The University of Guyana

Faculty of Natural Sciences

LECTURE 4
Computer and Information
Security Fundamentals
(CSE 2203)
SEMESTER II (2021-2022)

Sandra Khan BSc MSc CISSP PG Dip Education (Higher Ed)

[email protected]

Department of Computer Science

The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Before we begin..
Zoom courtesy rules
● Mute our microphones
● Raise Hands if you have questions or
● Ask in Chat
● Logistics:
●Will be using Moodle to manage course
●2 hours of Lectures twice weekly:

●Thursdays (10:15 – 12:10 hrs)

●Office Hours:
●Time: Thursdays 13:00 – 15:00 hrs

●Meeting ID: 988 7162 8748

●Email: [email protected]

●Whatsapp: 686-1770

Department of Computer Science / CSE2203 / 2021-2022/ Lecturer: Sandra Khan

The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Announcements
- Tutorial Groups

- Tutorial 3 Presentations – this

week (5%)

- Assignment 1 (10%)
- Write up due
April 21st, 2022
- BONUS MARKS!!! Up to 5% for
participation in the Online
Tutorial Forum

Department of Computer Science / CSE2203 / 2021-2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Course Outline
Week 1 – Security Basics
Week 2 – Introduction to Cryptography
Week 3 - Authentication, Encryption (DES/RSA), Hashing
Week 4 - Integrity – Digital Certificates, Message Digests
Week 5 – Network and Internet Security
Week 6 - Internet Commerce, SSL, IPSec, Firewalls
Week 7 – VPN / IDS
Week 8 & 9 – Wireless Security
Week 10 – System Security
Week 11 – Access Control
Week 12 – Application Security
Week 13 – Cyber Crime

Department of Computer Science / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Recap

In the last lecture, we discussed:

Fundamental principles of cryptography and fundamental

principles of cryptanalysis:

Cryptography – how ciphers are built

Cryptanalysis - how encryption systems are “broken”

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson students will be able to:

● Discuss Symmetric and Asymmetric Cryptography

● Describe DES and AES
● Explain RSA
● Explain the uses of cryptography

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Recap Question

What is the difference between a stream cipher and a

block cipher?

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Lesson Outline
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

• Symmetric and Asymmetric Cryptosystems

• DES, Double DES, Triple DES
• AES

[Lilien, 2007]

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Symmetric and Asymmetric
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Cryptosystems
◼ Symmetric encryption = secret key encryption
◼ KE = KD — called a secret key
◼ Only sender S and receiver R know the key

[cf. J. Leiwo]

◼ As long as the key remains secret, it also provides

authentication (= proof of sender’s identity)

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Symmetric and Asymmetric
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Cryptosystems

◼ Problems with symmetric encryption:

◼ Ensuring security of the “key channel”
◼ Need an efficient key distribution infrastructure
◼ A separate key needed for each communicating S-R pair
◼ For n communicating users, need:

n * (n -1) /2 keys

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Symmetric and Asymmetric
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Cryptosystems
◼ Asymmetric encryption = public key encryption (PKE)
◼ KE ≠ KD — public and private keys

◼ PKE systems solve the symmetric encryption problem

◼ Need no secure key distribution channel
◼ => easy key distribution

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Symmetric and Asymmetric
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Cryptosystems
◼ One PKE approach:
◼ R keeps her private key KD
◼ R can distribute the correspoding public key KE to anybody
who wants to send encrypted msgs to her
◼ No need for secure channel to send KE

◼ Can even post the key on an open Web site — it is public!

◼ Only private KD can decode msgs encoded with public KE!

◼ Anybody (KE is public) can encode

◼ Only owner of KD can decode

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Symmetric and Asymmetric
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Cryptosystems
Symmetric Asymmetric

Key: K (= KD = KE) ◼ Key pair: < KE, KD >, KD ≠ KE

◼ KD kept secret
K kept secret KE public (usually; or known to n users)
◼ KE distributed to k users before first
K agreed upon between 2 parties in communication (by owner of KD)
advance
◼ Like using a safe with locked deposit slot
Like using a “simple” safe (with one ◼ Need deposit slot key to slide doc into

door) safe
◼ Need safe door key to get doc from
• Need safe key to deposit doc in
safe safe
• Need safe key to get doc from [Symmetric - cf. Barbara Endicott-Popovsky,
safe U.Washington, Source: D. Frincke, U. of Idaho]

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Symmetric and Asymmetric
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Cryptosystems
Secret Key Public Key (Asymmetric)
(Symmetric)
No. of keys 1 2
Protection of Must be kept secret One key must be kept
keys secret; the other can be
freely exposed
Best uses Cryptographic workhorse; secrecy and Key exchange,
integrity of data—single characters to authentication
blocks of data, messages, files
Key Must be out-of-band Public key can be used to
distribution distribute other keys

