VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HO CHI MINH CITY

HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

REPORT LAB 3
DRYING

Subject: Laboratory of Unit Operations

Class: CC02
Lecturer: Dr. Nguyễn Thị Lê Liên & Dr. Phạm Huy Hoàng Phước Lợi

Group members Student’s ID Scores

Trương Ngọc Kim Ngân 1952351

Ho Chi Minh city, 24/2/2022

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................................... 1
2. THEORY ................................................................................................................................... 1
2.1. Definition ............................................................................................................................ 1
2.2. Characteristic of drying process ....................................................................................... 1
2.3. Determination of drying rate based on heat balance of drying process ....................... 1
2.4. The basic equation of drying kinetics .............................................................................. 2
2.5. Heat duty applies to material in falling-rate period (q2) ................................................ 3
2.6. Heat duty applies to material in constant-rate period(q1) ............................................. 4
2.7. Heat flux of heat-transfer density (q(x)) .......................................................................... 4
2.8. The drying stages ............................................................................................................... 5
2.9. Drying time ......................................................................................................................... 6
3. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND MATERIAL .......................................................... 6
3.1. Experimental apparatus .................................................................................................... 6
3.2. Material ............................................................................................................................... 6
4. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD................................................................................................. 6
4.1. Content ................................................................................................................................ 6
4.2. Experiments ........................................................................................................................ 7
4.3. Collecting data in an experiment ...................................................................................... 7
4.4. Accomplishing .................................................................................................................... 7
5. REPORT .................................................................................................................................... 8
5.1. Experiment data ................................................................................................................. 8
5.2. Calculated data................................................................................................................. 10
5.3. Plots ................................................................................................................................... 12
5.4. Evaluation of results ........................................................................................................ 15
6. DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................................... 15
7. CALCULATION..................................................................................................................... 17
8. REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 19
1. OBJECTIVES
Investigation of the convection drying for:
• Producing the drying and drying rate curves
• Determining the data of drying such as constant drying rate, critical moisture
content, equilibrium moisture content: pressure of moisture in the material ~ partial,
vapor pressure in gas, constant-rate period (time of drying in constant rate drying
phase), falling-rate period. (Time of drying in falling rate drying phase)
• Evaluating error of drying process.

2. THEORY
2.1. Definition
Convection drying is a process to remove water from the solid material by thermal
vaporization. Wherein, the heat and moisture transfer are conducted by convection.
2.2. Characteristic of drying process
Drying, a complex process, has irreversible and unstable properties. There are four
concurrent processes occurring in drying, which is heat transfer for solid material, diffusion
of moisture inside the material, phase change and vaporization of the moisture into the
ambient air.
2.3. Determination of drying rate based on heat balance of drying process
Heat duty of drying agent flow applies to a dryer in a period of d
dQ= α.F.(t - θ).d (1)
This heat duty is used for:
• Heating the solid material: (G0C0 + GaCa) d (2)
• Vaporizing the moisture and overheating the vapor: r+Ch(t-th).dGa (3)
Where:
α: Heat-transfer coefficient drying agent into the dried material, W/m2K.
F: surface area of material, m2
t, th: temperature of drying agent, material and saturated vapor, respectively, 0C.
G0, C0: weight (kg) and specific heat (J/Kg0C) of dried material, respectively
Ga, Ca: Weight (Kg) and specific heat (J/Kg0C) of moisture, respectively
r: Latent heat of moisture, J/Kg
Ch: Specific heat of moisture vapor, J/KgoC
Ga = G0U
Moisture content vaporized in a period of d
dGa= d(G0U) = G0dU (4)
Where, U: moisture content of material (kg moisture/ kg dry material)

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From equation (1), (2), (3) and (4), a heat balance is establish as following:

(5)
From (5), the drying rate inferred from heat balance is:

(6)
2.4. The basic equation of drying kinetics
According to the equation of moisture transfer from the material into drying agent medium:
Where kp: moisture-transfer coefficient in gas phase, kg/m2.h.∆p=1 ( 1 at or 1mmHg, etc)
pm,p: pressure of moisture on the material’s surface and in the gas phase, mmHg (at)
Since Ga=G0U, the equation (7) is:

