An Online Industrial Training Report

At

Oytie

By
Mr.Parth Birajdar
[ Enrollment No. :2000400106]

Under the Mentorship of

Mrs. J.C. Joshi

Department of Information Technology

Sou. Venutai Chavan Polytechnic, Pune
[2022 – 2023]
 Sou. Venutai Chavan Polytechnic, Pune
Department of Information Technology

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that MR. PARTH BIRAJDAR with Enrolment No.

(2000400106) has successfully completed Six Weeks Industrial Training in

In the partial fulfilment towards the completion of Diploma in Information

Technology from Sou. Venutai Chavan Polytechnic, Pune Institute Code

0040.

Date: 18 / 09 / 2022

Place: Pune

Mrs. J.C. Joshi Mr. U.S.Shirshetti Dr. (Mrs.) M.S.Jadhav

Mentor Head of Department Principal

ACKNOWLDGEMENT
I am thankful to Mrs. J.C. Joshi (Lecturer, Department of Information
Technology) for guiding me in successfully completion of Industrial Training,
in the partial fulfilment of Diploma in Information Technology during the
academic year 2021 – 22.

I am also thankful to my industry mentor MS. Sonali Gorade for granting

permission for industrial training and guiding on various portfolios of advanced technologies
implemented in current scenarios across the globe.
We are also thankful to our Mr. U.S.Shirshetti Head of Department (Information
Technology), Dr. M. S. Jadhav Principal (S.V.C.P, Pune) for their consistent and valuable
support in the completion of training. Our sincere gratitude to all those who supported
directly or indirectly for completion of training.

Parth Birajdar
Enrolment No - 2000400106
 INDEX

01. PREFACE

02. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

03. COMPANY PROFILE

04. INTRODUCTION TO LINUX

05. SALIENT FEATURES OF LINUX

06. LINUX INSTALLATION

07. BASIC ARCHITECTURE OF LINUX FILE SYSTEM

08. MANAGING FILES & DIRECTORIES

09. MANAGING A USER ACCOUNT

10. LINUX NETWORKING

11. NETWORK DESIGNING & IMPLEMENTATION (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)

12. NETWORK SETUP FOR ISP USING LINUX AS OS

13. FTP,TELNET,NFS SERVERS

14. SERVER CONFIGURATION

15. NETWORK SECURITY

16. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 INTRODUCTION
Oytie is a private organization that was founded in the year 2015. Formerly
named as SSOiz Solutions, the company was primarily engrossed in
manufacturing automation based applications with related services. After
knowing the increased need of e-commerce solutions, the company unfolded its
Fore plan of acquiring corporate business services and started developing
eCommerce applications designing and developing with the new name as
Anmol APSV corporation private limited in 2018. Our successful product range
has imbibed in us a sense of responsibility to provide immensely good quality
products to the market at the right value.

Now following the principle of empowering the new ideas and growing, the
company is all set to start training services for various IT courses. Information
Technology is gradually infiltrating every part of our work and it’s likely to
continue to do so in the future. It is helping to automate manual tasks, so
processes run more efficiently, it enables us to make intelligent decisions
faster, and much more.

Oytie private limited has been working with Artificial Intelligence for
projects like:
Housing Price Prediction
Customer recommendation
Stock Price Prediction
Oyite Private Limited has been working with various projects for storage
management which include following services
Volume Migration
Storage Virtualization
Snapshot and Mirroring
Auto-Provisioning
Process Automation
Disaster and Recovery
 About Company:
Services Provided By OYTIE
Automation
Automation is “the technique of making an apparatus, a process, or a system operates
automatically.” We define automation as "the creation and application of technology to
monitor and control the production and delivery of products and services.”

Testing Automation
Test automation starts with automating the creation of test environments. Oytie Private
limited has been working with various projects for testing and deciding the quality of the
product. Our testers’ team is expertise in testing software and Web applications using
various automation tools.

Cloud Computing
Since cloud computing is now enterprise-class, we can no longer ignore cloud solutions for IT
projects. Oytie private limited is serving as:
• Cloud Accelerator: Cloud migration services include the migration of a workload along with
formal staff training.

Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are
programmed to think like humans and mimic their actions.

Data Storage Management

Storage Management refers to the processes that help make data storage easier through
software or techniques. It tries to improve and maximize the efficiency of data storage
resources.

