Differential calculus

35
Total differential, rates of change and
small changes

∂z
35.1 Total differential = 6u (i.e. v and w are kept constant)
∂u
In Chapter 34, partial differentiation is introduced for ∂z
= −2 + 8w3 v
the case where only one variable changes at a time, ∂v
the other variables being kept constant. In practice, (i.e. u and w are kept constant)
variables may all be changing at the same time. ∂z
If z = f (u, v, w, . . . ), then the total differential, = 12w2 v2 (i.e. u and v are kept constant)
∂w
dz, is given by the sum of the separate partial
differentials of z, Hence
dz = 6u du + (8vw3 − 2) dv + (12v2 w2 ) dw
∂z ∂z ∂z
i.e. dz = du + dv + dw + . . . (1)
∂u ∂v ∂w
Problem 3. The pressure p, volume V and tem-
perature T of a gas are related by pV = kT , where
k is a constant. Determine the total differentials
Problem 1. If z = f (x, y) and z = x 2 y3 + (a) dp and (b) dT in terms of p, V and T .
2x
+ 1, determine the total differential, dz.
y G
∂p ∂p
(a) Total differential dp = dT + dV .
∂T ∂V
The total differential is the sum of the partial kT
differentials, Since pV = kT then p =
V
∂p k ∂p kT
∂z ∂z hence = and =− 2
i.e. dz =dx + dy ∂T V ∂V V
∂x ∂y k kT
∂z 2 Thus dp = dT − 2 dV
= 2xy3 + (i.e. y is kept constant) V V
∂x y pV
Since pV = kT , k =
∂z 2x ! " T ! "
= 3x 2 y2 2 (i.e. x is kept constant) pV pV
∂y y T
! " ! " T T
3 2 2 2 2x Hence dp = dT − dV
Hence dz = 2xy + dx + 3x y − 2 dy V V2
y y p p
i.e. dp = dT − dV
T V
Problem 2. If z = f (u, v, w) and z = 3u2 − ∂T ∂T
2v + 4w3 v2 find the total differential, dz. (b) Total differential dT = dp + dV
∂p ∂V
pV
The total differential Since pV = kT , T =
k
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂T V ∂T p
dz = du + dv + dw hence = and =
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂p k ∂V k
350 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

V p
Thus dT = dp + dV and substituting Problem 4. If z = f (x, y) and z = 2x 3 sin 2y find
k k
pV the rate of change of z, correct to 4 significant
k= gives: figures, when x is 2 units and y is π/6 radians
T
and when x is increasing at 4 units/s and y is
V p decreasing at 0.5 units/s.
dT = ! " dp + ! " dV
pV pV
T T
Using equation (2), the rate of change of z,
T T
i.e. dT = dp + dV
p V dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
Now try the following exercise.
Since z = 2x 3 sin 2y, then
Exercise 141 Further problems on the total
differential ∂z ∂z
= 6x 2 sin 2y and = 4x 3 cos 2y
In Problems 1 to 5, find the total differential dz. ∂x ∂y

1. z = x 3 + y2 [3x 2 dx + 2y dy] dx
Since x is increasing at 4 units/s, = +4
dt
2. z = 2xy − cos x [(2y + sin x) dx + 2x dy] dy
# $ and since y is decreasing at 0.5 units/s, = −0.5
x−y 2y 2x dt
3. z = dx − dy dz
x+y (x + y)2 (x + y)2 Hence = (6x 2 sin 2y)(+4) + (4x 3 cos 2y)(−0.5)
# $ dt
x = 24x 2 sin 2y − 2x 3 cos 2y
4. z = x ln y ln y d x + dy
y π
√ When x = 2 units and y = radians, then
x 6
5. z = xy + −4 dz
y
#! " ! √ " $ = 24(2) sin [2(π/6)] − 2(2)3 cos [2(π/6)]
2
1 x dt
y + √ dx + x − 2 dy = 83.138 − 8.0
2y x y
6. If z = f (a, b, c) and z = 2ab − 3b2 c + abc, dz
Hence the rate of change of z, = 75.14 units/s,
find the total differential, dz. dt
# $ correct to 4 significant figures.
b(2 + c) da + (2a − 6bc + ac) db
+ b(a − 3b) dc
7. Given u = ln sin (xy) show that Problem 5. The height of a right circular cone
du = cot (xy)(y dx + x dy) is increasing at 3 mm/s and its radius is decreas-
ing at 2 mm/s. Determine, correct to 3 significant
figures, the rate at which the volume is chang-
ing (in cm3 /s) when the height is 3.2 cm and the
35.2 Rates of change radius is 1.5 cm.

