What is it that makes cultures distinct from one another?

Sometimes when traveling abroad, the biggest, most obvious differences between peoples and places
can fade into the backdrop of the experience. Nature, geography, architecture, cuisine, language, dress,
appearance — while these differences are some of the most immediately recognizable, they can’t seem
to account for “foreignness” in and of themselves. 

The most exciting realizations abroad are often those that open our eyes to our own seldom-questioned
assumptions about how the world is. Culture is filled with unwritten rules that govern how we interact
with others, what we value, what we celebrate, what we revile, what we will and will not tolerate. These
cultural forces are so striking precisely because everyone, save for outsiders, seems to be in on them
without necessarily having to discuss them openly. 
 

Measuring difference

Identifying, quantifying, and understanding these invisible cultural forces constitutes the lifework of
Dutch social psychologist Geert Hofstede. Fascinated by the consequences of cultural differences for
international communication and management, Hofstede developed a six-dimensional framework for
discerning the phenomenon of cultural difference. 

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While employed at IBM during the 60s and 70s, Hofstede poured over the results of a company survey
interviewing employees all over the world about their values. Out of these initial surveys, Hofstede
identified four spectrums along which the differing values seemed to fall: 

 power distance

 individualism vs. collectivism

 masculinity vs. femininity

 uncertainty avoidance

Through independent research over the coming decades, Hofstede revised his theories to include two
additional dimensions of cultural values: 

 long-term vs. short-term orientation

 indulgence vs. restraint

Today, Hofstede’s methodology and the six dimensions of cultural values that he identified continue to
be a hallmark for research in academic disciplines ranging from communication to anthropology. His
framework finds numerous practical applications in fields like international business negotiations, global
marketing, software companies, and non-profit management. 
 

The 6 Dimensions of a Nation and its People

Given the endless diversity of world cultures, scientifically quantifying cultural difference may seem like
a moot cause muddled by far too many uncontrolled variables. Hofstede, however, identified six issues
where distinct preferences for one state of affairs over another were traceable along national lines. 
Hofstede is quick to point out that the six dimensions of culture he identifies are generalizations. As
theoretical constructions, they are meant to be used simply as guidelines for understanding and
winning insights into national cultures. They are in no way meant to be taken as hard-and-fast rules
that can deterministically explain individual personalities, organizational cultures, or diverse
communities within a single nation. 

1. Power Distance Index (PDI)

Power distance describes the degree to which members of society expect and accept an uneven
distribution of authority, resources, and privileges. The threads of this dimension of culture run through
social insitutions and organizations such as schools, political bodies, the family, and the workplace. 

Countries with high PDI scores are generally those with stark hierarchies, where the less powerful are
taught to “know their place” and respect authority. High PDI scores correlate with deferential
relationships between students and teachers, children and parents, wives and husbands, employees and
employers, subjects and rulers.

Low PDI scores, on the other hand, do not mean that social and financial capital is completely and
evenly distributed. They instead correlate with a lack of observance of differences in rank and status.
People from countries with low PDI scores are less likely to drastically change their manner of speaking
depending on the status of the person they are addressing. 

Countries with the highest PDI scores*

 Malaysia (104)
  Slovak Republic (104)

 Philippines (95)

 Russia (93)

 Romania (90)

Countries with the lowest PDI scores

 Austria (11)

 Denmark (18)

 New Zealand (22)

 Ireland (28)

 Norway (31)

(*Rankings are based only on countries with complete data sets for all six dimensions)

2. Individualism (IDV) vs. Collectivism 

Hofstede’s second cultural dimension, individualism, describes the degree to which members of a
society feel beholden either to the interests of the community at large or to their own personal
interests.
In countries with high IDV scores, people generally show a preference for smaller, more loosely-knit
social frameworks and are reluctant to extend their conception of their own personal responsibility
beyond the bounds of immediate family. In highly individualistic societies, people act primarily in service
of their own interests, opinions, and well-being. They may glean very little satisfaction from the
accomplishments of others as opposed to their own individual accomplishments. 

Countries with low IDV scores can be described as collectivistic. Members of these societies are more
likely to feel loyalty to and personal responsibility for the well-being of their community at large. In
highly collectivistic societies, people act primarily in service of a wider group dynamic and are willing to
suppress their own opinions or interests in order to preserve harmony. They feel a sense of pride in the
accomplishments of others from within their community, and see their own accomplishments as
reflecting back on their community. 