Machine Learning

Machine learning (ML) is the study of computer algorithms that improve automatically through
experience. It is seen as a subset of artificial intelligence.
 WEEKLY REPORT

Week 1: From 09 Aug 2021 To 13 Aug 2021

Day Activity carried out

1 INTRODUCTION TO LINUX

2 WHAT IS LINUX

3 STRUCTURE OF LINUX OS

Weekly summarization of the above activity.

Signature of Student Signature of Industrial

Supervisor
Week 2: From 16 Aug 2021 To 20 Aug 2021

Expected Work: designing of web page.

Day Activity carried out

Weekly summarization of the above activity.

Signature of Student Signature of Industrial

Supervisor
Week 3: From 23 Aug 2021 To 27 Aug 2021

Day Activity carried out

Weekly summarization of the above activity.

Signature of Student Signature of Industrial

Supervisor
Week 4: From 30 Aug 2021 To 3 Sept 2021

Day Activity carried out

Weekly summarization of the above activity.

Signature of Student Signature of Industrial

Supervisor
Week 5: From 6 Sept 2021 To 10 Sept 2021

Day Activity carried out

Weekly summarization of the above activity.

Signature of Student Signature of Industrial

Supervisor
Week 6: From 13 Sept 2021 To 17 Sept 2021

Activity carried out

Day

Weekly summarization of the above activity.

Signature of Student Signature of Industrial

Supervisor
INTRODUCTION TO LINUX:-
LINUX is an open source / free software. With its advanced server configuration, Red Hat is
putting Linux as an operating system at the core of enterprise computing. Today Linux is
found in Web infrastructure, file server, ERP, and point of sale system, increasingly in the
systems running critical applications at large companies. Analysts predict that by the end of
this decade Linux will be a common element in the enterprise computing landscape.

“Over the last year, we’ve seen Linux go from being focused on small and medium business
to being used very deep in the enterprise”, says Paul Cormier, executive vice president of
engineering at Red Hat, a leading Linux platform provider.

Basic Features of LINUX OS

There are lots of clones of Linux, no matter what version of Linux you use; the
piece of code common to all is the Linux Kernel. Although the kernel can be
modified to include support for the features you want, every Linux kernel can
offer the following features:-

•Multi-user

•Multitasking & enhanced Symmetric Multiprocessing

•Graphical User Interface (KDE, GNOME)

•Hardware support (RAM up to 4GB, 10 IDE controllers, 16 NICs, USB)

•Networking connectivity (IPX/SPX, TCP/IP, X.25, …)

•Security (Local & Remote)

•Network servers (F/P, HTTP, SMTP, IMAP, POP3, DHCP, DNS, FTP, …)

•Applications support

•Software packaging (RPM)

•Easy Installation & Administration

•Reliable & Robust(Stable and fault tolerance)

Salient Features of LINUX:-
-> Linux is the fastest operating system in the world. It runs much faster than Windows
9X/NT. It is about 1.2 to 3 times faster than Windows 9X/NT. In command-line console mode
without X-window it runs even faster (console mod<e is ideal for Database servers, Apache
Web servers, Email servers, News servers, File servers, DNS servers, Print servers, Network
Computer servers, etc..). Linux is also the most powerful yet most simple and easy to use
operating system in the world.

->Linux is the most reliable OS. Windows 9X/NT fails the CRASH_OS_TEST
programs and only Linux passes. Also commercial Unix's like IRIX, Solaris, HPUX,
AIX, SCO all fail the crash test and Linux is the only OS which passes the crash me test. Very
often Windows 95 users will get GPF errors and the system freezes. Linux is very robust
because it is built by millions of people on internet and there are no errors in the kernel. It
runs for one full year without any re-boots or any problems non-stop, guaranteed. It is
the best designed OS.

->Linux has an excellent scalability - it runs on Uni-processor, Multi-processors,

Parallel Processors and even Super-computers.It fully supports SMP (Symmetric Multi-
Processing) boxes with more than one CPU. Windows 95 supports only one CPU box.
Linux scales much better than NT on SMP.

->Linux is fully 32-bit & 64-bit operating system. And it is very modular and is
already ported to 64-bit chips like DEC alpha, Sun Micro system UltraSparc, Intel
IA64, Motorola Power PC, Transmeta Corp Crusoe chip and GNU/GPL Freedom 64-bit
CPU. Whereas Windows95 has a major chunks of 16-bit code in its kernel and MS Windows
runs only on one type of chip - "Intel chip".

->Linux is a very secure OS. Windows 95 is not a secure OS, break-ins are easy. Windows
95/2000, NT, MSDOS have computer viruses. But Linux does not have any viruses. Computer
viruses causes lot of damages to Windows 95/2000/NT but not to Linux.