Sometimes it is necessary to solve problems in which

different quantities have different rates of change. 1
Volume of a right circular cone, V = πr 2 h
dz 3
From equation (1), the rate of change of z, is Using equation (2), the rate of change of volume,
dt
given by:
dV ∂V dr ∂V dh
= +
dt ∂r dt ∂h dt
dz ∂z du ∂z dv ∂z dw
= + + + ··· (2) ∂V 2 ∂V 1
dt ∂u dt ∂v dt ∂w dt = πrh and = πr 2
∂r 3 ∂h 3
 TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL, RATES OF CHANGE AND SMALL CHANGES 351

Since the height is increasing at 3 mm/s, π

When a = 3, c = 4 and B = then:
dh ! " 6! "
i.e. 0.3 cm/s, then = +0.3 dA 1 π 1 π
dt = (4) sin (0.4) + (3) sin (−0.8)
and since the radius is decreasing at 2 mm/s, dt 2 6 !2 6 "
1 π
dr + (3)(4) cos (0.2)
i.e. 0.2 cm/s, then = −0.2 2 6
! dt " ! " = 0.4 − 0.6 + 1.039 = 0.839 units2 /s, correct
dV 2 1 2
Hence = πrh (−0.2) + πr (+0.3) to 3 significant figures.
dt 3 3
−0.4
= πrh + 0.1πr 2 Problem 7. Determine the rate of increase of
3
diagonal AC of the rectangular solid, shown in
However, h = 3.2 cm and r = 1.5 cm. Fig. 35.1, correct to 2 significant figures, if the
dV −0.4 sides x, y and z increase at 6 mm/s, 5 mm/s and
Hence = π(1.5)(3.2) + (0.1)π(1.5)2 4 mm/s when these three sides are 5 cm, 4 cm
dt 3 and 3 cm respectively.
= −2.011 + 0.707 = −1.304 cm3 /s
C
Thus the rate of change of volume is 1.30 cm3 /s
decreasing. b

B z = 3 cm

Problem 6. The area A of a triangle is given

by A = 21 ac sin B, where B is the angle between 5c
m
sides a and c. If a is increasing at 0.4 units/s, c y=
4 cm x=
is decreasing at 0.8 units/s and B is increasing at A
0.2 units/s, find the rate of change of the area of
the triangle, correct to 3 significant figures, when Figure 35.1
a is 3 units, c is 4 units and B is π/6 radians. G
#
Diagonal AB = (x 2 + y2 )
Using equation (2), the rate of change of area, $
Diagonal AC = (BC 2 + AB2 )
dA ∂A da ∂A dc ∂A dB
= + + % #
dt ∂a dt ∂c dt ∂B dt
= [z2 + { (x 2 + y2 )}2
1 ∂A 1
Since A = ac sin B, = c sin B, #
2 ∂a 2
= (z2 + x 2 + y2 )
∂A 1 ∂A 1
= a sin B and = ac cos B $
∂c 2 ∂B 2 Let AC = b, then b = (x 2 + y2 + z2 )
da dc Using equation (2), the rate of change of diagonal b
= 0.4 units/s, = −0.8 units/s
dt dt is given by:
dB
and = 0.2 units/s db ∂b dx ∂b dy ∂b dz
dt = + +
! " ! " dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
dA 1 1
Hence = c sin B (0.4) + a sin B (−0.8) $
dt 2 2 Since b = (x 2 + y2 + z2 )
! " 1 x
1 ∂b −1
= (x 2 + y2 + z2 ) 2 (2x) = $
+ ac cos B (0.2)
2 ∂x 2 (x + y2 + z2 )
2
352 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