Countries with the highest IDV scores

 United States (91)

 Australia (90)

 Great Britain (89)

 Netherlands (80)

 Canada (80)

Countries with the lowest IDV scores

 Serbia (25)

 Hong Kong (25)

 Malaysia (26)

 Slovenia (27)

 Portugal (27)

3. Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS)

The third dimension of Hofstede’s model describes the extent to which societies prize traditionally
masculine traits such as toughness and assertiveness in public life. 
Countries with high MAS scores are those in which the domineering, the high-achieving, and the heroic
are rewarded with material riches and public recognition. Regardless of their gender, people in these
countries are taught from a young age that life consists of a never-ending series of competitions and
that the journey to the top is cut-throat. 

Countries with low MAS scores can be described as valuing traditionally feminine traits, such as
modesty, empathy, and agreeableness, over more masculine ones. Within these societies, public
discourse is defined by collaboration, consensus, and a concern for improving the quality of life for all.
The idea of caring for the weak is more likely to resonate with and motivate members of feminine
societies than would the idea of defeating opponents. 

Countries with the highest MAS scores

 Slovak Republic (110)

 Japan (95)

 Hungary (88)

 Austria (79)

 Venezuela (73)

Countries with the lowest MAS scores

 Sweden (5)

 Norway (8)
  Latvia (9)

 Netherlands (14)

 Denmark (16)

4. Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI)

The fourth element of national culture identified by Hofstede is uncertainty avoidance. UAI describes
the extent to which members of a society see issues in rigid, black-and-white terms and thus the degree
to which they are disturbed by change and uncertainty. 

In countries with high uncertainty avoidance scores, people generally place a great deal of importance
on long-held social conventions. They see adherence to these conventions as an indicator of overall
safety and prosperity. When challenges to these structures arise, members of high UAI countries may be
inclined to respond with either aggressive controls or despair. Within these countries, unorthodoxy is
generally regarded as a slippery slope and ambiguity is to be avoided at all costs. 

In countries with low UAI scores, people are inclined to take a relaxed, more nuanced view of ambiguity
and change. They see transformation and uncertainty as unavoidable parts of life, and have respect for
those who can adapt and innovate as the moment demands. Members of societies with low UAI scores
have flexible morals and are quick to toss conventions or principles overboard if they feel they have
progressed beyond them. 

Countries with the highest UAI scores

  Greece (112)

 Portugal (104)

 Uruguay (100)

 Malta (96)

 Russia (95)

Countries with the lowest UAI scores

 Singapore (8)

 Denmark (23)

 Sweden (29)

 Hong Kong (29)

 Vietnam (30)

 China (30)

5. Long-Term Orientation (LTO) vs. Short-Term Orientation

Hofstede’s fifth cultural index, long-term orientation, describes the extent to which members of a
society perceive a consistent, interconnected thread running through the past, present, and future. 

In countries with high LTO scores, people are inclined to act pragmatically in the present in order to
prepare for the future. They are acutely aware of how events in the past, even those that predate their
own birth, contributed to current circumstances and are therefore likely to display humbleness and
frugality in times of plenty, and flexibility and resourcefulness in hard times. Long-term oriented cultures
prize education, thrift, and good planning and are willing to delay gratification in the name of a more
secure tomorrow. 

In more short-term oriented countries, people generally view the horizon of impactful events in a
limited way. They do not necessarily perceive a connection between events of the past and the
circumstances of the present, and may be especially reluctant to see events that predated their birth as
having any influence on their lives. People from countries with low LTO scores may be inclined to
lavishness in times of plenty, and may cite “acts of God” when faced with crises. Short-term oriented
cultures prize instant results and immediate gratification and are averse to making sacrifices in the here-
and-now for the promise of a future payoff. 

Countries with the highest LTO scores

 South Korea (100)

 Taiwan (93)

 Japan (88)

 China (87)

 Germany (83)

Countries with the lowest LTO scores

 Colombia (13)

 Trinidad & Tobago (13)

 Morocco (14)

 Iran (14)

 Venezuela (16)

6. Indulgence (IVR) vs. Self Restraint

The final index in Hofstede’s six-dimensional model of national culture describes a society’s relationship
to pleasure and self-discipline and the abandon with which members of a society express themselves. 
Countries with high indulgence scores are those in which social structures are built to acknowledge
human desires and encourage people to pursue their fulfillment. People from indulgent countries are
likely to place value on freedom of speech, to emote freely, and to actively solicit feedback from those
around them. Within high IVR countries, people may be inclined to see leisure as a virtue and pleasure
as theirs for the taking. They may tend to think less of those they perceive to be humorless, unhappy, or
generally dissatisfied with the state of their lives. 