->Linux is very mature and is one of the oldest operating system in the world. UNIX
(which is another name for Linux) was born in AT&T Bell Labs 27 years ago for Telecom
research. Linux(Unix) is the end-result of 27 years of research and development effort by
U.S/European Universities and mega-corporations of Europe / America. It took 27 years to
create vast amount of Unix information, and all that info is now just sitting inside this Linux
cdrom on our hand. For example programs like 'grep' had not changed for the past 27
years and they are still used in Linux. Functionality and command line options of grep had
not changed for the past 27 years. Linus started the Linux during 1991, but he borrowed lot
of concepts, code from Unix and this means Linux is 27 years old. Today Linux is the OCEAN
wherein all other UNIX(s) like Solaris, HPUX, AIX merge into. And in near future all other
UNIX(s) will be replaced by Linux.

->Linux uses X-window which is a advanced network-windowing system, whereas Windows

95/NT is a standalone single-workstation windowing system. For example, using X-window,
users can display output on any workstation-monitor attached anywhere in the network.
There is a command called "xhost" in Linux and display environment variable, export
display=`hostname`:0.0. Like this there are lot of functionalities in X-window which are
missing in Windows NT/95. X-Window is an industry standard which was developed in MIT
and is a very powerful network windowing system. With X-window you can run programs on
super-computers and display on your Linux desktop locally. Even though X-window is
network-resource intensive, it is becoming increasingly popular because of the availability of
very low cost, high speed networking like 1 Gig bit Ethernet cards, 100 Megabit Ethernet
cards, DSL lines, Cable-Modems, Frame-relay and ATM networks.

->Linux has very low total_cost_of_ownership since Linux supports diskless nodes. Cost of
maintaining Linux is five times lower than MS Windows.

->Linux supports remote system administration whereas Windows NT/95 does not. We
can remote login and do many system administration tasks, for example like adding
users, reboot a Linux server from a remote terminal hundreds of miles.

->Linux runs most windows applications (16bit ) like MSOffice, MSWord using WABI
($40), WINE(free) and MSDOS applications using DOSemu, FreeDOS, Dr.DOS. But
Windows95/NT will run only few of Unix and Linux applications.

->Linux supports su (super user) command. Using su command it is possible to switch user
without logging off. For example 'su - root' will login as user 'root'. In Windows NT/95 you
must log off completely to switch user. Linux has remote commands like 'rlogin', telnet, etc..
while Windows NT/95 does not have.

->Linux kernel is very small and it can fit on a single floppy. It is less complex
but very sophisticated and powerful. Small kernel means it is very reliable. Linux
applications are much bigger running on top of the Linux Kernel.

->Linux has many powerful desktops like KDE desktop, GNOME, Triteal CDE,
Motif mwm, Openlook olwm, twm, fvwm 95, xdm, xsm, Windows Afterstep,
Windowmaker (NeXTstep-lookalike), Qvwm, amiwm (amiga), mlvwm (mac) etc. KDE
desktop is much more user friendly than Windows95 ! You have more freedom
and choice in Linux desktops as compared to Windows 9X/NT.

->Linux OS needs only 50 MB of disk space for installation. Linux supports dual
boot on the PCs – that is, you can have Windows95/NT on one partition and Linux on
other. During system startup user can select to load Linux or Windows 95 and vice versa.
Nowadays PCs are shipped with 6 Gigs of disk space.

->Linux runs on many hardware platforms - Intel, Motorola, PowerPC, RISC, DEC Alpha,
MIPS, ARM, Transmeta Crusoe, Sparc architectures and GNU Freedom-64-bit CPU. Linux is
already ported to 1024 CPUs super computer (Fujistu, Hitachi, Sun, Intel & others). Intel
corporation had built the world's fastest super-computer with 10240 Intel Pentium CPU’s
( more than ten thousand CPU’s ) which is based on a system similar to Linux.

->Linux is 100% POSIX compliant OS, whereas Windows NT/9X are not. POSIX is IEEE
(Institute of Electrical Engg) standard as well as ANSI and international ISO standard
spec . U.S. govt generally require full compliance of POSIX on any operating system.
Most of the Unix's like Solaris, HPUX, AIX, SCO are 100% POSIX.

->We can get the complete source code for Linux OS and all of it's applications,
whereas Windows 9X/NT is proprietary and we get only the binaries. Having the
source code of Linux is vital for companies because they can quickly add advanced
features and share it with every other company in the world.

