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PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT _ many sources of data

 The roots of contemporary psychological testing and assessment designed to shed light on a
can be found in early twentieth-century France. referral question.
 In 1905, Alfred Binet and a colleague published a test designed to
help place Paris schoolchildren in appropriate classes. Referral question
 Within a decade an English-language version of Binet’s test was  Oftentimes referred to as reason for referral, which pertains to the
prepared for use in schools in the United States. rationale for requesting that a client undergoes a psychological
 When the United States declared war on Germany and entered evaluation
World War I in 1917, the military needed a way to screen large Explicit
numbers of recruits quickly for intellectual and emotional  Those that are clearly stated by the referral source
problems. Psychological testing provided this methodology. During Implicit
World War II, the military would depend even more on psychological  Those that the assessor tries to discover, as he/she considers
tests to screen recruits for service. all the aspects of the case

Psychological Testing and Assessment Defined The Tools of Psychological Assessment

 Testing was the term used to refer to everything from the The Test
administration of a test to the interpretation of a test score.  A test may be defined simply as a measuring device or
 During World War I, the term “testing” aptly described the group procedure.
screening of thousands of military recruits.  Psychological test refers to a device or procedure designed to
 By the World War II, a semantic distinction between testing and a measure variables related to psychology (such as intelligence,
more inclusive term, “assessment,” began to emerge. personality, aptitude, interests, attitudes, or values). It almost always
 Military, clinical, educational and business settings are but a few of involves analysis of a sample of behavior.
the many contexts that entail behavioral observation and active  Psychological tests and other tools of assessment may differ with
integration by assessors of test scores and other data. In such respect to a number of variables, such as content, format,
situations, the term assessment may be preferable to testing. In administration procedures, scoring and interpretation
contrast to testing, assessment acknowledges that tests are only procedures, and technical quality.
one type of tool used by professional assessors. Content
 We define psychological assessment as the gathering and  The content (subject matter) of the test will, of course, vary with the
integration of psychology-related data for the purpose of focus of the particular test. But even two psychological tests
making a psychological evaluation that is accomplished through purporting to measure the same thing, for example, personality, may
the use of tools such as tests, interviews, case studies, differ widely in content.
behavioral observation, and specially designed apparatuses. Format
 We define psychological testing as the process of measuring  The term format pertains to the form, plan, structure,
psychology-related variables by means of devices or arrangement, and layout of test items as well as to related
procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior. considerations such as time limits. Format is also used to refer to the
form in which test is administered: computerized, pencil-and-paper,
Testing Assessment or some other form.
Objective  The term format is not confined to tests. Format is also used to
Typically, to obtain some gauge, Typically, to answer a referral denote the form or structure of other evaluative tools and
usually numerical in nature, question. Solve a problem, or processes, such as the guidelines for creating a portfolio work
with regard to an ability or arrive at a decision through the sample.
attribute. use pf tools of evaluation. Administration procedures
Process  Test differ in their administration procedures. Some tests,
Testing may be individual or Assessment is typically particularly those designed for administration on a one-to-one basis,
group in nature. After test individualized. In contrast to may require an active and knowledgeable test administrator.
administration, the tester will testing, assessment more  The test administration may involve demonstrations of various
typically add up “the number of typically focuses on how an kinds of tasks demanded of the assessee, as well as trained
correct answers or the number individual processes rather observation of an assessee’s performance.
of certain types of than simply the results of that
 Alternatively, some tests, particularly those designed for
responses…with little if any processing.
regard for the how or mechanics administration to groups, may not even require the test
of such contents” Maloney & administrator to be present while the testtakers independently
Ward, 1976) complete the required task.
Role of Evaluator Scoring and interpretation procedures
 Test differ in their scoring and interpretation procedures. To
The tester is not key to the The assessor is key to the
process; practically speaking, process of selecting tests better understand how and why, let’s define score and scoring.
one tester may be substituted and/or other tools of evaluation  In testing and assessment, we may formally define score as a
for another tester without as well as in drawing code or summary statement, usually but not necessarily
appreciably affecting the conclusions from the entire numerical in nature that reflects an evaluation of performance on a
evaluation. evaluation. test, task, interview, or some other sample of behavior. Scoring is
Skill of Evaluator the process of assigning such evaluative codes or statements
Testing typically requires a Assessment typically requires to performance on tests, tasks, interviews, or other behavior
technician-like skills in terms an educated selection of samples.
of administering and scoring a tools of evaluation, skill in  Tests differ widely in terms of their guidelines for scoring and
test as well as in interpreting a evaluation, and thoughtful interpretation. Some tests are self-scored by the testtakers
test result. organization and integration of themselves, others are scored by computer, and others require
data. scoring by trained examiners.
Outcome Technical quality or psychometric soundness
Typically, testing yields a test Typically, assessment entails a  Test differ with respect to their psychometric soundness or
score or series of test scores. logical problem-solving technical quality. One speaks of the psychometric soundness of a
approach that brings to bear