Speed Fast Slow

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Symmetric and Asymmetric
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Cryptosystems
Need for KEY MANAGEMENT
◼ Secret/Private key must be carefully managed in both SE

and PKE (asymm.) cryptosystems

◼ Storing / safeguarding / activating-deactivating

Keys can expire - e.g. to take a key

away from a fired employee

◼ Public key must be carefully distributed in PKE systems

=> Key management is a major issue
LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
 DES (Data Encryption
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Standard)

◼ Outline
1. Background and History of DES
2. Overview of DES
3. Double and Triple DES
4. Security of DES

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Background & History of DES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

◼ Early 1970’s - NBS (Nat’l Bureau of Standards) recognized general

public’s need for a secure crypto system
NBS – part of US gov’t / Now: NIST – Nat’l Inst. of Stand’s & Technology

◼ “Encryption for the masses” [A. Striegel]

◼ Existing US gov’t crypto systems were not meant to be made

public
◼ E.g. DoD, State Dept.

◼ Problems with proliferation of commercial encryption devices

◼ Incompatible

◼ Not extensively tested by independent body

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Background & History of DES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

◼ 1972 - NBS calls for proposals for a public crypto system

◼ Criteria:

◼ Highly secure / easy to understand / publishable /

available to all / adaptable to diverse app’s /
economical / efficient to use / able to be validated / exportable
▪ In truth: Not too strong (for NSA, etc.)

◼ 1974 – IBM proposed its Lucifer

◼ DES based on it
◼ Tested by NSA (Nat’l Security Agency) and the general public

◼ Nov. 1976 – DES adopted as US standard for sensitive but unclassified data /
communication
◼ Later adopted by ISO (Int’l Standards Organization)
◼ Official name: DEA - Data Encryption Algorithm / DEA-1 abroad

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Overview of DES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

▪ DES - a block cipher

▪ a product cipher
▪ 16 rounds (iterations) on the input bits (of P)
▪ substitutions (for confusion) and
permutations (for diffusion)
▪ Each round with a round key
▪ Generated from the user-supplied key
▪ Easy to implement in S/W or H/W

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Overview of DES
The University of Guyana
Basic Structure
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Input
◼ Input: 64 bits (a block)
Input Permutation
◼ Li/Ri– left/right half of the input block for
iteration i (32 bits) – subject to substitution L0 R0

S and permutation P
S K
◼ K - user-supplied key
P
◼ Ki - round key:
◼ 56 bits used +8 unused
(unused for E but often used for error checking) L1 R1
K1
◼ Output: 64 bits (a block)
L16 R16
◼ Note: Ri becomes L(i+1) K16

◼ All basic op’s are simple logical ops Final Permutation

◼ Left shift / XOR [Fig. – cf. J. Leiwo] Output
LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
 Overview of DES
Generation of Round Keys
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

▪ key – user-supplied key (input)

key ▪ PC-1, PC-2 – permutation tables

PC-1
PC-2 also extracts 48 of 56 bits
▪ K1 – K16 – round keys (outputs)
C0 D0 ▪ Length(Ki) = 48
▪ Ci / Di – confusion / diffusion (?)
LSH LSH ▪ LSH –left shift (rotation) tables
PC-2 K1

C1 D1

LSH LSH
PC-2 K16
[Fig: cf. Barbara Endicott-Popovsky, U. Washington]
LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
 Problems with DES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

▪ Diffie, Hellman 1977 prediction: “In a few years, technology

would allow DES to be broken in days.”

▪ Key length is fixed (= 56)

▪ 256 keys ~ 1015 keys
▪ “Becoming” too short for faster computers
▪ 1997: 3,500 machines – 4 months
▪ 1998: special „DES cracker” h/w – 4 days

▪ Design decisions not public

▪ Suspected of having backdoors
▪ Speculation: To facilitate government access?

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Double and Triple DES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

▪ Double DES:
▪ Use double DES encryption
C = E(k2, E(k1, P) )
▪ Expected to multiply difficulty of breaking the encryption
▪ Not true!
▪ In general, 2 encryptions are not better than one
[Merkle, Hellman, 1981]
▪ Only doubles the attacker’s work
▪ Triple DES:
▪ Is it C = E(k3, E(k2, E(k1, P) ) ?
▪ Not soooo simple!
LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
 Double and Triple DES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

▪ Triple DES:
▪ Tricks used:
D not E in the 2nd step, k1 used twice (in steps 1 & 3)
▪ It is:
C = E(k1, D(k2, E(k1, P) )
and
P = D(k1, E(k2, D(k1, C) )

▪ Doubles the effective key length

▪ 112-bit key is quite strong
▪ Even for today’s computers
▪ For all feasible known attacks

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Security of DES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

1997 researchers using over 3,500 machines in

parallel were able to infer a DES key in four months’
work

1998 for approximately $100,000, researchers built a

special “DES cracker” machine that could find a DES
key in approximately four days

Hence need for better and stronger algorithm

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
 Security of DES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

▪ So, is DES insecure?