->Linux is free of any cost. Downside of Windows 9X/ NT is that we need to pay $200 (US
dollars) per seat for Windows 95 and $800 (US dollars) per seat for Windows NT. And
Microsoft applications like MS Office, C++ compilers and others will cost further $400,000
US dollars. It is better to spend money on hardware and use Linux as the software.

->Linux is trouble free and we will not have any problems with Linux,
whereas you will have more headaches with Windows 95/NT (MS is not as reliable as
Linux).

->Linux more than 900 software packages on CDROM and many more are
being developed world-wide. All the software packages are in a single Linux
CDROM.

->Linux was awarded “The best Network Operating system 1997/98/99/2000 ”, by any
Computer magazine’s (US InfoWorld, European publications).

->The movie Titanic was created using Linux on Digital Alpha. Linux was used to create
computer graphics, animations of all the shots in the movie Titanic.

->Linux was also used for storing data from experiments in the space shuttle. Linux was
orbiting the earth in space.
Advantages of Linux :-
Virus proof

Advanced OS

Crash proof

Economical

Secured

User friendly GUI

Multi-user

Multi-tasking

Multi-desktop

Powerful networking

Variety of servers

Who are using Linux :-

Raymond’s

Air-India

ICICI

Central Excise

IDBI

Govt. of MP

Bombay Dyeing

Govt. of Goa

Asian Paints
Partitions:-

The MBR, boot sectors and partition table

The information about how a hard disk has been partitioned is stored in its first sector (that
is, the first sector of the first track on the first disk surface). The first sector is the master
boot record (MBR) of thedisk; this is the sector that the BIOS reads in and starts when the
machine is first booted. The master bootrecord contains a small program that reads the
partition table, checks which partition is active (that is, marked bootable), and reads the first
sector of that partition, the partition’s boot sector (the MBR is also a boot sector, but it has
a special status and therefore a special name). This boot sector contains another small
program that reads the first part of the operating system stored on that partition (assuming
it is bootable), and then starts it.

The partitioning scheme is not built into the hardware, or even into the BIOS. It is only a
convention that many operating systems follow. Not all operating systems do follow it, but
they are the exceptions. Some operating systems support partitions, but they occupy one
partition on the hard disk, and use their internal partitioning method within that partition.
The latter type exists peacefully with other operating systems (including Linux), and does
not require any special measures, but an operating system that doesn’t support partitions
cannot co-exist on the same disk with any other operating system.

As a safety precaution, it is a good idea to write down the partition table on a piece of
paper, so that if it ever corrupts you don’t have to lose all your files. (A bad partition table
can be fixed with fdisk).

The relevant information is given by the fdisk -l command:

$ fdisk -l /dev/hda

Disk /dev/hda: 15 heads, 57 sectors, 790 cylinders

Units = cylinders of 855 * 512 bytes

Device Boot Begin Start End Blocks Id System

/dev/hda1 1 1 24 10231+ 82 Linux swap

/dev/hda2 25 25 48 10260 83 Linux native

/dev/hda3 49 49 408 153900 83 Linux native

/dev/hda4 409 409 790 163305 5 Extended

/dev/hda5 409 409 744 143611+ 83 Linux native

Extended and logical partitions

The original partitioning scheme for PC hard disks allowed only four partitions. This quickly
turned out to be too little in real life, partly because some people want more than four
operating systems (Linux, MS-DOS, OS/2, Minix, FreeBSD, NetBSD, or Windows/NT, to name
a few), but primarily because sometimes it is a good idea to have several partitions for one
operating system. For example, swap space is usually best put in its own partition for Linux
instead of in the main Linux partition for reasons of speed.

To overcome this design problem, extended partitions were invented. This trick allows
partitioning a primary partition into sub-partitions. The primary partition thus subdivided

is the extended partition; the subpartitions are logical partitions. They behave like primary 6
partitions, but are created differently. There is no speed difference between them.

The partition structure of a hard disk might look like that in Figure. The disk is divided into
three primary partitions, the second of which is divided into two logical partitions. Part of
the disk is not partitioned at all. The disk as a whole and each primary partition has a boot
sector.

Partition types
The partition tables (the one in the MBR, and the ones for extended partitions) contain one
byte per partition that identifies the type of that partition. This attempts to identify the
operating system that uses the partition, or what it uses it for. The purpose is to make it
possible to avoid having two operating systems accidentally using the same partition.

However, in reality, operating systems do not really care about the partition type byte; e.g.,
Linux doesn’t care at all what it is. Worse, some of them use it incorrectly; e.g., at least
some versions of DR-DOS ignore the most significant bit of the byte, while others don’t.