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test when referring to how consistently and how accurately a d. Selection

psychological test measures what it purports to measure. Diagnosis and Treatment Planning
 Assessment professionals also speak of the psychometric utility of  To determine the nature and the underlying cause of a
a particular test or assessment method. In this context, utility refers person’s abnormal behavior and classify those behavioral patterns
to the usefulness or practical value that a test or other tool of within an accepted diagnostic system
assessment has for a particular purpose. Self-knowledge
 Psychological tests can also supply a potent source of self-
Characteristics of a Good Test knowledge about an individual’s intelligence and personality
Standardized characteristics
 The test has uniformity of procedure in administration and Program Evaluation
scoring.  Another use of psychological tests is the systematic assessment
 Exact materials employed, time limits, and oral instructions to and evaluation of educational and social programs
subjects Research
Objectivity  Tests also play a major role in both applied and theoretical
 It implies that the administration, scoring, and interpretation branches of behavioral research
are objective insofar that they are independent of the subjective
judgment of the individual examiner Reference Sources of Information
Reliability Test catalogues
 it implies that there is a consistency of scores obtained by the • Perhaps one of the most readily accessible sources of information
same person/s when retested with an identical test or equivalent is a catalogue distributed by the publisher of the test.
form • However, publishers’ catalogues usually contain a brief
Validity description of the test and seldom contain the kind of detailed
 It refers to the degree which the test actually measures what it technical information that a prospective user might require.
purports to measure Moreover, the catalogue’s objective is to sell the test.
Appropriateness of Difficulty Level Test manuals
 It refers to the level of difficulty of each item of the test as a • Detailed information concerning the development of a
whole and the appropriateness to the population for whom it is particular test and technical information relating to it should be
designed found in the test manual, which usually can be purchased from the
Ease of Administration test publisher.
 It answers questions such as “How long is the test?”, “Does it Professional books
require additional instructions from the examiner?”, “Can it be group • Many books written for an audience of assessment
administered?”, “Are there separate time limits for each subtest?” professionals are available to supplement, re-organize, or
enhance the information typically found in the manual of a very
Types of Psychological Tests widely used psychological test.
Tests According to Purposes of Measurement Reference volumes
Intelligence Tests • It provides detailed information for each test listed, including
 It measures general potential to solve problems, adapt to test publisher, test author, test purpose, intended test
changing circumstances, think abstractly and profit from population, and test administration time
experience • Mental Measurements Yearbook
Aptitude Tests Journal articles
 It measures the potential for learning or acquiring a specific • Articles in current journals may contain reviews of the test,
skill updated or independent studies of its psychometric soundness,
Achievement Tests or examples of how the instrument was used in either research
 It measures previous learning or an applied context.
Interest Tests Online databases
• It contains a wealth of resources and news about tests,
 It measures an individual’s likes and dislikes along occupational
testing, and assessment
preferences usually.
• APA-Standard for Educational and Psychological Testing
Personality Tests
Other sources
 Tests which measure typical behavior like traits, disposition,
• School library and scientific papers
temperament and attitudes
 Structured Personality Tests. It provides self-report statements
which requires the examinee to choose between two or more Parties Involved in Psychological Testing
alternative responses  Parties in the assessment enterprise include developers and
 Projective Tests. It provides an ambiguous or vague stimulus publishers of tests, users of tests, and people who are
wherein the examinee presents an open-ended response evaluated by means of tests. Additionally, we may consider society
at large as a party to the assessment enterprise.
The test developer.
Tests According to Administration
Individual Tests  Test developers and publishers create tests or other methods of
assessment.
 These are tests that can only be given to only one person at a
The test user.
time
Group Tests  Psychological tests and assessment methodologies are used by a
wide range of professionals, including clinicians, counselors,
 These are tests that can be administered to more than one
school psychologists, human resources personnel, consumer
person at a time by a single examiner
psychologists, experimental psychologists, and social
psychologists.
Uses of Test The testtaker
Classification  In the broad sense in which we are using the term “testtaker,”
 assigning a person to one category rather than another anyone who is the subject of an assessment or an evaluation
a. Placement can be a testtaker or an assessee.
b. Screening
 As amazing as it sounds, this means that even a deceased
c. Certification
individual can be considered an assessee. True, this is the
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exception to the rule but there is such a thing as a psychological  The assembly of case history data, as well as related data, into an
autopsy. A psychological autopsy may be defined as a illustrative account is referred to by terms such as case study or
reconstruction of a deceased individual’s psychological profile case history. We may formally define a case study (or case
on the basis of archival records, artifacts, and interviews history) as a report or illustrative account concerning a person
previously conducted with the deceased assessee or people or an event that was compiled on the basis of case history data.
who knew him or her.
Society at large Behavioral Observation
 Society at large exerts its influence as a party to the assessment  Behavioral observation, as it is employed by assessment
enterprise in many ways. As society evolves and as the need to professionals, may be defined as monitoring the actions of others
measure different psychological variables emerges, test or oneself by visual or electronic means while recording
developers respond by devising new tests. Through elected quantitative and/or qualitative information regarding those
representatives to the legislature, laws are enacted that govern actions.
aspects of test development, test administration, and test  Behavioral observation is often used as a diagnostic aid in
interpretation. various settings such as inpatient facilities, behavioral research
Other parties laboratories, and classrooms.
 Organizations, companies, and governmental agencies  Behavioral observation may be used for purposes of selection or
sponsor the development of tests for various reasons, such as to placement in corporate or organizational settings. In such
certify personnel. Companies and services offer test-scoring or instances, behavioral observation may be used as an aid in
interpretation services. In some cases, these companies and identifying personnel who bets demonstrate the abilities required to
services are simply extensions of test publishers, and in other cases perform a particular task or job.
they are independent.  Sometimes, researchers ventures outside of the confines of clinics,
classroom, workplaces and research laboratories in order to observe
The Interview behavior of humans in a natural setting─that is, the setting in
 The interview as a tool of psychological assessment typically which behavior would typically be expected to occur. This
involves more than talk. If the interview is conducted face-to-face, variety of behavioral observation is referred to as naturalistic
then the interviewer is probably taking note not only the content of observation.
what is said but also the way it is being said. More specifically,
the interviewer is taking note of both verbal and nonverbal Role-Play Tests
behavior.  Role play may be defined as acting an improvised or partially
 Nonverbal behavior may include the interviewee’s “body improvised part in a simulated situation. A role play test is a tool
language,” movements, and facial expressions in response to of assessment wherein assessees are directed to act as if they
the interviewer, the extent of eye contact, apparent willingness were in a particular situation. Assessees may then be evaluated
to cooperate, and general reaction to the demands of the with regard to their expressed thoughts, behaviors, abilities,
interview. The interviewer may also take note of the way the and other variables
interviewee is dressed.  Bear in mind that role play may not be useful as “the real thing”
 Because of a potential wealth of nonverbal information to be in all situations. Still, role play is used quite extensively, especially
gained, interviews are ideally conducted face-to-face. However, in situations where it is too time-consuming, too expensive, or
face-to-face contact is not always possible and interviews may be simply too inconvenient to assess in a real situation.
conducted in other formats.  Role play as a tool of assessment may be used in various clinical
 Interviews need not involve verbalized speech, as when they contexts.
are conducted in sign language. Interviews may also be conducted
by various electronic means, as would be the case with online
Computers as Tools
interviews, e-mail interviews, and interviews conducted by means of
 As test administrators, computers do much more than replace
text messaging.
the “equipment” that was so widely used in the past. Computers
 In its broadest sense, we can define interview as a method of
can serve as test administrators (online or off) and as highly
gathering information through direct communication involving
efficient test scorers. Within seconds they can derive not only
reciprocal exchange.
test scores but pattern of test scores.
 The term CAPA refers to the term computer-assisted
The Portfolio psychological assessment. By the way, here the word assisted
 As samples of one’s ability and accomplishment, a portfolio typically refers to the assistance computers provide to the test
may be used as a tool of evaluation. user, not the testtaker.
 Another acronym you may come across is CAT, this is for
Case History Data computer adaptive testing. The adaptive in this term is a
 Case history data refers to records, transcripts, and other reference to the computer’s ability to tailor the test to the
accounts in written, pictorial, or other form that preserve testtaker’s ability or test-taking pattern.
archival information, official and informal accounts, and other
data and items relevant to an assessee. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT _
 Case history data is a useful tool in a wide variety of Referral Question  Pre-assessment procedures  Selection of assessment
assessment contexts. In a clinical evaluation, for example, case tools  Assessment Proper  Report Writing  Feedback
history data can shed light on an individual’s past and current
adjustment as well as on the events and circumstances that The Process of Assessment
may have contributed to any changes in adjustment.  In general, the process of assessment begins with a referral for
 Case history data can be of critical value in neuropsychological assessment from a source such as teacher, school psychologist,
evaluations where it often provides information about counselor, judge, clinician, or corporate human resource specialist.
neuropsychological functioning prior to the occurrence of a trauma Typically, one or more referral questions are put to the assessor
or other event that results in a deficit. about the assessee.
 School psychologists rely on case history data for insight into a  Some examples of referral questions are:
student’s current academic or behavioral standing. Case history  Can this child function in a general education environment?
data is also useful in making judgments concerning future class  Is this defendant competent to stand trial?
placements.