∂b y cm3 /s when the radius is 40 mm and the

Similarly, =!
∂y (x 2 + y2 + z2 ) height is 150 mm. [+226.2 cm3 /s]
∂b z 2. If z = f (x, y) and z = 3x 2 y5 , find the rate of
and =!
∂z (x + y2 + z2 )
2 change of z when x is 3 units and y is 2 units
when x is decreasing at 5 units/s and y is
dx increasing at 2.5 units/s. [2520 units/s]
= 6 mm/s = 0.6 cm/s,
dt
dy 3. Find the rate of change of k, correct to
= 5 mm/s = 0.5 cm/s, 4 significant figures, given the following
dt data: k = f (a, b, c); k = 2b ln a + c2 ea ; a is
dz increasing at 2 cm/s; b is decreasing at
and = 4 mm/s = 0.4 cm/s 3 cm/s; c is decreasing at 1 cm/s; a = 1.5 cm,
dt
b = 6 cm and c = 8 cm. [515.5 cm/s]
" #
db x 4. A rectangular box has sides of length x cm,
Hence = ! (0.6) y cm and z cm. Sides x and z are expanding
dt (x 2 + y2 + z2 ) at rates of 3 mm/s and 5 mm/s respectively
" # and side y is contracting at a rate of 2 mm/s.
y Determine the rate of change of volume when
+ ! (0.5) x is 3 cm, y is 1.5 cm and z is 6 cm.
(x 2 + y2 + z2 )
[1.35 cm3 /s]
" #
z 5. Find the rate of change of the total surface
+ ! (0.4)
(x 2 + y2 + z2 ) area of a right circular cone at the instant
when the base radius is 5 cm and the height
is 12 cm if the radius is increasing at 5 mm/s
When x = 5 cm, y = 4 cm and z = 3 cm, then: and the height is decreasing at 15 mm/s.
" # [17.4 cm2 /s]
db 5
= ! (0.6)
dt (52 + 42 + 32 )
" #
4 35.3 Small changes
+ ! (0.5)
(52 + 42 + 32 )
It is often useful to find an approximate value for
" #
3 the change (or error) of a quantity caused by small
+ ! (0.4) changes (or errors) in the variables associated with
(52 + 42 + 32 ) the quantity. If z = f (u, v, w, . . .) and δu, δv, δw, . . .
denote small changes in u, v, w, . . . respectively,
= 0.4243 + 0.2828 + 0.1697 = 0.8768 cm/s then the corresponding approximate change δz in
z is obtained from equation (1) by replacing the
Hence the rate of increase of diagonal AC is differentials by the small changes.
0.88 cm/s or 8.8 mm/s, correct to 2 significant
figures.
∂z ∂z ∂z
Thus δz ≈ δu + δv + δw + · · · (3)
Now try the following exercise. ∂u ∂v ∂w

Exercise 142 Further problems on rates of

change Problem 8. Pressure p and volume V of a gas
are connected by the equation pV 1.4 = k. Deter-
1. The radius of a right cylinder is increas- mine the approximate percentage error in k when
ing at a rate of 8 mm/s and the height is the pressure is increased by 4% and the volume
decreasing at a rate of 15 mm/s. Find the is decreased by 1.5%.
rate at which the volume is changing in
 TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL, RATES OF CHANGE AND SMALL CHANGES 353