There is no standardization agency to specify what each byte value means.The same list is
available in the Linux fdisk program.
Partitioning a hard disk
There are many programs for creating and removing partitions. Most operating systems
have their own, and it can be a good idea to use each operating system’s own, just in case it
does something unusual that the others can’t. Many of the programs are called fdisk,
including the Linux one, or variations thereof.

Details on using the Linux fdisk are given on its man page. The cfdisk command is similar to
fdisk, but has a nicer (full screen) user interface.

When using IDE disks, the boot partition (the partition with the bootable kernel image files)
must be completely within the first 1024 cylinders. This is because the disk is used via the
BIOS during boot (before the system goes into protected mode), and BIOS can’t handle
more than 1024 cylinders. It is sometimes possible to use a boot partition that is only partly
within the first 1024 cylinders. This works as long as all the files that are read with the BIOS
are within the first 1024 cylinders. Since this is difficult to arrange, it is a very bad idea to do
it; you never know when a kernel update or disk defragmentation will result in an
unbootable system. Therefore, make sure your boot partition is completely within the first
1024 cylinders.

Some newer versions of the BIOS and IDE disks can, in fact, handle disks with more than
1024 cylinders. If you have such a system, you can forget about the problem; if you aren’t
quite sure of it, put it within the first 1024 cylinders.

Each partition should have an even number of sectors, since the Linux filesystems use a 1
kilobyte block size, i.e., two sectors. An odd number of sectors will result in the last sector
being unused. This won’t result in any problems, but it is ugly, and some versions of fdisk
will warn about it.

Changing a partition’s size usually requires first backing up everything you want to save from
that partition (preferably the whole disk, just in case), deleting the partition, creating new
partition, then restoring everything to the new partition. If the partition is growing, you may
need to adjust the sizes (and backup and restore) of the adjoining partitions as well.

Since changing partition sizes is painful, it is preferable to get the partitions right the first
time, or have an effective and easy to use backup system. If you’re installing from a media
that does not require much human intervention (say, from CD-ROM, as opposed to
floppies), it is often easy to play with different configuration at first. Since you don’t already
have data to back up, it is not so painful to modify partition sizes several times.

There is a program for MS-DOS, called fips, which resizes an MS-DOS partition without
requiring the backup and restore, but for other filesystems it is still necessary.
Device files and partitions
Each partition and extended partition has its own device file. The naming convention for
these files is that a partition’s number is appended after the name of the whole disk, with
the convention that 1-4 are primary partitions (regardless of how many primary partitions
there are) and 5-8 are logical partitions (regardless of within which primary partition they
reside). For example, /dev/hda1 is the first primary partition on the first IDE hard disk,
and /dev/sdb7 is the third extended partition on the second SCSI hard disk.

Filesystems:-
What are filesystems?

A filesystem is the methods and data structures that an operating system uses to keep track
of files on a disk or partition; that is, the way the files are organized on the disk. The word is
also used to refer to a partition or disk that is used to store the files or the type of the
filesystem. Thus, one might say “I have two filesystems” meaning one has two partitions on
which one stores files, or that one is using the “extended filesystem”, meaning the type of
the filesystem.

The difference between a disk or partition and the filesystem it contains is important. A few
programs (including, reasonably enough, programs that create filesystems) operate directly
on the raw sectors of a disk or partition; if there is an existing file system there it will be
destroyed or seriously corrupted. Most programs operate on a filesystem, and therefore
won’t work on a partition that doesn’t contain one (or that contains one of the wrong type).

Before a partition or disk can be used as a filesystem, it needs to be initialized, and the
bookkeeping data structures need to be written to the disk. This process is called making a
filesystem.

Most UNIX filesystem types have a similar general structure, although the exact details vary
quite a bit.

The central concepts are superblock, inode, data block, directory block, and indirection
block. The superblock contains information about the filesystem as a whole, such as its size
(the exact information here depends on the filesystem). An inode contains all information
about a file, except its name. The name is stored in the directory, together with the number
of the inode. A directory entry consists of a filename and the number of the inode which
represents the file. The inode contains the numbers of several data blocks, which are used
to store the data in the file. There is space only for a few data block numbers in the inode,
however, and if more are needed, more space for pointers to the data blocks is allocated
dynamically. These dynamically allocated blocks are indirect blocks; the name indicates that
in order to find the data block, one has to find its number in the indirect block first.
UNIX filesystems usually allow one to create a hole in a file (this is done with lseek; check
the manual page), which means that the filesystem just pretends that at a particular place in
the file there is just zero bytes, but no actual disk sectors are reserved for that place in the
file (this means that the file will use a bit less disk space). This happens especially often for
small binaries, Linux shared libraries, some databases, and a few other special cases. (Holes
are implemented by storing a special value as the address of the data block in the indirect
block or inode. This special address means that no data block is allocated for that part of the
file, ergo, there is a hole in the file.)