▪ No, not yet
▪ 1997 attack required a lot of coperation
▪ The 1998 special-purpose machine is still very
expensive
▪ Triple DES still beyond the reach of these 2 attacks
▪ But ...
▪ In 1995, NIST (formerly NBS) began search for
new strong encryption standard
LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
 The Clipper Story
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

▪ ... Or: How not to set up a standard

▪ A scenario
▪ Only a single electronic copy of a corporation’s crucial (and
sensitive) document
▪ To prevent espionage, strong encryption used to protect that
document
▪ Only CEO knows the key
▪ CEO gets hit by a truck
▪ Is the document lost forever?

▪ Key escrow (a depository) facilitates recovery of the

document if the key is lost
LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
 The Clipper Story
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

▪ 1993 - Clipper - U.S. Government’s attempt to

mandate key escrow
▪ Secret algorithm, invented by National Security Agency
▪ Only authorities, can recover any communications
▪ Add an escrow key and split into halves
▪ Give each half to a different authority
▪ If there is a search warrant, authorities can combine
their halves and recover intercepted communication
▪ Of course, government will use it for legitimate
purposes only

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 The Clipper Story
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

▪ Clipper failed big time:

▪ Classified algorithm, h/w (Clipper chip) implement’s only
▪ Equipment designed AND keys provided by government
▪ No export of equipment
▪ Public relations disaster
▪ “Electronic civil liberties" organizations (incl. Electronic Privacy Information
Center & Electronic Frontier Foundation) challenged the Clipper chip
proposal
▪ Their claims:
▪ It would subject citizens to increased, possibly illegal, government
surveillance
▪ Strength of encryption could not be evaluated by the public (bec.
secret algorithm) – might be insecure

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 AES (Advanced Encryption
The University of Guyana
Standard)
Faculty of Natural Sciences

◼ ... Or: How to set up a standard

◼ Outline
1. The AES Contest
2. Overview of Rijndael
3. Strength of AES
4. Comparison of DES and AES

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 The AES Contest
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

◼ 1997 – NIST calls for proposals

◼ Criteria:
◼ Unclassifed code

◼ Publicly disclosed

◼ Royalty-free worldwide

◼ Symmetric block cipher for 128-bit blocks

◼ Usable with keys of 128, 192, and 256 bits

◼ 1998 – 15 algorithms selected

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
 The AES Contest
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

◼ 1999 – 5 finalists [cf. J. Leiwo]

◼ MARS by IBM
◼ RC6 by RSA Laboratories
◼ Rijndael by Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen
◼ Serpent by Ross Anderson, Eli Biham and Lars Knudsen
◼ Twofish by Bruce Schneier, John Kelsey, Doug Whiting, Dawid Wagner,
Chris Hall and Niels Ferguson

◼ Evaluation of finalists
◼ Public and private scrutiny
◼ Key evaluation areas:
security / cost or efficiency of operation /
ease of software implementation

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 The AES Contest
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

◼ 2001- … and the winner is …

Rijndael (RINE-dahl)
Authors: Vincent Rijmen + Joan Daemen (Dutchmen)

◼ Adopted by US gov’t as
Federal Info Processing Standard 197 (FIPS 197)

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Overview of Rijndael/AES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

◼ Similar to DES – cyclic type of approach

◼ 128-bit blocks of P
◼ # of iterations based on key length
◼ 128-bit key => 9 “rounds” (called rounds, not cycles)

◼ 192-bit key => 11 rounds

◼ 256-bit key => 13 rounds

◼ Basic ops for a round:

◼ Substitution – byte level (confusion)
◼ Shift row (transposition) – depends on key length (diff.)
◼ Mix columns – LSH and XOR (confusion +diffusion)
◼ Add subkey – XOR used (confusion)
LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
 Strength of AES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

◼ Not much experience so far (since 2001)

◼ But:
◼ Extensive cryptanalysis by US gov’t and
independent experts
◼ Dutch inventors have no ties to NSA or other US
gov’t bodies (less suspicion of trapdoor)
◼ Solid math basis
◼ Despite seemingly simple steps within rounds

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Comparison of DES & AES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