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 How well can this employee be expected to perform if promoted to  From a clinical perspective, the assessment of older adults is
an executive position? more likely to include screening for cognitive decline and
 The assessor may meet with the assessee or others before the dementia than assessment of younger adults.
formal assessment in order to clarify aspects of the reason for  Dementia is a loss of cognitive functioning (which may affect
referral. The assessor prepares for the assessment by selecting the memory, thinking, reasoning, psychomotor speed, attention, and
tools of assessment to be used. Typically, the assessor’s own past related abilities, as well as personality) that occurs as the result of
experience, education, and training play a key role in the damage to or loss of brain cells.
specific tests or other tools to be employed in the assessment. Business and military settings
 Subsequent to the selection of the instruments or procedures to be  In business, as in the military, various tools of assessments are
employed, the formal assessment will begin. After the assessment used in sundry ways, perhaps most notably in decision making
the assessor writes a report of the findings that is designed to about the careers of personnel. A wide range of achievement,
answer the referral question. More feedback sessions with the aptitude, interest, motivational, and other tests may be employed in
assessee and/or interested third parties (such as the assessee’s the decision to hire as well as in related decisions regarding
parents and the referring professional) may also be scheduled. promotions, transfer, job satisfaction, and eligibility for further
training.
Approaches to Assessment  Another application of psychological tests involves the
Collaborative Psychological Assessment engineering and design of products and environments.
 Assessor and assessee works as partners from initial contact Engineering psychologists employ a variety of existing and specially
to final feedback devised tests in research designed to help people at home, in the
 Therapeutic Psychological Assessment: therapeutic self- workplace, and in the military. Products ranging from home
discovery and new understandings are encouraged throughout computers to office furniture to jet cockpit control panels benefits
the assessment process from the work of such research efforts.
Dynamic Assessment  Using tests, interviews, and other tools of assessment,
 An interactive approach to psychological assessment that psychologists who specialize in the marketing and sale
usually follows a model of evaluation 🡪 intervention 🡪 evaluation products are involved in taking the pulse of consumers. They
 It is used in: educational, correctional, corporate, help corporations predict the public’s receptivity to a new
neuropsychological, clinical product, a new brand, or a new advertising or marketing
campaign.
 Psychologists working in the area of marketing help “diagnose”
Settings Where Assessments Are Conducted
what is wrong (and right) about brands, products, and
Educational settings
campaigns. On the basis of such assessments, these psychologists
 As mandated by law, tests are administered early in school life
might make recommendations regarding how new brands and
to help identify children who may have special needs. In addition
products can be made appealing to consumers, and when it is time
to school ability tests, another type of test commonly given to
for older brands and products to be retired or revitalized.
schools is an achievement test, which evaluates accomplishment
Governmental and organizational credentialing
or the degree of learning that has taken place.
 One of the many applications of measurement is in governmental
 The term diagnostic test refers to a tool of assessment used to
licensing, certification, or general credentialing of
help narrow down and identify areas of deficit to be targeted for
professionals.
intervention. In educational settings, diagnostic tests of reading,
 Before they are legally entitled to practice medicine, physicians
mathematics, and other academic subjects may be administered to
must pass an examination. Law school graduates cannot
assess the need for educational intervention as well as to establish
present themselves to the public as attorneys until they pass
or rule out eligibility for special education programs.
their state’s bar examination. Psychologists, too, must pass an
Clinical settings
examination before adopting the official title “psychologist.”
 Tests and many other tools of assessment are widely used in
 Members of some professions have formed organizations with
clinical settings such as public, private, and military hospitals,
requirements for membership that go beyond those of licensing or
inpatient and outpatient clinics, private-practice consulting rooms,
certification.
schools, and other institutions. These tools are used to help
screen or diagnose behavior problems. Academic research settings
 Conducting any sort of research typically entails
 The tests employed in clinical settings may be intelligence
measurement of some kind, and any academician who ever hopes
tests, personality tests, neuropsychological tests, or other
specialized instruments, depending on the presenting or to publish research should ideally have a sound knowledge of
measurement principles and tools of assessment.
suspected problem area.
Other settings
 The hallmark of testing in clinical settings is that the tests or
 Many different kinds of measurement procedures find application
measurement technique is employed with only one individual at
in a wide variety of settings.
a time. Group testing is primarily for screening─that is, identifying
those individuals who require further diagnostic evaluation.  Measurement may play an important role in program evaluation,
Counseling settings whether it is large-scale government program, or a small-scale
privately funded one.
 Assessment in counseling context may occur in environments
as diverse as schools, prisons, and governmental or privately  Tools of assessment can be found in use in research and
owned institutions. practice in every specialty area within psychology. For example,
 Regardless of the particular tools used, the ultimate objective of health psychology, a discipline that focuses on understanding the
role of psychological variables in the onset, course, treatment, and
many such assessments is the improvement of the assessee in
terms of adjustment, productivity, or some related variable. prevention of illness, disease, and disability.
 Measures of social and academic skills and measures of
personality, interests, attitudes, and values are among the many How Are Assessments Conducted?
types of tests that a counselor might administer to a client.  Responsible test users have obligations before, during, and after
Geriatric settings a test or any measurement procedure is administered.
 Wherever older individuals reside, they may at some point  For purposes of illustration, consider the administration of pencil-
require psychological assessment to evaluate cognitive, and-paper test. Before the test, ethical guidelines dictate that
psychological, adaptive, or other functioning. when test users have discretion with regard to the tests
administered, they should select and use only the test or tests