Holes are moderately useful. On the author’s system, a simple measurement showed a
potential for about 4 MB of savings through holes of about 200 MB total used disk space.
That system, however, contains relatively few programs and no database files.

Filesystems galore
Linux supports several types of filesystems. As of this writing the most important ones are:

minix

The oldest, presumed to be the most reliable, but quite limited in features (some time
stamps are missing, at most 30 character filenames) and restricted in capabilities (at most
64 MB per filesystem).

xia

A modified version of the minix filesystem that lifts the limits on the filenames and
filesystem sizes, but does not otherwise introduce new features. It is not very popular, but is
reported to work very well.

ext2

The most featureful of the native Linux filesystems, currently also the most popular one. It is
designed to be easily upwards compatible, so that new versions of the filesystem code do
not require re-making the existing filesystems.

ext

An older version of ext2 that wasn’t upwards compatible. It is hardly ever used in new
installations any more, and most people have converted to ext2.

In addition, support for several foreign filesystem exists, to make it easier to exchange files
with other operating systems. These foreign filesystems work just like native ones, except
that they may be lacking in some usual UNIX features, or have curious limitations, or other
oddities.
msdos

Compatibility with MS-DOS (and OS/2 and Windows NT) FAT filesystems.

usmdos

Extends the msdos filesystem driver under Linux to get long filenames, owners, permissions,
links, and device files. This allows a normal msdos filesystem to be used as if it were a Linux
one, thus removing the need for a separate partition for Linux.

iso9660

The standard CD-ROM filesystem; the popular Rock Ridge extension to the CD-ROM
standard that allows longer file names is supported automatically.

nfs

A networked filesystem that allows sharing a filesystem between many computers to allow
easy access to the files from all of them.

hpfs

The OS/2 filesystem.

sysv

SystemV/386, Coherent, and Xenix filesystems.

The choice of filesystem to use depends on the situation. If compatibility or other reasons
make one of the non-native filesystems necessary, then that one must be used. If one can
choose freely, then it is probably wisest to use ext2, since it has all the features but does not
suffer from lack of performance.

There is also the proc filesystem, usually accessible as the /proc directory, which is not really
a filesystem at all, even though it looks like one. The proc filesystem makes it easy to access
certain kernel data structures, such as the process list (hence the name). It makes these
data structures look like a filesystem, and that filesystem can be manipulated with all the
usual file tools. For example, to get a listing of all processes one might use the command

$ ls -l /proc

total 0

dr-xr-xr-x 4 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 1

dr-xr-xr-x 4 liw users 0 Jan 31 20:37 63

dr-xr-xr-x 4 liw users 0 Jan 31 20:37 94

dr-xr-xr-x 4 liw users 0 Jan 31 20:37 95

dr-xr-xr-x 4 root users 0 Jan 31 20:37 98

dr-xr-xr-x 4 liw users 0 Jan 31 20:37 99

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 devices

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 dma

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 filesystems

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 interrupts

-r----- 1 root root 8654848 Jan 31 20:37 kcore

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 11:50 kmsg

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 ksyms

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 11:51 loadavg

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 meminfo

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 modules

dr-xr-xr-x 2 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 net

dr-xr-xr-x 4 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 self

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 stat

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 uptime

-r-r-r- 1 root root 0 Jan 31 20:37 version

(There will be a few extra files that don’t correspond to processes, though. The above
example has been shortened.)

Note that even though it is called a filesystem, no part of the proc filesystem touches any
disk. It exists only in the kernel’s imagination. Whenever anyone tries to look at any part of
the proc filesystem, the kernel makes it look as if the part existed somewhere, even though
it doesn’t. So, even though there is a multi-megabyte /proc/kcore file, it doesn’t take any
disk space.
Which filesystem should be used?

There is usually little point in using many different filesystems. Currently, ext2fs is the most
popular one, and it is probably the wisest choice. Depending on the overhead for
bookkeeping structures, speed, (perceived) reliability, compatibility, and various other
reasons, it may be advisable to use another file system. This needs to be decided on a case-
by-case basis.