(8)
As the moisture is not overheated (i.e.t= th), the equation (5) is altered as follows:

(9)
q: heat flux,

With
Wherein, p0: specific weight of dry material, kg/m3
V0: volume of dry material, m3
C: specific heat of moist material, J/kg0C
R0: equivalent radius of material, m
If the heat duty for overheating the moisture vapor is ignored, we get:

(10)

With : : Rebinde number is representative for drying kinetic

Expression (10) is the basic equation of drying kinetics, expressing the change of moisture
in a material with drying time. We can get the expression (10) after solving a system of
differential equations, showing the heat- moisture in the material. However, the
simultaneous differential equations can not be solved via calculus methods.
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 2.5. Heat duty applies to material in falling-rate period (q2)
In the falling rate period of the drying process, the obtained drying rate curve is straight.
Therefore, the drying rate in this period is expressed as:

(11)
K: ratio coefficient or called as drying coefficient, depended on drying rate and
characteristics of moist material, 1/s
K is the slope drying rate curve of the falling rate period, then:

Uth: critical moisture content (from drying curve)

U*: equilibrium moisture content
N: constant drying rate, kg moisture / kg dry material.s)
Integral of equation(11) we get:

(13)
Alternatively, logarithmic solving of equation(8):

(14)
If the drying coefficient is determined via experiments and can be approximately calculated
as following:

(15)
With U0: the initial moisture content of material
Therefore:

(16)
Replace equation (11) with equation (12) and (15), then:

(17)
Combining equation (17) and (10), we get:

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 (18)
2.6. Heat duty applies to material in constant-rate period(q1)
In the constant rate period of the drying process, the total heat duty of drying agent flow is
equal to the heat of vaporization and the temperature of material is constant.
Therefore:

(19)
2.7. Heat flux of heat-transfer density (q(x))

(20)
According to expression (20), if the Rb number is known, we can calculate the heat flux
by means of the moisture content of the material.

Drying and drying rate curve

Figure 1: Drying curve Figure 2: Drying rate curve

AB: Heating of material; 1: thin and porous material: paper, paperback...

BC: constant rate drying; 2: colloidal material;
CD: Falling rate drying; 3: porous material;
1: drying curve 4: porous–colloidal material: has inflection point
2: temperature pattern of material; 5: material has breakpoint( second critical point)

Drying curve
It expresses the variation of 1111 (U) with drying time (t)
U = f(t) (21)

The shape of drying curve:

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 • Depends on various factors, such as moisture-material bonding, shape, dimension,
the structure of the material; drying method and drying condition.
• Drying curve is a function of the drying process. Therefore, the shape of the drying
curve is the same despite different drying methods and or drying conditions.
2.8. The drying stages
2.8.1. Heating-up period (AB)
The warming-up period occurs rapidly, just in a very short time. The total heat duty of
drying agent was used for heating the material from initial temperature (0) to the wet-bulb
temperature (tu) (Fig1).
In this stage, the moisture content is vaporized negligibly, and the reduction of humidity
of the material is very tiny. The drying rate drastically increases to a maximum value (N).
In fact, the stage is ignored in the drying calculation.
2.8.2. Constant rate period (BC)
In this period, the diffusion rate of moisture from inside to the surface of material is higher
than that from the surface to the heating medium. Therefore, the surface of the material is
covered by the moisture.
Total heat duty is used for vaporizing moisture on the surface of the material (free
moisture), and the vaporized surface stays constant. Therefore, the temperature on the
surface of the material and drying rate do not alter when the moisture content rapidly
decreases.
Drying time of this stage (constant-rate time, 1) is determined as follow

(23)

Integral of equation 923), we get

(24)
Where Uth: critical moisture content, which is the moisture content at the end of the
constant-rate drying period.
2.8.3. Falling-rate drying period (BC)
In this stage, the moisture on the surface of the material is completely vaporized, so the
vaporizing surface is restricted to inside the material. The diffusion rate of moisture in the
material is slow and hence, gradually reduces the drying rate. The temperature of the
material rises from the wet-bulb temperature(tu) to the dry-bulb temperature (t). At this