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that are most appropriate for the individual being tested. Before examinations required knowledge that usually came from either long
a test is administered, the test should be stored in a way that hours of study or work with a tutor.
reasonably ensures that its specific contents will not be made  In dynasties with state-sponsored examinations for official
known to the testtaker in advance. positions (referred to as imperial examination), the privileges of
 Another obligation of the test user before the test’s making the grade varied. During some periods, those who passed
administration is to ensure that a prepared and suitably trained the examination were entitled not only to a government job but
person administers the test properly. also to wear special garb; this entitled them to be accorded
 The test administrator (or examiner) must be familiar with the special courtesies by anyone they happened to meet.
test materials and procedures and must have at the test site all  In some dynasties, passing the examinations could result in
the materials needed to properly administer the test. Materials exemption from taxes. Passing the examination might even
needed might include a stopwatch, a supply of pencils, and a exempt one from government-sponsored interrogation by
sufficient number of test protocols. torture if the individual was suspected of committing a crime.
 With reference to testing and assessment, protocol typically Clearly, it paid to do well on these difficult examinations.
refers to the form or sheet or booklet on which a testtaker’s  Also intriguing from a historical perspective are ancient Greco-
responses are entered. Roman writings indicative of attempts to categorize people in
 Test users have the responsibility of ensuring that the room in terms of personality types. Such categorizations typically included
which the test will be conducted is suitable and conducive to reference to an overabundance or deficiency in some bodily
the testing. To the extent possible, distracting conditions such as fluid (such as blood or phlegm) as a factor believed to influence
excessive noise, heat, cold, interruptions, glaring sunlight, crowding, personality.
inadequate ventilation, and so forth should be avoided.  During the Middle Ages, a question of critical importance was
 During the test administration, and especially in one-on-one or “Who is in league with the Devil?” and various measurement
small-group testing, rapport between the examiner and the procedures were devised to address this question. It would not be
examinee can be critically important. In this context, rapport may until the Renaissance that psychological assessment in the modern
be defined as a working relationship between the examiner and sense began to emerge.
the examinee. Such a working relationship can sometimes be
achieved with a few words of small talk when examiner and Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century (Renaissance Period)
examinee are introduced.  By the eighteenth century, Christian von Wolff had anticipated
 After a test administration, test users have many obligations as psychology as a science and psychological measurement as a
well. These obligations range from safeguarding the test specialty within that science.
protocols to conveying the test results in a clearly  In 1859, the book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
understandable fashion. If third parties were present during testing Selection by Charles Darwin (1809–1882) was published. In this
or if anything else that might be considered out of the ordinary important, far-reaching work, Darwin argued that chance variation
happened during testing, it is the test user’s responsibility to make a in species would be selected or rejected by nature according to
note of such events on the report of the testing. Test scorers have adaptivity and survival value. He further argued that humans had
obligations as well. descended from the ape as a result of such chance genetic
 Test users who have responsibility for interpreting scores or variations.
other test results have obligation to do so in accordance with  History records that it was Darwin who spurred scientific
established procedures and ethical guidelines. interest in individual differences. Indeed, Darwin’s writing on
individual differences kindled interest in research on heredity
Assessment of people with disabilities by his half cousin, Francis Galton.
 People with disabilities are assessed for exactly the same  In the course of his efforts to explore and quantify individual
reasons people with no disabilities are assessed: to obtain differences between people, Galton became an extremely
employment, to earn a professional credential, to be screened for influential contributor to the field of measurement (Forrest,
psychopathology, and so forth. 1974).
 A number of laws have been enacted that affect the conditions  Galton (1869) aspired to classify people “according to their
under which tests are administered to people with disabling natural gifts” and to ascertain their “deviation from an average”
conditions. For example, one law mandates the development and  Galton would be credited with devising or contributing to the
implementation of “alternate assessment” programs for children who, development of many contemporary tools of psychological
as a result of a disability, could not otherwise participate in state- assessment, including questionnaires, rating scales, and self-report
and district-wide assessments. inventories.
 In general, alternate assessment is typically accomplished by  Galton’s initial work on heredity was done with sweet peas, in
means of some accommodation made to the assessee. The verb part because there tended to be fewer variations among the peas in
to accommodate may be defined as “to adapt, adjust, or make a single pod.
suitable.” In the context of psychological testing and assessment,  In this work Galton pioneered the use of a statistical concept
accommodation may be defined as the adaptation of a test, central to psychological experimentation and testing: the
procedure, situation, or the substitution of one test for another, coefficient of correlation. Although Karl Pearson developed the
to make the assessment more suitable for an assessee with product-moment correlation technique, its roots can be traced
exceptional needs. directly to the work of Galton (Magnello & Spies, 1984).
 From heredity in peas, Galton’s interest turned to heredity in
HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND LEGAL/ETHICAL humans and various ways of measuring aspects of people and
CONSIDERATIONS their abilities.
Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century  At an exhibition in London in 1884, Galton displayed his
 It is believed that tests and testing programs first came into Anthropometric Laboratory, where for a few pence you could be
being in China as early as 2200 B.C.E. (DuBois, 1966, 1970). measured on variables such as height (standing), height (sitting),
Testing was instituted as a means of selecting who, of many arm span, weight, breathing capacity, strength of pull, strength of
applicants, would obtain government jobs. squeeze, swiftness of blow, keenness of sight, memory of form,
 In a culture with a long tradition of one’s social position being discrimination of color, and steadiness of hand.
determined solely by the family into which one was born, the  Through his own efforts and his urging of educational institutions to
fact that one could improve one’s lot in life by scoring high on an keep anthropometric records on their students, Galton excited
examination was a significant step forward. In reality, passing the