In countries with low IVR scores, social structures are generally built in a way that suppresses emotion
and desires and equates duty with destiny. Restrained cultures are those that regulate behavior via strict
social norms and prioritize the fulfillment of one’s obligations as the fulfillment of one’s life purpose.
People from countries with low IVR scores may be reluctant to offer their opinion and may feel guilt or
shame for engaging in frivolous activities. They may regard those who emote freely or openly indulge in
such pleasures as foolish, wanton, or unprofessional. 

Countries with the highest IVR scores

 Venezuela (100)

 Mexico (100)

 El Salvador (89)

 Colombia (89)

 Trinidad & Tobago (80)

Countries with the lowest IVR scores

  Pakistan (0)

 Latvia (13)

 Estonia (16)

 Lithuania (16)

 Bulgaria (16)

 Hong Kong (17)

Infographic: A World of Difference

 
Hofstede’s work serves as the base for other researches in cross-cultural psychology, inviting a number
of researchers to study different aspects of international business and communication. These
dimensions founded by Hofstede illustrate the deeply embedded values of diverse cultures. These
values impact not only how people with different cultural backgrounds behave, but also the manner in
which they will potentially behave when placed in a work-associated context.

This is a brief overview of the six cultural dimensions:

1. Power Distance: This dimension explains the extent to which members who are less powerful in
a society accept and also expect that the distribution of power takes place unequally.

2. Uncertainty Avoidance: It is a dimension that describes the extent to which people in society
are not at ease with ambiguity and uncertainty.

3. Individualism vs. Collectivism: The focus of this dimension is on the question regarding whether
people have a preference for being left alone to look after themselves or want to remain in a
closely knitted network.

4. Masculinity vs. Femininity: Masculinity implies a society’s preference for assertiveness,

heroism, achievement and material reward for attaining success. On the contrary, femininity
represents a preference for modesty, cooperation, quality of life and caring for the weak.

5. Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation: Long-term orientation describes the inclination of a

society toward searching for virtue. Short-term orientation pertains to those societies that are
strongly inclined toward the establishment of the absolute truth.

6. Indulgence vs. Restraint: This revolves around the degree to which societies can exercise
control over their impulses and desires.

THE SIX HOFSTEDE DIMENSIONS & UNDERSTANDING COUNTRIES, CULTURE AND PEOPLE

According to Geert Hofstede, culture is the mind’s collective programming that differentiates between
one category of people and members of one group from another. The term ‘category’ might imply
nations, religions, ethnicities, regions across or within nations, genders, organizations, or occupations.

#1: Power Distance

Power distance stands for inequality that is defined not from above, but from below. It is, in fact, the
extent to which organizations and societies accept power differentials.

Societies with large power distance are characterized by the following features:

 Autocracy in leadership;

 Authority that is centralized;

 Paternalistic ways of management;

 A number of hierarchy levels;

 The acceptance of the privileges that come with power;

  A lot of supervisory staff;

 An expectation of power differences and inequality.

Societies that have small power distance possess the following features:

 Participative or consultative style of management;

 Decision-making responsibility and authority decentralized;

 Flat structure of organizations;

 Supervisory staff small in proportion;

 Questioning the authority and lack of acceptance;

 An inclination toward egalitarianism;

 Consciousness of rights.

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#2: Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which the members belonging to a society are capable of coping
with future uncertainty without going through stress.

Weak uncertainty avoidance comes with the following features:

  Undertaking risk;

 Flexibility;

 Tolerance toward differing opinions and behaviors.

Strong uncertainty avoidance is represented by the following aspects:

 Tendency to avoid risk;

 Organizations that have a number of standardized procedures, written rules, and clearly
delineated structures;

 Strong requirement for consensus;

 Respect for authority;

 Requirement for predictability highlighting the significance of planning;

 Minimal or no tolerance for deviants;

 Promotions depending upon age or seniority.

#3: Individualism vs. Collectivism

Individualism set against its opposite collectivism defines the extent to which individuals are inclined
toward remaining in groups.