Using equation (3), the approximate error in k, R4 θ R4 θ

≈ [0.08 − 0.05 − 0.04] ≈ −0.01 ,
∂k ∂k L L
δk ≈ δp + δV 1
∂p ∂V i.e. δG ≈ − G
100
Let p, V and k refer to the initial values.
∂k Hence the approximate percentage error in G is
Since k = pV 1.4 then = V 1.4 a 1% decrease.
∂p
∂k
and = 1.4pV 0.4 Problem 10. The second moment of area of
∂V
a rectangle is given by I = (bl3 )/3. If b and l
Since the pressure is increased by 4%, the change in are measured as 40 mm and 90 mm respectively
4 and the measurement errors are −5 mm in b and
pressure δp = × p = 0.04p.
100 +8 mm in l, find the approximate error in the
Since the volume is decreased by 1.5%, the change calculated value of I.
−1.5
in volume δV = × V = −0.015V .
100 Using equation (3), the approximate error in I,
Hence the approximate error in k,
∂I ∂I
δI ≈ δb + δl
δk ≈ (V )1.4 (0.04p) + (1.4pV 0.4 )(−0.015V ) ∂b ∂l
≈ pV 1.4 [0.04 − 1.4(0.015)] ∂I l3 ∂I 3bl2
1.9 1.4 1.9 = and = = bl2
≈ pV 1.4 [0.019] ≈ pV ≈ k ∂b 3 ∂l 3
100 100
δb = −5 mm and δl = +8 mm
! 3"
i.e. the approximate error in k is a 1.9% increase. l
Hence δI ≈ (−5) + (bl2 )(+8)
3
Problem 9. Modulus of rigidity G = (R4 θ)/L, Since b = 40 mm and l = 90 mm then
where R is the radius, θ the angle of twist and L ! 3" G
the length. Determine the approximate percent- 90
δI ≈ (−5) + 40(90)2 (8)
age error in G when R is increased by 2%, θ is 3
reduced by 5% and L is increased by 4%.
≈ −1215000 + 2592000
≈ 1377000 mm4 ≈ 137.7 cm4
∂G ∂G ∂G
Using δG ≈ δR + δθ + δL Hence the approximate error in the calculated
∂R ∂θ ∂L
value of I is a 137.7 cm4 increase.
R4 θ ∂G 4R3 θ ∂G R4
Since G= , = , =
L ∂R L ∂θ L Problem 11. The time of oscillation t of a pen-
#
∂G −R4 θ l
and = dulum is given by t = 2π . Determine the
∂L L2 g
approximate percentage error in t when l has
2 an error of 0.2% too large and g 0.1% too small.
Since R is increased by 2%, δR = R = 0.02R
100
Similarly, δθ = −0.05θ and δL = 0.04L Using equation (3), the approximate change in t,
! 3 " ! 4" ∂t ∂t
4R θ R δt ≈ δl + δg
Hence δG ≈ (0.02R) + (−0.05θ) ∂l ∂g
L L #
! " l ∂t
R4 θ Since t = 2π , =√
π
+ − 2 (0.04L) g ∂l
L lg
354 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
!
1
∂t l 3. fr = √ represents the resonant
and = −π 3 (from Problem 6, Chapter 34) 2π LC
∂g g frequency of a series connected circuit
containing inductance L and capacitance
0.2 C. Determine the approximate percentage
δl = l = 0.002 l and δg = −0.001g change in fr when L is decreased by 3% and
100
! C is increased by 5%. [−1%]
π l 4. The second moment of area of a rectangle
hence δt ≈ √ (0.002l) + −π 3 (−0.001 g)
lg g about its centroid parallel to side b is given by
! ! I = bd 3/12. If b and d are measured as 15 cm
and 6 cm respectively and the measurement
l l
≈ 0.002π + 0.001π errors are +12 mm in b and −1.5 mm in d,
g g find the error in the calculated value of I.
! # [+1.35 cm4 ]
" " ! #
l l 5. The side b of a triangle is calculated using
≈ (0.001) 2π + 0.0005 2π
g g b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B. If a, c and B are
measured as 3 cm, 4 cm and π/4 radians
0.15 respectively and the measurement errors
≈ 0.0015t ≈ t which occur are +0.8 cm, −0.5 cm and
100 +π/90 radians respectively, determine the
error in the calculated value of b.
Hence the approximate error in t is a 0.15% [−0.179 cm]
increase.
6. Q factor in a resonant
$ electrical circuit is
Now try the following exercise. 1 L
given by: Q = . Find the percentage
R C
Exercise 143 Further problems on small change in Q when L increases by 4%, R
changes decreases by 3% and C decreases by 2%.
[+6%]
1. The power P consumed in a resistor is given
by P = V 2 /R watts. Determine the approxi- 7. The rate of √ flow of gas in a pipe is given
mate change in power when V increases by C d
5% and R decreases by 0.5% if the original by: v = √ 6
, where C is a constant, d is
values of V and R are 50 volts and 12.5 ohms T5
respectively. [+21 watts] the diameter of the pipe and T is the ther-
modynamic temperature of the gas. When
determining the rate of flow experimentally,
2. An equation for heat generated H is H = i2 Rt. d is measured and subsequently found to
Determine the error in the calculated value of be in error by +1.4%, and T has an error of
H if the error in measuring current i is +2%, −1.8%. Determine the percentage error in the
the error in measuring resistance R is −3% rate of flow based on the measured values of
and the error in measuring time t is +1%. d and T . [+2.2%]
[+2%]