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widespread interest in the measurement of psychology-related article in that journal was entitled “Clinical Psychology”
variables. (Witmer, 1907).
 Assessment was also an important activity at the first
experimental psychology laboratory, founded at the University Twentieth century
of Leipzig in Germany by Wilhelm Max Wundt (1832–1920), a The Measurement of Intelligence.
medical doctor whose title at the university was professor of  As early as 1895, Alfred Binet and his colleague Victor Henri
philosophy. published several articles in which they argued for the
 Wundt and his students tried to formulate a general description measurement of abilities such as memory and social
of human abilities with respect to variables such as reaction comprehension.
time, perception, and attention span.  In 1905, Binet and collaborator Theodore Simon published a
 In contrast to Galton, Wundt focused on how people were 30-item “measuring scale of intelligence” designed to help
similar, not different. In fact, Wundt viewed individual identify Paris schoolchildren with intellectual disability (Binet &
differences as a frustrating source of error in experimentation, Simon, 1905). The Binet test would subsequently go through many
and he attempted to control all extraneous variables in an effort revisions and translations—and, in the process, launch both the
to reduce error to a minimum. intelligence testing movement and the clinical testing movement.
 As we will see, such attempts are fairly routine in contemporary  In 1939 David Wechsler, a clinical psychologist at Bellevue
assessment. The objective is to ensure that any observed Hospital in New York City, introduced a test designed to measure
differences in performance are indeed due to differences adult intelligence.
between the people being measured and not to any extraneous  For Wechsler, intelligence was “the aggregate or global
variables. Manuals for the administration of many tests provide capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally,
explicit instructions designed to hold constant or “standardize” the and to deal effectively with his environment” (Wechsler, 1939, p.
conditions under which the test is administered. This is so that any 3).
differences in scores on the test are due to differences in the  Originally christened the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale, the
testtakers rather than to differences in the conditions under test was subsequently revised and renamed the Wechsler Adult
which the test is administered. Intelligence Scale (WAIS). The WAIS has been revised several
 In spite of the prevailing research focus on people’s similarities, times since then, and versions of Wechsler’s test have been
one of Wundt’s students at Leipzig, an American named James published that extend the age range of testtakers from early
McKeen Cattell completed a doctoral dissertation that dealt with childhood through senior adulthood.
individual differences—specifically, individual differences in  A natural outgrowth of the individually administered intelligence
reaction time. test devised by Binet was the group intelligence test. Group
 Inspired by his interaction with Galton, Cattell returned to the intelligence tests came into being in the United States in
University of Pennsylvania in 1888 and coined the term mental response to the military’s need for an efficient method of
test in an 1890 publication. screening the intellectual ability of World War I recruits.
 “Cattell more than any other person was in this fashion  This same need again became urgent as the United States
responsible for getting mental testing underway in America, and prepared for entry into World War II. Psychologists would again
it is plain that his motivation was similar to Galton’s and that he was be called upon by the government service to develop group
influenced, or at least reinforced, by Galton.” tests, administer them to recruits, and interpret the test data.
 Cattell went on to become professor and chair of the psychology After the war, psychologists returning from military service brought
department at Columbia University. Over the next 26 years, he not back a wealth of applied testing skills that would be useful in civilian
only trained many psychologists but also founded a number of as well as governmental applications.
publications (such as the Psychological Review, Science, and  Robert Yerkes, the president of American Psychological
American Men of Science). Association during that time, developed two structured group
 In 1921, Cattell was instrumental in founding the tests of human abilities:
Psychological Corporation, which named 20 of the country’s  Army Alpha – literate recruits
leading psychologists as its directors. The goal of the corporation  Army Beta – illiterate recruits
was the “advancement of psychology and the promotion of the The Measurement of Personality
useful applications of psychology.”  World War I had brought with it not only the need to screen the
 Other students of Wundt at Leipzig included Charles Spearman, intellectual functioning of recruits but also the need to screen
Victor Henri, Emil Kraepelin, E. B. Titchener, G. Stanley Hall, and for recruits’ general adjustment.
Lightner Witmer.  A governmental Committee on Emotional Fitness chaired by
 Spearman is credited with originating the concept of test psychologist Robert S. Woodworth was assigned the task of
reliability as well as building the mathematical framework for the developing a measure of adjustment and emotional stability
statistical technique of factor analysis. that could be administered quickly and efficiently to groups of
 Victor Henri is the Frenchman who would collaborate with recruits.
Alfred Binet on papers suggesting how mental tests could be  The committee developed several experimental versions of
used to measure higher mental processes (e.g., Binet & Henri, what were, in essence, paper-and-pencil psychiatric interviews.
1895a, 1895b, 1895c). To disguise the true purpose of one such test, the
 Psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin was an early experimenter with the questionnaire was labeled as a “Personal Data Sheet.” Draftees
word association technique as a formal test (Kraepelin, 1892, and volunteers were asked to indicate yes or no to a series of
1895). questions that probed for the existence of various kinds of
 Lightner Witmer received his Ph.D. from Leipzig and went on psychopathology. For example, one of the test questions was “Are
to succeed Cattell as director of the psychology laboratory at you troubled with the idea that people are watching you on the
the University of Pennsylvania. street?”
 Witmer has been cited as the “little-known founder of clinical  After the war, Woodworth developed a personality test for
psychology” (McReynolds, 1987), owing at least in part to his being civilian use that was based on the Personal Data Sheet. He
challenged to treat a “chronic bad speller” in March of 1896 called it the Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory. This
(Brotemarkle, 1947). instrument was the first widely used self-report measure of
 Later that year Witmer founded the first psychological clinic in personality.
the United States at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1907  In general, self-report refers to a process whereby assessees
Witmer founded the journal Psychological Clinic. The first themselves supply assessment-related information by

