface Workshops
seasonal)
(b) Concurrent Annually Up to 15.00 8.00 Lakh for Yearly activity
Monitoring & lakh States below shown as 3rd Party
Evaluation. 100 M&E has been
Blocks changed to yearly
10.00 Lakh for concurrent
States with 100 evaluation.
to
200 blocks
12.00 Lakh 201
to
400 blocks
15.00 Lakh for
States with over
400
blocks.
(c) Expenses for Per year Up to 5.00 Lakh for This includes
Inter 10.00 States operational
Departmental below 100 expenses for SFAC
Working Group on blocks also.
extension reforms
and other 7.00 Lakh for
contingencies States
including with 100 to 200
Operational support blocks
TA/ DA, 8.50 Lakh for
hiring of States
vehicle/POL, and with 201 to 400
contingencies for blocks
officers of State 10.00 Lakh for
Nodal Cell and States
State Coordinator with over
and Gender 400 blocks
Coordinator
A.2 (a) Training Per day per 0.015* Avg. 2 .0 per Up to 10
courses-National / Participant block functionaries per
Inter State / within Block for
the State (SAMETI) trainings

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 113 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Cost norms
Indicative
Tentative
S. No. Activities to be Unit Cost Remarks
Unit Ceiling on
Undertaken Ceiling
Activity
level - Both Govt. & preferably
Non-Govt. extn. betw een 3 to 30
Functionaries days.
(including NGOs,
Para Extension
Workers, Input
Suppliers, Farmer
Friends, ATM, BTM,
Project Director,
Dy. Project
Director, Director &
Faculty of SAMETI,
officers of SNO
(b) I nduction Per day per 0.010* Actual Actual no. of
Training of ATM A Participant BTM s & ATM s in
functionaries position in 2014-
15 and the new ly
recruited BTM s &
ATM s in
subsequent
years.
(c) Refresher Per day per 0.010* Actual Actual num ber of
Training of all Participant all technical
ATM A functionaries
functionaries m inus the BTM &
ATM w ho are
being provided
w ith induction
training.
Tw o trainings of
3 day duration
(i.e. 4 day
including travel)
each.
d) Developm ent Per day per 0.015* 15 W orkshop 10 Experts/
of Quality Participant Days Participants are
Resource per State for expected to
M aterial for states participate in
Training w ith less than each W orkshop
& HRD 100 to be held once
I nterventions blocks in tw o
30 W orkshop
Days
per State for
states
w ith 101-400
blocks
45 W orkshop
Days
per State for
states
w ith m ore than
400
blocks
A3 Exposure Visit of Per participant 0.01 Avg.0.75 per block Up to 5

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 114 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Cost norms
Indicative
Tentative
S. No. Activities to be Unit Cost Remarks
Unit Ceiling on
Undertaken Ceiling
Activity
extension per day functionaries per
functionaries and Block per batch of
PRI members to an Exposure Visit.
progressive states. Maximum period of
(A group of an exposure visit
minimum 5 not to exceed 7
participants). days (excluding
journey time).
A4 Organization of Per Year 6.00 6.00 One Exhibition /
State level year
exhibitions/ Kisan
Melas/
Fruit/Vegetable
shows etc.
A5 Participation in Per State 2.00 2.00 Actuals lim ited to
Krishi Expo & the activity
Regional Fair ceiling
organized/
supported by DAC.

A6 Aw ard for best Per Year 1.50 1.50 Trophies and

perform ing certificates can
ATM A be given for
overall
perform ance and
for selected
activities.
A7 (a) Farmer Awards – Best farmers representing different areas of agriculture
• State level per year per farmer 0.50 5.00 per state 10 farmers per
state @2 farmers
per activity
• District per year per farmer 0.25 2.50 per district 10 farmers per
level district @2 farmers
per activity
(b) I ncentive for N o. of Aw ards 0.25 per 0.15 + 0.10 for 2 Aw ards per 3
Exem plary season for first cropping season
Extension W ork kharif, Rabi and second @ Rs.15000 for
to District/ Block and zaid prizes 1st position and
level Extension respectively in 10000 for 2nd
functionaries each position (thrice a
season yr.)

(c) I ncentivising Lum p sum 1.00 crore lum p

Scientists and sum for
ext. personnel incentivising
Scientists and
ext. personnel.
The states m ay
nom inate
Scientists and
extension
functionaries as
per the num bers
indicated below :
States w ith < 20