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time, there are three regions in the material: moist region, vaporizing region, and dry
region.
If the drying rate curve of this stage is straight or converting to a straight line (-N2= ax+b),
we can integrate for determination of the falling period of drying process (2):

(25)
*
Where U : equilibrium moisture content, which is the moisture content at the end of the
falling-rate drying period.
2.9. Drying time
Drying time can be determined via summarizing the drying time of three stages, including
warming-up (0), constant-rate (1) and falling rate period (2). The warming-up stage can be
ignored, the equation expressing the drying time is

(26)
Where U2: the moisture content at the end of the drying process, corresponding to (2).
U2>U*, usually using U2 (%) = U*(%)+23(%)

30% = 2%+2%=> U2=4%

3. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

3.1. Experimental apparatus
The dryer consists of:
• Calorifer, which has two dry resistors, with the capacity of 10KW. The temperature
is stabilized by the automatic switch.
• Sucking blower, which has a sucking speed of 0,85 m/s for loading the moist air
(drying agent) and blowing through the calorifer to raise the temperature of heating
flow.
3.2. Material
Filter paper is used as material for drying

4. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
4.1. Content
Conducting the experimental drying at three different temperature of calorifer: 500C,
600C, 700C.
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 4.2. Experiments
4.2.1. Observation of dryer
Students should observe the drying apparatus and compare with the diagram in this unit
before practice
4.2.2. Preparation
• Weighing the initial dry filter paper (G0) using the mass balance of dryer
• Sufficiently humidifying the filter paper, and then determining the weight (G0)
• Preparing and setting zero for the timer
Dryer checking:
• Close the door of drying oven
• Check the valve of air inlet air outlet doors
• Add water into water gourd of wet-bulb thermometer
4.2.3. Start of the dryer
Blower starting:
• Switching on the blower for loading humid air and feeding to the calorifer raises the
temperature of air.
Calorifer starting:
• Switch on the calorifer
• Turn on the first dry resistor for 500C, and turn on the second dry higher temperature
Set the drying temperature for calorifer
4.2.4. Experimental conduction
Conducting the drying process at three different drying conditions as above
4.3. Collecting data in an experiment
4.3.1. The data need collecting: the weight of filter paper before, after
and during the drying process, dry and wet-bulb temperature, drying time.
4.3.2. Reporting the weight by mass balance
• The weight (g): reporting the small value on the mass balance
• Temperature (0C): reporting the value on the temperature indicator

4.4. Accomplishing
1/ Turn off all the dry resistors of the calorifer on the control panel
2/ Switch off the blower after shutting down the calorifer
3/ Remove the filter paper from the drying oven
4/ Switch off the circuit breaker (CP) of dryer

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 5. REPORT
5.1. Experiment data
Table 1: Raw data

50°C 60°C 70°C

t t t
m (g) t ( C)
w
O
t ( C)
d
O
m (g) t ( C)
w
O
t ( C)
d
O
m (g) t ( C)
w
O
t ( C)
d
O

(min) (min) (min)

0 80 37 47 0 82.5 42 60 0 80 44 63
5 72.5 37 49 3 72.5 43 59 2 70 47 73
10 65 37 49 6 60 43 64 4 62.5 46 68
15 60 37 49 9 50 42 59 6 52.5 47 68
20 50 37 49 12 45 43 61 8 45 47 72
25 42.5 37 49 15 37.5 43 63 10 35 46 67
30 35 37 48 18 32.5 42 59 12 30 47 72
35 30 37 48 21 30 43 63 14 27.5 47 70
40 27.5 37 49 24 25 42 62 16 25 46 67
45 25 37 48 27 25 42 58 18 25 48 72
50 25 37 48 30 25 43 64 20 25 48 72
55 25 37 48 33 25 42 60 22 25 48 72
60 25 37 49 - - - - - - - -