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responding to questions, keeping a diary, or self-monitoring Verbal communication

thoughts or behaviors.  Language, the means by which information is communicated,
 Personality tests that employ self-report methodologies have both is a key yet sometimes overlooked variable in the assessment
advantages and disadvantages. On the face of it, respondents are process. Most obviously, the examiner and the examinee must
arguably the best-qualified people to provide answers about speak the same language.
themselves. However, there are also compelling arguments against  This is necessary not only for the assessment to proceed but also
respondents supplying such information. For example, respondents for the assessor’s conclusions regarding the assessment to be
may have poor insight into themselves. People might honestly reasonably accurate. If a test is in written form and includes written
believe some things about themselves that in reality are not instructions, then the testtaker must be able to read and
true. And regardless of the quality of their insight, some respondents comprehend what is written. When the language in which the
are unwilling to reveal anything about themselves that is very assessment is conducted is not the assessee’s primary
personal or that could put them in a negative light. language, he or she may not fully comprehend the instructions
 Various methods were developed to provide measures of or the test items.
personality that did not rely on self-report. One such method or  When an assessment is conducted with the aid of a translator,
approach to personality assessment came to be described as different types of problems may emerge. Depending upon the
projective in nature. translator’s skill and professionalism, subtle nuances of meaning
 A projective test is one in which an individual is assumed to may be lost in translation, or unintentional hints to the correct or
“project” onto some ambiguous stimulus his or her own unique more desirable response may be conveyed. Some vocabulary
needs, fears, hopes, and motivation. The ambiguous stimulus words may change meaning or have dual meanings when
might be an inkblot, a drawing, a photograph, or something else. translated.
 Perhaps the best known of all projective tests is the Rorschach, a Nonverbal communication and behavior
series of inkblots developed by the Swiss psychiatrist Hermann  Humans communicate not only through verbal means but also
Rorschach. through nonverbal means. Facial expressions, finger and hand
 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed by Henry signs, and shifts in one’s position in space may all convey
Murray and Christiana Morgan in 1935, uses pictures as messages. Of course, the messages conveyed by such body
projective stimuli.at the Harvard Psychological Clinic. When language may be different from culture to culture.
pictures or photos are used as projective stimuli, respondents are  In American culture, for example, one who fails to look another
typically asked to tell a story about the picture they are shown. The person in the eye when speaking may be viewed as deceitful or
stories told are then analyzed in terms of what needs and having something to hide. However, in other cultures, failure to make
motivations the respondents may be projecting onto the ambiguous eye contact when speaking may be a sign of respect.
pictures. Standards of evaluation
 In 1943, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI),  Judgments related to certain psychological traits can also be
began a new era for structured personality tests. culturally relative. For example, whether specific patterns of
 Raymond Cattell also introduced the Sixteen Personality behavior are considered to be male- or female-appropriate will
Factor Questionnaire (16PF), one of the most well-constructed depend on the prevailing societal standards regarding masculinity
personality test which was developed with the aid of factor and femininity. In some societies, for example, it is role-appropriate
analysis-----a method of finding minimum number of dimensions for women to fight wars and put food on the table while the men are
called factors, to account for a large number of variables occupied in more domestic activities.