Creating a filesystem

Filesystems are created, i.e., initialized, with the mkfs command. There is actually a separate
program for each filesystem type. mkfs is just a front end that runs the appropriate program
depending on the desired filesystem type. The type is selected with the -t fstype option.

The programs called by mkfs have slightly different command line interfaces. The common
and most important options are summarized below; see the manual pages for more.

Select the type of the filesystem.

-c

Search for bad blocks and initialize the bad block list accordingly.

-l filename

Read the initial bad block list from the name file.

To create an ext2 filesystem on a floppy, one would give the following commands:

$ fdformat -n /dev/fd0H1440

Double-sided, 80 tracks, 18 sec/track. Total capacity 1440 kB.

Formatting ... done

$ badblocks /dev/fd0H1440 1440 $>$ bad-blocks

$ mkfs -t ext2 -l bad-blocks /dev/fd0H1440

mke2fs 0.5a, 5-Apr-94 for EXT2 FS 0.5, 94/03/10

360 inodes, 1440 blocks

72 blocks (5.00%) reserved for the super user

First data block=1

Block size=1024 (log=0)

Fragment size=1024 (log=0)

1 block group

8192 blocks per group, 8192 fragments per group

360 inodes per group

Writing inode tables: done

Writing superblocks and filesystem accounting information: done

First, the floppy was formatted (the -n option prevents validation, i.e., bad block checking).
Then bad blocks were searched with badblocks, with the output redirected to a file, bad-
blocks. Finally, the filesystem was created, with the bad block list initialized by whatever
badblocks found.

The -c option could have been used with mkfs instead of badblocks and a separate file. The
example below does that.

$ mkfs -t ext2 -c /dev/fd0H1440

mke2fs 0.5a, 5-Apr-94 for EXT2 FS 0.5, 94/03/10

360 inodes, 1440 blocks

72 blocks (5.00%) reserved for the super user

First data block=1

Block size=1024 (log=0)

Fragment size=1024 (log=0)

1 block group

8192 blocks per group, 8192 fragments per group

360 inodes per group

Checking for bad blocks (read-only test): done

Writing inode tables: done

Writing superblocks and filesystem accounting information: done

The -c option is more convenient than a separate use of badblocks, but badblocks is
necessary for checking after the filesystem has been created.
LINUX INSTALLATION

Choosing computer hardware: - To install the PC version of Linux successfully, there are few
things that the computer must have:

•x86 Processor (Intel compatible MP above 80386)

•RAM (at least 32MB, recommended 64MB)

•HDD (at least 900MB free space)

•FDD, CD-ROM drive or LAN connection

•Keyboard & Monitor

•Mouse (for X-Windows)

There are versions of Linux that run on Alpha & Sparc workstations, instead of just on PCs.

Choosing the Installation Type: - There are two installation types under Linux. They include
the following:

•Partition less Installation (to the current version of Windows, slow)

•Kick start Installation (on a different partition, fast)

Beginning the Installation: - Throughout most of the installation procedure, you can click
Back to make changes to earlier screens. However, once you are warned that packages are
about to be written to hard disk, there’s no turning back. Most items that you configure can
be changed after Linux is up & running.

•Insert the CD-ROM in the Drive

•Start your computer to boot from CD-ROM drive

•Start the boot procedure (boot: expert, text, rescue)

Press enter key to start installation GUI mode. To enter in text based installation type text
and press enter.In text mode the installation is automatic.Choose expert mode to perform
installation through commands.

•Choose a Language

•Choose a Keyboard (Model = Generic 101-key PC, Layout = US English, Dead Keys = Enable)
•Add a Mouse

•Continue Installation by choosing Install type (New or Upgrade, select New)

•Choose one of the types (Workstation, Server, Laptop, Custom system)

•Partition the hard disk (Automatic, Disk Druid, fdisk for experts)

•Create at least 1 Linux Native partition (as per your requirements) assigned to the root (/)
file system & one swap partition (min. 64MB) for virtual memory.

•Choose partitions to format (Select only the root partition). Disable check for bad blocks
option for faster formatting

•Configure LILO (Select Install LILO & store it at MBR if you want LILO to control the boot
process for all the installed operating systems on the hard disk else install it on First sector
of Boot partition if another boot loader is being used on your computer. Also, create a boot
disk (recommended) )

•Configuring Networking (Configure your LAN. Skip this section if you want to use DUN or
your PC is not connected to LAN. Assign IP address (192.168.0.1), if no DHCP Server is
available on the network, then add Net mask, Network, Broadcast, Hostname, Gateway,
Primary DNS address for your network).