Table 2: Treated data

At T= 50 °C
t (min) m (g) t(H) m(kg) t ( C)
w
O
t ( C)
d
O

0 80 0 0.08 37 47
5 72.5 0.08333 0.0725 37 49
10 65 0.16667 0.065 37 49
15 60 0.25 0.06 37 49
20 50 0.33333 0.05 37 49
25 42.5 0.41667 0.0425 37 49
30 35 0.5 0.035 37 48
35 30 0.58333 0.03 37 48
40 27.5 0.66667 0.0275 37 49
45 25 0.75 0.025 37 48
50 25 0.83333 0.025 37 48

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 55 25 0.91667 0.025 37 48
60 25 1 0.025 37 49

At T= 60 °C
t (min) m (g) t ( C)
w
O
t ( C) d
O
t(h) m(kg)
0 82.5 42 60 0 0.0825
3 72.5 43 59 0.05 0.0725
6 60 43 64 0.1 0.06
9 50 42 59 0.15 0.05
12 45 43 61 0.2 0.045
15 37.5 43 63 0.25 0.0375
18 32.5 42 59 0.3 0.0325
21 30 43 63 0.35 0.03
24 25 42 62 0.4 0.025
27 25 42 58 0.45 0.025
30 25 43 64 0.5 0.025
33 25 42 60 0.55 0.025
- - - - - -

At T=70 C O

t (min) m (g) t ( C)
w
O
t ( C) d
O
t(h) m(kg)
0 80 44 63 0 0.08
2 70 47 73 0.033333 0.07
4 62.5 46 68 0.066667 0.0625
6 52.5 47 68 0.1 0.0525
8 45 47 72 0.133333 0.045
10 35 46 67 0.166667 0.035
12 30 47 72 0.2 0.03
14 27.5 47 70 0.233333 0.0275
16 25 46 67 0.266667 0.025
18 25 48 72 0.3 0.025
20 25 48 72 0.333333 0.025
22 25 48 72 0.366667 0.025
- - - - - -

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 5.2. Calculated data
Table 3: Calculated data
Temperature (50°C)
Tw
G (Kg) U (%) ∆U (%) N (%/h) Td (0C) Pm (mmHg) P(mmHg) ε
(0C)

0.08 220 0 0 37 47 47.2973 42.30202067 10

0.0725 190 30 360 37 49 47.2973 41.34126401 12
0.065 160 30 360 37 49 47.2973 41.34126401 12
0.06 140 20 240 37 49 47.2973 41.34126401 12
0.05 100 40 480 37 49 47.2973 41.34126401 12
0.0425 70 30 360 37 49 47.2973 41.34126401 12
0.035 40 30 360 37 48 47.2973 41.82152983 11
0.03 20 20 240 37 48 47.2973 41.82152983 11
0.0275 10 10 120 37 49 47.2973 41.34126401 12
0.025 0 10 120 37 48 47.2973 41.82152983 11
0.025 0 0 0 37 48 47.2973 41.82152983 11
0.025 0 0 0 37 48 47.2973 41.82152983 11
0.025 0 0 0 37 49 47.2973 41.34126401 12

Temperature (60°C)
N Tw
G (Kg) U (%) ∆U (%) Td (0C) Pm (mmHg) P(mmHg) ε
(%/h) (0C)
0.0825 230 0 0 42 60 61.80792 53.02455709 18
0.0725 190 40 800 43 59 65.13035 57.30509593 16
0.06 140 50 1000 43 64 65.13035 54.94442028 21
0.05 100 40 800 42 59 61.80792 53.49829736 17
0.045 80 20 400 43 61 65.13035 56.36061565 18
0.0375 50 30 600 43 63 65.13035 55.4164354 20
0.0325 30 20 400 42 59 61.80792 53.49829736 17
0.03 20 10 200 43 63 65.13035 55.4164354 20
0.025 0 20 400 42 62 61.80792 52.07745158 20
0.025 0 0 0 42 58 61.80792 53.97211263 16
0.025 0 0 0 43 64 65.13035 54.94442028 21
0.025 0 0 0 42 60 61.80792 53.02455709 18