Culture and Assessment Test and Group Membership

 Culture may be defined as “the socially transmitted behavior  A test should measure what it purports to measure without
patterns, beliefs, and products of work of a particular discriminating the candidate through their group membership
population, community, or group of people” Affirmative action
The term affirmative action refers to voluntary and mandatory
Evolving Interest in Culture-Related Issues efforts undertaken by federal, state, and local governments,
 Henry H. Goddard, who had been highly instrumental in private employers, and schools to combat discrimination and to
getting Binet’s test adopted for use in various settings in the promote equal opportunity for all in education and employment
United States, was the chief researcher assigned to the project.  Affirmative action seeks to create equal opportunity actively,
 Early on, Goddard raised questions about how meaningful such not passively.
tests are when used with people from various cultural and Psychology, Tests, and Public Policy
language backgrounds.  Members of the public call upon government policy-makers to
 Goddard (1913) used interpreters in test administration, employed protect them from perceived threats—denial of educational
a bilingual psychologist, and administered mental tests to selected advancement, dismissal from a job, denial of parole, denial of
immigrants who appeared to have intellectual disability to trained custody, etc.—through psychological tests
observers.
Culture-Specific Tests Legal and Ethical Considerations
 Test designed for use with people with from one culture but Laws
not from another  Rules that individuals must obey for the good of the society as
Culture-Fair Tests a whole or rules thought to be for the good of society as a whole.
 Tests which are developed to reduce cultural bias Ethics
 A body of principles of right, proper, or good conduct.
Some Issues Regarding Culture and Assessment Code of Professional Ethics
Communication between assessor and assessee is a most  It defines the standard of care expected of members of that
basic part of assessment. Assessors must be sensitive to any profession.
differences between the language or dialect familiar to assessees Standard of Care
and the language in which the assessment is conducted. Assessors  The level at which the average, reasonable, and prudent
must also be sensitive to the degree to which assessees have professional would provide diagnostic or therapeutic services
been exposed to the dominant culture and the extent to which under the same or similar conditions.
they have made a conscious choice to become assimilated.
The Concerns of the Public

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The Concerns of the Profession needed for consent must, of course, be in language the testtaker
Test-User Qualification can understand.
 As early as 1950 an APA Committee on Ethical Standards for  If a testtaker is incapable of providing an informed consent to
Psychology published a report called Ethical Standards for the testing, such consent may be obtained from a parent or a legal
Distribution of Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Aids. This representative. Consent must be in written rather than oral form.
report defined three levels of tests in terms of the degree to  The written form should specify (1) the general purpose of the
which the test’s use required knowledge of testing and testing, (2) the specific reason it is being undertaken in the
psychology. present case, and (3) the general type of instruments to be
Level A: tests or aids that can adequately be administered, administered.
scored, and interpreted with the manual and general orientation  For situations in which it is deemed advisable not to obtain
Level B: tests or aids that require some technical knowledge of fully informed consent to evaluation, professional discretion is
test construction & use and of supporting psychological and in order. Testtakers might be given a minimum amount of
educational fields information before the testing.
Level C: tests and aids that require substantial understanding of  A full disclosure and debriefing would be made after the
testing and supporting psychological fields w/ supervised testing. Various professional organizations have created policies
experience in its usage and guidelines regarding deception in research. For example, the
 The obligations of professionals to testtakers are set forth in a APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002)
document called the Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education. provides that psychologists (a) do not use deception unless it is
Jointly authored and/or sponsored by the Joint Committee of Testing absolutely necessary, (b) do not use deception at all if it will
Practices, this document presents standards for educational test cause participants emotional distress, and (c) fully debrief
developers in four areas: (1) developing/selecting tests, (2) participants.
interpreting scores, (3) striving for fairness, and (4) informing The right to be informed of test findings
testtakers.  Testtakers have a right to be informed, in language they can
Testing for people with disabilities understand, of the nature of the findings with respect to a test
 Challenges analogous to those concerning testtakers from they have taken.
linguistic and cultural minorities are present when testing people with  They are also entitled to know what recommendations are
disabling conditions. being made as a consequence of the test data.
 Specifically, these challenges may include (1) transforming the  If the test results, findings, or recommendations made on the
test into a form that can be taken by the testtaker, (2) basis of test data are voided for any reason (such as
transforming the responses of the testtaker so that they are irregularities in the test administration), testtakers have a right
scorable, and (3) meaningfully interpreting the test data. to know that as well.
Computerized test administration, scoring, and interpretation  With sensitivity to the situation, the test user will inform the
 Computer-assisted psychological assessment (CAPA) has testtaker (and the parent or the legal representative or both) of
become more the norm than the exception. An ever-growing the purpose of the test, the meaning of the score relative to
number of psychological tests can be purchased on disc or those of other testtakers, and the possible limitations and
administered and scored online. In many respects, the relative margins of error of the test.
simplicity, convenience, and range of potential testing activities  Regardless of whether such reporting is done in person or in
 For assessment professionals, some major issues with regard to writing, a qualified professional should be available to answer
CAPA are as follows. any further questions that testtakers (or their parents or legal
 Access to test administration, scoring, and interpretation software. representatives) have about the test scores. Ideally, counseling
Despite purchase restrictions on software and technological resources will be available for those who react adversely to the
safeguards to guard against unauthorized copying, software may still information presented.
be copied. Unlike test kits, which may contain manipulatable The right to privacy and confidentiality
objects, manuals, and other tangible items, a computer-  Privilege in the psychologist–client relationship belongs to
administered test may be easily copied and duplicated. the client, not the psychologist. The competent client can direct
 Comparability of pencil-and-paper and computerized versions of the psychologist to disclose information to some third party
tests. Many tests once available only in a paper-and-pencil (such as an attorney or an insurance carrier), and the psychologist
format are now available in computerized form as well. In many is obligated to make the disclosure.
instances the comparability of the traditional and the computerized  In some rare instances the psychologist may be ethically (if not
forms of the test has not been researched or has only insufficiently legally) compelled to disclose information if that information
been researched. will prevent harm either to the client or to some endangered
 The value of computerized test interpretations. Many tests third party.
available for computerized administration also come with  An illustrative case would be the situation where a client details a
computerized scoring and interpretation procedures. Thousands plan to commit suicide or homicide. In such an instance the
of words are spewed out every day in the form of test interpretation psychologist would be legally and ethically compelled to take
results, but the value of these words in many cases is questionable. reasonable action to prevent the client’s intended outcome from
 Unprofessional, unregulated “psychological testing” online. A occurring.
growing number of Internet sites purport to provide, usually for  Another important confidentiality-related issue has to do with what
a fee, online psychological tests. Yet the vast majority of the a psychologist must keep confidential versus what must be
tests offered would not meet a psychologist’s standards. disclosed. A wrong judgment on the part of the clinician regarding
Assessment professionals wonder about the long-term effect of the revelation of confidential communication may lead to a lawsuit or
these largely unprofessional and unregulated “psychological testing” worse.
sites.
 Another ethical mandate with regard to confidentiality involves the
safekeeping of test data. Test users must take reasonable
The Right of Test Takers precautions to safeguard test records. If these data are stored in
The right of informed consent a filing cabinet, then the cabinet should be locked and preferably
 Testtakers have a right to know why they are being evaluated, made of steel. If these data are stored in a computer, electronic
how the test data will be used, and what (if any) information will safeguards must be taken to ensure only authorized access.
be released to whom.  The individual or institution should have a reasonable policy
 With full knowledge of such information, testtakers give their covering the length of time that records are stored and when, if
informed consent to be tested. The disclosure of the information
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ever, the records will be deemed to be outdated, invalid, or  We explain the test results through a non-technical language.
useful only from an academic perspective.  We explain findings and test results to our clients or
designated representatives except when the relationship
The right to the least stigmatizing label precludes the provision of explanation of results.
 The Standards advise that the least stigmatizing labels should  We supervise the release of test results when it needs to be
always be assigned when reporting test results. shared with schools, social agencies, the court or industry.