DES AES
Date 1976 1999
Block size [bits] 64 128
Key length [bits] 56 (effect.) 128, 192, 256, or more
Encryption substitution, substitution, shift, bit
Primitives permutation mixing
Cryptographic confusion, confusion,
Primitives diffusion diffusion
Design open open
Design closed open
Rationale
Selection secret secret, but accepted
process public comments
Source IBM, enhan- independent Dutch
ced by NSA cryptographers

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Comparison of DES & AES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

◼ Weaknesses in AES?
◼ 20+ yrs of experience with DES eliminated fears of its
weakness (intentional or not)
◼ Might be naïve…

◼ Experts pored over AES for 2-year review period

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Comparison of DES & AES
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

◼ Longevity of AES?
◼ DES is 30 yrs old (1976)
◼ DES-encrypted message can be cracked in days

◼ Longevity of AES more difficult to answer

◼ Can extend key length to > 256 bits (DES: 56)
◼ 2 * key length => 4 * number of keys
◼ Can extend number of rounds (DES: 16)
◼ Extensible AES seems to be significantly better than DES, but..
◼ Human ingenuity is unpredicatble!

=> Need to incessantly search for better and better

encryption algorithms
LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
 Asymmetric Cryptography -
The University of Guyana
RSA
Faculty of Natural Sciences

Rivest-Shamir-Adelman Algorithm

Public key system introduced in 1978

Named after three inventors
Uses two keys – one for encryption and one for
decryption

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Four Applications of
The University of Guyana
Cryptography
Faculty of Natural Sciences

Hash functions
Key exchange
Digital signatures
Certificates

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Hash Functions
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

Important for integrity

Put a shield or seal around a file by computing a
cryptographic function called hash or checksum
or message digest of a file
Examples:
• MD4, MD5 (Message Digest) – produce 128 bit
• SHA/SHS (Secure Algorithm or Standards) – produce 160-bit digest

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Key Exchange
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

Example: Web browser connecting to shopping

website
Encrypted session must be established
S = sender of protected information
R = receiver of protected information
Establish assurance that information came from
S
Public key cryptography can help here
LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
 Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

Does not require preshared public keys

S and R uses simple arithmetic to exchange a secret
They agree on field number n and starting number g
Each thinks of a secret number, say, s and r.
S sends to R gs and R sends to S gr.
Then S computes (gr)s and R computes (gs)r, which
are the same, so grs = gsr becomes their shared
secret.

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Digital Signatures
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

Provide reliable means to ensure the origin of

data
Cryptographic hash codes are used to support
digital signatures
Cryptographic hash codes offer a fast, fairly
reliable way of determining whether a piece of
data has been modified between sender and
receiver

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Digital Signatures
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

It must be unforgeable
It must be authentic
It is not alterable
It is not reusable

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Digital Signatures
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

PKE is ideally suited to digital signatures

If S wishes to send M to R, S uses the
authenticity transformation to produce D(M, KS).
S then sends D(M, KS) to R. R decodes the
message with the public key transformation of S

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

 Digital Certificate
The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences

Binds a public key and users’ identity

Signed by Certificate of Authority (CA)
Example – Two people
Edward posts his public key in public but retains
private key
Diana creates public key and includes it into
message with her identity
Edward signs (affirms Diana’s public key and
identity) by creating has value and then encrypting
message and hash value with private key

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

The University of Guyana FURTHER INFORMATION
Faculty of Natural Sciences

Course notes and references are available via Moodle.

Required Readings:

Pfleeger, C. P., & Pfleeger, S. L. (2015). Security in

computing: Chapters 2 & 12

Department of Computer Science

The University of Guyana
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Readings
Required Reading(s)

Pfleeger, C. P., & Pfleeger, S. L. (2015). Security in

computing. Prentice Hall Professional Technical Reference.

Stallings, W. (2006). Cryptography and Network Security, 4/E.

Pearson Education India.

Recommended Reading(s)
Stallings, W. (2007). Network security essentials: applications
and standards. Pearson Education India.

https://www.sans.org/security-resources/glossary-of-terms/
Department of Computer Science / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan
The University of Guyana REFERENCES
Faculty of Natural Sciences

Martin,K.(2009). Intro to Cryptography [PowerPoint

Presentation]. Retrieved from Royal Holloway ISG

Pfleeger, C. P., & Pfleeger, S. L. (2015). Security in

computing. Prentice Hall Professional Technical Reference.
Lilien, L. (2007). Introduction to Cryptology (Section 3, Ch. 2. P1).
Department of Computer Science, Western Michigan University

LECTURE 4 / CSE2203 / 2022 / Lecturer: Sandra Khan

End of Lecture 4