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 Temperature (70°C)
N Tw
G (Kg) U (%) ∆U (%) Td (0C) Pm (mmHg) P(mmHg) ε
(%/h) (0C)
0.08 220 0 0 44 63 68.60553 59.37992229 19
0.07 180 40 1200 47 73 80.00583 67.58246951 26
0.0625 150 30 900 46 68 76.03729 65.44718801 22
0.0525 110 40 1200 47 68 80.00583 69.90661706 21
0.045 80 30 900 47 72 80.00583 68.04713401 25
0.035 40 40 1200 46 67 76.03729 65.91402769 21
0.03 20 20 600 47 72 80.00583 68.04713401 25
0.0275 10 10 300 47 70 80.00583 68.97668802 23
0.025 0 10 300 46 67 76.03729 65.91402769 21
0.025 0 0 0 48 72 84.15106 72.68867854 24
0.025 0 0 0 48 72 84.15106 72.68867854 24
0.025 0 0 0 48 72 84.15106 72.68867854 24

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5.3. Plots
1. The drying curve
Drying curve at T = 50
250

200

150
U (%)

100

50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Drying time t (h)

Drying curve at T = 60

250

200

150
U (%)

100

50

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Drying time t (h)

Drying curve at T = 70
250

200

150
U (%)

100

50

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Drying time t (h)

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2. The drying rate curve

Drying rate curve at T = 50

600

500

400

300
N

200

100

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
U%

Drying rate curve at T = 60

1200

1000

800

600
N

400

200

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
U%

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 Drying rate curve at T = 70
1400

1200

1000

800
N

600

400

200

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
U%

Table 4: Calculated results from plots

4.1 Calculation from weight of material (experimental)

Tempe
U th U *
U 2 N χ K τ 1 τ 2
rature
50°C 170 0 3 120 0.0059 0.706 0.417 5.719
60°C 110 0 3 580 0.0091 5.273 0.207 0.683
70°C 175 0 3 500 0.0057 2.857 0.090 1.423

4.2 Calculation from drying agent states (theory)

Temperature U 0 U *
U 2 f αp Jm

50°C 220 0 3 14.4 0.03769 0.21

60°C 230 0 3 14.4 0.03769 0.34
70°C 220 0 3 14.4 0.03769 0.41

Temperature U th N χ K τ 1 τ 2

50°C 122.22 309.22 0.0082 2.54 0.32 1.47

60°C 127.78 489.13 0.0078 3.82 0.21 0.98
70°C 122.22 596.64 0.0082 4.89 0.16 0.76

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 5.4. Evaluation of results

Table 5: Error evaluation

Temperature U th N χ K τ 1 τ 2

50°C 39.09 -61.19 -28.26 -72.16 31.77 290.32

60°C -13.91 18.58 16.55 38.20 -1.00 -30.30
70°C 43.18 -16.20 -30.31 -41.60 -45.08 87.40

6. DISCUSSION
1. The shape of drying curve, drying rate curve as compared to theory
The shape of the experiments drying curves is not that different from each other and
from the theoretical curve. In fact, the graphs show a downwards trend on all 3 modes of
experiment with T=50 stack on top of T=60 and T=70 respectively. Theoretically, heating
stage can also be observed from the graph but with short timing and minor contribution,
we can ignore it when calculating the result.
With higher temperature mode, we can see the drying curve reaches its equilibrium
moisture more quickly. This is because the equilibrium humidity greatly depends on the
drying temperature in a reverse relation.
On the others hand, the drying rate curves actually vary from the theoretical curve.
The shape of the experiment curves has a jagged trends that in general reach its
equilibrium moisture content after around 225h of drying. Also, unlike the drying curve,
each different mode of temperature results in a distinct graph. We speculated the reason
for this is the automatic heat resistor cut-off feature of the experiments device that cause
a peak and drop dramatically every time the temperature surpassed the set temp.