Ethical Standards and Procedures in Specific Functions Test Security

Bases for Assessment  The administration and handling of all test materials shall be
 The expert opinions that we provide through our handled only by qualified users or personnel.
recommendations, reports, and diagnostic or evaluative statements
are based on substantial information and appropriate
Assessment by Unqualified Person
assessment techniques.
 We do not promote the use of assessment tools and methods
 We provide expert opinions regarding the psychological
by unqualified persons except for training purposes with
characteristics of a person only after employing adequate
adequate supervision.
assessment procedures and examination to support our
 We ensure that test protocols, their interpretations and all
conclusions and recommendations.
other records are kept secured from unqualified persons.
 If we were asked to provide opinions about an individual without
conducting an examination on the basis of review of existing
test results and reports, we discuss the limitation.
Informed Consent in Assessment
 We gather informed consent prior to the assessment of our
clients except for the following instances:
References:
 When it is mandated by law.
Cohen, R. J., & Swerdlik, M. E. (2017). Psychological testing and
 When it is implied such as in routine educational, institutional,
assessment (9th ed.). McGraw-
and organizational activity.
Hill Education.
 When the purpose of the assessment is to determine the
individual’s decisional capacity.
 We educate our clients about the nature of our services, Kaplan, R. & Sacuzzo, D. (2019). Psychological Testing: Principles,
financial arrangements, potential risks, and limits of Applications, and Issues (9th
confidentiality. ed.). Cengage Learning
 In instances, where a third party interpreter is needed, the
confidentiality of test results and the security of the tests must
be ensured.
Assessment Tools
 We judiciously select and administer only those tests which
are pertinent to the reasons for referral and purpose of
assessment.
 We use data collection methods and procedures that are
consistent with the current scientific and professional
developments.
 We use tests that are standardized, valid, reliable, and had a
normative data directly referable to the population of our
clients.
 We administer assessment tools that are appropriate to the
language, competence and other relevant characteristics of our
client.
Obsolete and Outdated Test Results
 We do not base our interpretations, conclusions, and
recommendations on outdated tests results.
 We do not provide interpretations, conclusions, and
recommendations on the basis of obsolete tests.
Interpreting Assessment Results
 In fairness to our clients, under no circumstances should we report
the test results without taking into consideration the validity,
reliability, and appropriateness of the test.
 We interpret assessment results while considering the
purpose of the assessment and other factors.
Release of Test Data
 It is our responsibility to ensure that test results and
interpretations are not used by persons other than those
explicitly agreed upon by the referral sources prior to the
assessment procedure.
 We do not release test data in the forms of raw and scaled
scores, client’s responses to test questions, or stimuli, and
notes regarding the client’s statements and behaviors during the
examination unless regulated by court.

Explaining Assessment Results

 We release test results only to the sources of referral and with
a written permission from the client if it is a self-referral.
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