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 115 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Cost norms
Indicative
Tentative
S. No. Activities to be Unit Cost Remarks
Unit Ceiling on
Undertaken Ceiling
Activity
districts – 1
official Satates
w ith 21-30 distts
-2 officials States
w ith > 31 distts.
– 3 officials. The
nam es m ay be
sent to M AN AGE
for processing of
applications at
GoI level.
(d) Lum psum Lum p sum Rs. 1 crore , 3
grant for PPP crore and 5 crore
m odel in the year 2014-
15, 15-16 and
16-17
respectively are
lum p sum
am ount funds
available for the
purpose. States
m ay forw ard
suitable
proposals for
PPP m odel to
GOI , w ho w ould
then allocate the
funds according
to m erit.
A.8 For SAMETI
(a)Operational Per year Avg. 0 .14 per
Expenses for Block w ith a
SAM ETI m inim um of
9.00 per
SAM ETI
(b)Documentation Per year Actual 5.00
of success stories
etc. (preparation
and dissemination).
(c) Vehicle hiring Per year - 4.00
and POL
(d) Non – Recurring One time - • Rs. 3.00 for One time Grant
Equipment less than 100 shall only be used
blocks when the hard-
• Rs.4.5 with ware/equipment
100-200 becomes obsolete
blocks
• Rs. 6.0 with
201-400
blocks Rs.
8.00 with
more than 400
blocks
B DISTRICT LEVEL ACTIVITIES
I. Farmer oriented activities:

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 116 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Cost norms
Indicative
Tentative
S. No. Activities to be Unit Cost Remarks
Unit Ceiling on
Undertaken Ceiling
Activity
B.1 Developing / Per district 1.5 1.5 per district One time
Revisiting Strategic
Research &
Extension Plan
(SREP)
B.2 Training of farmers for not more than 7, 5 and 2 days duration respectively.
(a) Inter-State Per farmer per day 0.0125 0.625 per block Cost norms are
inclusive of: i)
(b) Within State Per farmer per day 0.01 1.00 per block Travel cost by bus
or second class
sleeper ii)
Refreshments /
Meals and Stay
during training iii)
Expenditure on
training venue,
training material
and agricultural
inputs, if any iv)
Cost of honorarium
and/or travel of the
trainer v) Any other
justifiable
expenditure.
Considering fixed
cost on travel of
farmers, training
cost should go
down as number of
days increases or
nature of
refreshment /
meals should
improve.
(c) Within District Per farmer per day 0.004 / 0.0025 4.00 per block Likely expenditure
level or State / location
specific cost norms
needs to be got
approved in
advance. Limit of
Rs. 400 for District
level training only if
it is residential,
otherwise Rs. 250
B.3 Organizing demonstrations
(a) Demonstration Per demonstration Upto 0.04 per 5.00 per block Frontline
(Agri.) demo* of 0.4 demonstration at
ha. As per Farm School on a
Appendix- I maximum area of
2.5 acre at same
rates as approved
under the
Guidelines of
National Food
Security Mission for

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 117 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Cost norms
Indicative
Tentative
S. No. Activities to be Unit Cost Remarks
Unit Ceiling on
Undertaken Ceiling
Activity
the crops
mentioned therein.
For other crops
rates, rates may be
decided by ATMA
MC subject to a
maximum of Rs.
4000 acres
covering items
mentioned in NFSM
Guidelines. The
approved norms
under NFSM for
Rice/ Wheat/
Pulses is
Rs.Rs.3000/ acre
and Rs.2000/ acre
for coarse cereals
(b) Demonstration Per demonstration 0.04 per demo 2.00 per block
(allied sector) for allied
sectors

B.4 Exposure visit of farmers

(a) Inter State Per day/ 0.008 0.40per block Up to 5 farmers per
participants Block per batch of
an Exposure Visit.
Maximum period of
an exposure visit
not to exceed 7
days (excluding
journey time).
(b) Within the Per day/ participant 0.004 0.80 per block Up to 5 farmers per
State Block per batch of
an Exposure Visit.
Maximum period of
an exposure visit
not to exceed 5
days (excluding
journey time).
(c) Within District Per day/ participant 0.003 0.30 per block Up to 5 farmers per
Block per batch of
an Exposure Visit.
Maximum period of
an exposure visit
not to exceed 3
days (excluding
journey time).
B.5 Mobilization of farmer groups of different types including Farmer Interest Groups, Women Groups,
Farmer Organizations, Commodity Organizations, and Farmer Cooperatives etc.
(a) Their Per group/ per year 0.05 1.00 per block Upto 20 groups per
capacity building, block
skill development
and support
services

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 118 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Cost norms
Indicative
Tentative
S. No. Activities to be Unit Cost Remarks
Unit Ceiling on
Undertaken Ceiling
Activity
(b) Seed Per group 0.10 1.00 per block Only to viable
money /revolving groups on
fund competitive basis
(c) Food Security Per group 0.10 0.20 per block 2 FSGs/Block is
Groups mandatory. These
will be all women
farmers’ groups
and Seed Money
will be given for
Household food
security garden
B.6 Rewards and Per year per group 0.20 1.00 per district Best organized
incentives –Farmer group representing
Groups different
enterprises (5
groups)
B.7 Farmer Awards Per year per farmer 0.10 0.50 per block Best farmers
representing
different
enterprises at Block
Level
II. Farm Information dissemination
B.8 District level Per district 4.00 per district
exhibitions, kisan
melas, fruits/
vegetable shows
B.9 a)Information Per district - 4.00 per district
dissemination
through printed
leaflets etc and
local
advertisements.
b) low cost Per Publication 0.72 per block Desirable
publication component-10
copies of 6
publications @ 12
publication (max.)
to be distributed in
all the villages of
the block
B.10 Development of Per package 0.20 2.00 per district For production of
technology max. 10 packages
packages in digital
form to be shared
through IT
network.
III. Agricultural Technology Refinement, Validation and Adoption:
B.11 (a) Farmer Scientist Per interaction 0.2 0.40 per district 2 interactions per
Interactions at district
district level 25
farmers for 2 days.
(b)Designate expert Per Month/per 0.02 0.24 per District KVKs/SAUs have to
support from District designate expert in
KVK/SAU at District charge of one
Level district. He would