2. The calculated results and relation of drying factor

Theoretically, with the increase in temperature comes with the increase in drying
rate. This is due to the increase in the Drying Potential ε. Therefor the Experiment result is
suitable with the drying theory.
Looking at the result from the χ Drying stage, we can see that the relative drying
coefficient χ is only depends on the material’s properties and is not related to the drying
temperature.

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 In the K Drying stage, the K drying coefficient depends both on the drying mode
(specially the drying rate N) and the material properties. This means that when the drying
temperature increase and the material properties is unchanged, the K drying coefficient will
increase as a result.
Looking at τ1, we expect a decrease in time as the temperature mode increase:
U 0 − U th
1 =
N1
T= 50°C 0.417
T= 60°C - time 1 = 0.207
T= 70°C - time 1 = 0.090
In reality, we can see a decrease in τ1 as the temperature increase and is suitable with the
drying theory.
Looking at τ2, we also expect a decrease in time as
U th − U * U th − U *
2 = ln
N1 U 2 − U*
T= 50°C - time 2 = 5.719
T= 60°C - time 2 = 0.207
T= 70°C - time 3 = 0.09
The experiment result also shows a decrease in time as the temperature increase
respectively. Therefor we can conclude the data result is suitable with the theory.
Therefor as a conclusion for the drying time of the experiment, we can see that in generally,
the drying time τ decrease as the temperature increase. This is suitable with the experiment
result when changing the drying mode from 50℃ → 60 ℃ → 70℃, respectively.

3. The error evaluation, the reasons for error and the methods for remediation of
error
Evaluating the errors:
While conducting the experiment, many factors can leads to the occurs of error in result
data.
- Error while calculating the αm as we evaluate using the pratical formula.
Calculating by this formula, we consider αm as a constant while cannot reflect the
whole state of the drying process.
- Error in measuring Uc. The error happens we sketch and plot the drying curve and
curve rate to determine the Uc value.
- Error from conducting experiment. Flawed conduction of the experiment process
can result in flawed data result.

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 - Error from the experimenting material. The material used is not completely dry and
can affect the drying procedure.
- Error in indicating device and measurement. With limit approach to precise quality
equipment, error can occur during measurement and timing.
Therefore, there are various step we can take to reduce the risk of errors.
- Reassure the quality of the experimenting material: the material must be dry and
weighted accurately.
- Pay attention to the measuring equipment, check the flawed delta of the equipment
and remember to include the error delta into calculation.
- Careful and precise when plotting the graph and measuring data from the graph.
4. The methods for remediation of error
There are various steps we can take to reduce the risk of errors.
- Reassure the quality of the experimenting material: the material must be dry and
weighted accurately.
- Pay attention to the measuring equipment, check the flawed delta of the equipment
and remember to include the error delta into calculation.
- Careful and precise when plotting the graph and measuring data from the graph.

7. CALCULATION
For table 1:

For table 2:

ε = tk - tö (ability to absorb moisture of air)

The ways to determine Pm and P

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For the table 4:
Uth: determine from the intersection of drying curve and drying rate curve
U*=0
U2= U* + (2-3) %

K = χN ,1/h

For the table 5:

Uo : the moisture of the material at t=0

U* : equilibrium content, U*=0

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kp = 0,0229 + 0,0174vk , kg/m2.h.mmHg
-dU/dt=N= 100kp (Pm – P) F/Go %/h
F: the area for evaporation of the material
F= 0.3*0.2*2*3= 0.36 m2
Go: mass of dry material (kg)

4. For table 6:

Error (%) =
N, Ucr, t, K, X ….

8. REFERENCES
[1] Tài liệu hướng dẫn “Thí nghiệm quá trình và thiết bị”, Bộ môn Máy và thiết bị Trường
Đại học Bách Khoa TP,HCM, 9/2003
[2] Võ Văn Bang – Vũ Bá Minh, “Quá trình và thiết bị công nghệ hóa học và thực phẩm”,
Tập 3 “Truyền khối”, NXB ĐHQG TP,HCM, 2004
[3] www,sugartech,co,za/psychro, 29/4/2018

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