Individualistic cultures are characterized by:

 Fostering contractual relationships that revolve around the fundamentals of exchange. These
cultures engage in the calculation of profit and loss prior to engagement in a behavior.

 Concentration on self or at the most very near and dear ones, and concern with behavioral
relationships as well as own goals, interests, and needs.

 Emphasis on personal enjoyment, fun, and pleasure, over duties and social norms. They are a
part of a number of in-groups which hardly have any influence on their lives.

 Self-sufficiency and value independence, and placement of self-interest over collective interest.
Confrontation is accepted as an attribute.

 Stress on horizontal relationships (such as the relationship between spouse and spouse) rather
than vertical relationships (such as the relationship between parent and child).

 The notion that they hold unique beliefs.

Collectivistic cultures are characterized by:

 Behavior as per social norms that are established for maintenance of social harmony among in-
group members;

 Considering the wider collective with regards to implications of their actions;

  Sharing of resources and readiness to give up personal interest keeping in mind the collective
interest;

 Favoring some in-groups (such as friends and family);

 Being a part of a few in-groups that have an influence on their lives. Rather than being
individualistic, they have an increased inclination towards conformity;

 Increased concern regarding in-group members. They show hostility or indifference toward out-
group members;

 Emphasis on harmony and hierarchy within group;

 Regulation of behavior with the help of group norms.

#4: Masculinity vs. Femininity

Masculinity and femininity revolve around the emotional role distribution between genders, which is
again a prime issue in a number of societies.

Masculine cultures possess the following characteristics:

 Clearly distinct gender roles;

 Benevolence has little or no significance;

 Men are expected to be tough and assertive with a concentration on material achievements;

 Much value is associated with mastery of people, nature, job, and the like;

 Sense of humor, intelligence, affection, personality are considered preferred characteristic traits
of a boyfriend by the women;

 Understanding, wealth, and health are considered desirable characteristic traits of a husband by
the women.

Feminine cultures possess the following characteristics:

 Overlapping of social gender roles;

 Men, as well as women, are expected to be tender, modest, with focus on the quality of life;

 Emphasis on the non-materialistic angles of success;

 The preferred traits in boyfriends and husbands are the same.

#5: Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation

This is based on the Confucian dynamism. According to the teachings of Confucius, the following aspects
of life are evident:

 Unequal relationships existing between people ensure the stability of society.

 Every social organization has its prototype in the family.

  Virtuous behavior involves treatment meted out to others in a similar manner as one prefers to
be treated oneself.

 So far as tasks in life are concerned, virtue comprises acquiring skills, working hard, education,
being wise in spending as well as showing perseverance and patience.

Long-term orientation (high Confucian values) reflects the following:

 A futuristic, dynamic mentality;

 Emphasis on a relationship order depending on status, and observance of this order;

 Emphasis on persistence and perseverance;

 Stress on possessing a sense of shame;

 Stress on thrift;

 Positive association with economic growth;

 Inclination toward interrelatedness represented in sensitivity toward social contacts.

Short-term orientation (low Confucian values) is characterized by the following:

 Orientation toward past and present;

 Focus on respect for tradition;

 A comparatively static, more conventional mentality;

 Emphasis on saving face;

 Emphasis on personal steadiness;

 Focus on stability;

 Emphasis on reciprocation of gifts, favors, and greetings;

 Negative association with economic growth.

#6: Indulgence vs. Restraint

The dimension of indulgence vs. restraint focuses on happiness. A society that practices indulgence
makes room for the comparatively free gratification of natural and basic human drives pertaining to
indulging in fun and enjoying life. The quality of restraint describes a society that holds back need
gratification and tries to control it through stringent social norms.
What is the Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory?

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a framework used to

understand the differences in culture across countries and to discern the ways that business is done
across different cultures. In other words, the framework is used to distinguish between different
national cultures, the dimensions of culture, and assess their impact on a business settingTypes of
OrganizationsThis article on the different types of organizations explores the various categories that
organizational structures can fall into. Organizational structures.

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory was created in 1980 by Dutch management researcher, Geert
Hofstede. The aim of the study was to determine the dimensions in which cultures vary.