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 119 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Cost norms
Indicative
Tentative
S. No. Activities to be Unit Cost Remarks
Unit Ceiling on
Undertaken Ceiling
Activity
provide instant
guidance to district
functionaries/BTMs/
SMSs within his
respective district.
The support
includes that of
Mobile Phone
(c) Joint visits by per visit per • 0.012 in 0.288/ district in Desirable
Scientists & district 2014-15 2014-15 0.364/ Component 24,
Extension Workers • 0.014 in district in 2014-15 26&26 visits during
2015 -16 and 2015-16 each yr starting
& 2016-17 from 3rd year in
each Districts@
Rs.1200/ visit in the
third year and Rs.
1400/ visit in 4th
and 5th year
B.12 Organization of Per programme 0.15 0.30 per block
Kisan Gosthis to
strengthen
Research –
Extension – Farmer
linkages (1 per
block in each of the
2 seasons).
B.13 Assessment, Per District 5.00 / district As per assessment
Refinement, of KVK/ local
Validation & Research Centres/
adoption of and/ or issues
Frontline emerging from
technologies and SREP
other short term
researchable issues
through KVK sand
other local
Research Centres.
IV. Administrative / Capital expenses at District and Block level
B.14 RECURRING

(a) TA/ DA and Per district 7.8 Operational

Operational expenses may
expenses for district included service
level *
(b ) Hiring of Per district - 1.8 This includes TA/
vehicles and POL DA
(c)Operational Per Blocks - 0.3
Expenses
exclusively for block
level (Including
Hiring of vehicles
and POL)
(d) Operational Per Meeting 0.05/Meeting 0.20 4 Meetings @ Rs.
Expenses for DFAC 200/farmer for 25
Meetings farmers

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 120 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Cost norms
Indicative
Tentative
S. No. Activities to be Unit Cost Remarks
Unit Ceiling on
Undertaken Ceiling
Activity

(e) Operational Per Meeting 6 0.025/Meeting 0.15 BFAC meetings

Expenses for BFAC @Rs.100/farmer for
Meetings 25 farmers

Non – Recurring (i) Per District 4.00 One time Grant.

(i) Equipment Shall only be used
(Computer etc.) when the hardware
becomes obsolete.
B.15 Farm School Rs.29,414/Far Farm Schools will
m School (AS be preferably
given at organised in a
Enclosure I).+ cluster approach so
Rs.4000/ as to have a
group of Farm demonstrable
Schools impact. Normative
allocation is based
on the number of
Blocks x 3 per year.
C. Innovative Activities – State Level
C.1 Implementation of To be approved by No. of ATMA The activity to be
Extn. Activities IDWG/SLSC blocks x 0.25 lakh taken up should be
through Agri- as per approved
preneurs trained norms e.g. if
under Agri-Clinic demonstration is to
Scheme or any be taken up, the
other Scheme norms for demo.
given in the
cafeteria is to be
adhered to.
C.2 P.G. Diploma in Per beneficiary 0.15/beneficiar 0.325/block Funds would be
Agricultural yy released to MANGE
Extension through on behalf of the
MANAGE States based on the
number of
participants
nominated by the
states.
D. Innovative Activities – District Level

D.1 Support for district One Institution per 5.00/ district

level Training ATMA district per
Institutions – It year.
may include both
“Operational
Expenses” and
Non- Recurring
expenditure
D.2 (i)Setting up CRS Rs. Rs.65.00/state/ye
14,55,000/- ar

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 121 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

Cost norms
Indicative
Tentative
S. No. Activities to be Unit Cost Remarks
Unit Ceiling on
Undertaken Ceiling
Activity
(ii) Content Rs.
Creation 17,15,500/-
(a) Ist year for two
hrs. of daily
programme i.e 730
hrs/year.
(b) 2nd year for Rs. 12,87,800
one and half hour
of daily prog. I.e.
540hrs./year
D.3 Farmer Friend One FF/ 2 Village 0.06/ FF per Actuals 50% is to be borne
year by State Govt.

E. OTHER INNOVATIVE ACTIVITIES

E.1 Innovative activities 25.00/ state To be approved by

– State component IDWG
E.2 Innovative activities 0.5/ block To be
– District recommended by
component ATMA and
approved by IDWG

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 122 of 123
 ICAR-Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad

NO
N TE
OT ES
S

Model Training Course Manual-DSR, Hyd-22-29 Sept. 2014 Page 123 of 123

View publication stats