•Choose Language support (US English)

•Choose Firewall configuration (High, Medium, No Firewall are the options)

•Choose the time zone (Asia/ Calcutta)

•Configure Root password & other User Accounts (if any)

•Enable Authentication (Enable shadow Password & MD5 passwords)

•Select packages (as per your requirements. Everything requires around 2.4GB space)

•Configure the X-Window System (Specify the Video Card, Video Memory, Monitor, Colors
& Resolution, Text or Graphical login, Workstation type – KDE or GNOME)

•Begin Installing (copying of packages to the Linux partition)

•Create a boot disk

•Finish Installation
Your computer will now restart. If you installed LILO, you will see a graphical LILO boot
screen that displays information about bootable partitions. Select the OS to boot into by
using the arrow keys & hit the enter key else the system may boot into the default OS as
specified during installation.

Depending upon whether you set your computer to use graphical or text login, you will get
any of the login screen.

System Shutdown

Shutting down the machine is simply a change in run level. The options available are:

•reboot (shutdown –r now)

•halt (shutdown –h now)

•poweroff

•shutdown [+min] [hh:mm] [now]

Basic architecture of Linux File system

The Red Hat Linux File system is the structure in which all the information on your computer
is stored. Every physical & logical entity in Linux is represented as file in Linux file system.
The physical entities include disks, printers, & terminals. Logical entities include directories
& ordinary files that store documents & programs. Files are organized within a hierarchy of
directories. Each directory can contain files, as well as other directories.

Understanding files & path name in Linux

Filename is a series of contiguous letters, numbers & certain special characters. They cannot
contain spaces or any other character that is reserved for the shell like:

!@#$%^&*(){}‘“/\|;<>`

Filename is limited to 14 characters on most of the UNIX implementations but Linux

supports filenames up to 256 characters. It is recommended that in order to achieve
portability, filenames should be restricted to 14 characters only.
 A path name can be any number of characters. In Linux, the highest directory is called the
root directory & is symbolized by the slash character (/). This directory is simply referred to
as root. An absolute pathname specifies exactly where in the file system you can find a file
whereas a relative pathname points to a file relative to the current directory.

We can use the pwd command to find out which directory is the current directory. We can
also check the contents of the $PWD environment variable by using command echo $PWD.

Like DOS, Linux also uses dot (.) to represent current directory & double dot (..) to represent
parent directory.

Types of Files under Linux

There are just four basic types of files under Linux:

• Ordinary Files:-These are simple files that are used to store logically related information.

• Directory Files :-These are like ordinary files whose contents are the information About

other files

• Links:-These are duplicate names for an existing file or directory so if any of the respective
links are updated. (There is only one copy of the file)

• Special Files:-There are used to map physical devices or buffers like device files and block
files.

File permissions under Linux

File permissions mean more in Linux than just what permissions you have on a file or
directory. Although permissions determine who can read(r), write (w), or execute (x) a file,
they also determine the file type & how the file is executed.

Linux supports 3 different attributes to implement permissions to access a file , they are,

(1).Read (r)

(2).Write (w)

(3)Execute(x)

Further these attributes are specified for three levels

i User level (owner)

ii Group level

iii Others
This listing shows virtually everything that can be known about a file from the directory
entry. There are 7 columns for each entry which mean:

First Column - Type of file & permissions

Second Column - Number of links to the file

Third Column - Owner of the file

Fourth Column - Owners’ group

Fifth Column - File size in bytes

Sixth Column - Date & Time of creation

Seventh Column - File name itself

The permission field

(first column) is broken

into four subfields: - rwx rwx rwx

The first subfield

denoted the type of

file.

Options are:

- Normal File

b Block-special File

c Character-special File

d Directory

l Symbolic Link
The next three subfields show the read, write, and execute permissions of the file for owner,
group & others. We can change permissions on any file by using chmod command. It uses
two different syntaxes: absolute & relative. With absolute permissions, we define exactly
what the permissions on a file will be using octal numbers as given below:

001 Execute 002 Write 004 Read

Relative permissions use a slightly different format. With relative permissions, we must
state the following:

•Who are we giving permissions to (a, o, g, u)

•What operation we intend (+, -, =)

•What the permissions are (x, r, w)

Default file structure of Linux

Linux file structure looks like an upside down tree. At the top is the root directory, which is
represented by a single slash (/). Below that is a set of common directories in the Linux
system. Each of these directories, as well as directories added to root (by users), can contain
sub-directories.