Hofstede identified six categories that define culture:

1. Power Distance Index

2. Collectivism vs. Individualism

3. Uncertainty Avoidance Index

4. Femininity vs. Masculinity

5. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation

6. Restraint vs. Indulgence

 

Power Distance Index

The power distance index considers the extent to which inequality and power are tolerated. In this
dimension, inequality and power are viewed from the viewpoint of the followers – the lower level.

 High power distance index indicates that a culture accepts inequity and power differences,
encourages bureaucracy,BureaucracyThe system to maintain uniform authority within and
across institutions is known as bureaucracy. Bureaucracy essentially means to rule by the
office. and shows high respect for rank and authority.

 Low power distance index indicates that a culture encourages organizational

structuresCorporate StructureCorporate structure refers to the organization of different
departments or business units within a company. Depending on a company’s goals and the
industry that are flat and feature decentralized decision-making responsibility, participative style
of management, and place emphasis on power distribution.

Individualism vs. Collectivism

The individualism vs. collectivism dimension considers the degree to which societies are integrated into
groups and their perceived obligations and dependence on groups.

 Individualism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on attaining personal goals. A
person’s self-image in this category is defined as “I.”

 Collectivism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on the goals and well-being of
the group. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “We”.

Uncertainty Avoidance Index

The uncertainty avoidance index considers the extent to which uncertainty and ambiguity are tolerated.
This dimension considers how unknown situations and unexpected events are dealt with.

 A high uncertainty avoidance index indicates a low tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity, and
risk-taking. The unknown is minimized through strict rules, regulations, etc.

 A low uncertainty avoidance index indicates a high tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity, and
risk-taking. The unknown is more openly accepted, and there are lax rules, regulations, etc.

Masculinity vs. Femininity

The masculinity vs. femininity dimension is also referred to as “tough vs. tender,” and considers the
preference of society for achievement, attitude towards sexuality equality, behavior, etc.
  Masculinity comes with the following characteristics: distinct gender roles, assertive, and
concentrated on material achievements and wealth-building.

 Femininity comes with the following characteristics: fluid gender roles, modest, nurturing, and
concerned with the quality of life.

Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-Term Orientation

The long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation dimension considers the extent to which society
views its time horizon.

 Long-term orientation shows focus on the future and involves delaying short-term success or
gratification in order to achieve long-term success. Long-term orientation emphasizes
persistence, perseverance, and long-term growth.

 Short-term orientation shows focus on the near future, involves delivering short-term success or
gratification, and places a stronger emphasis on the present than the future. Short-term
orientation emphasizes quick results and respect for tradition.

Indulgence vs. Restraint

The indulgence vs. restraint dimension considers the extent and tendency for a society to fulfill its
desires. In other words, this dimension revolves around how societies can control their impulses and
desires.

 Indulgence indicates that a society allows relatively free gratification related to enjoying life and
having fun.

 Restraint indicates that a society suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it through
social norms.

 
 Table 1: Hofstede’s (1980) Four Cultural Dimensions

  Dimensions Basic Characteristics

This is an important dimension of national culture that is a reflection of

the degree to which power in organizations is unequally distributed.
More especially, power distance is associated with the degree of
1 Power Distance centralization of authority and the extent of autocratic leadership.
Lower education and lower status occupations are associated with
high power distance values while higher education and higher status
have low power distance values.

This dimension identifies the extent to which a society tends to

consider itself threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations. To
this degree, it tends to avoid such situations by establishing greater
career stability, formal values, in tolerance of deviant ideas or
behaviours, and a belief in absolute truths. At the same time, such
2 Uncertainty Avoidance
societies have a high level of anxiety and aggressiveness which creates
a strong inner urge to work hard. Management in high uncertainty
avoidance countries may also be relatively task oriented. This
dimension may also affect the exercise of power in organizations.
Belief is placed in experts and their knowledge.

This cultural dimension describes the relationship between an

individual and society as a whole. For example, Americas view
individualism as a contributor to greatness, but the Chinese do not.
Individualism
3. Hofstede states that a country’s degree of individualism is related
Collectivism
statistically to its wealth, and there is a .82 correlation between
individualism and wealth as measured by gross national product per
capita.

This cultural dimension considers the degree of masculinity of a

society’s dominant values. Values such as assertiveness, acquisition of
money, and not caring for others. This dimension describes a society
4 Masculinity-Femininity
that shows more or less traditionally masculine patterns, in which
much of the societal masculinity-femininity differences must be
historically and traditionally determined.

Source: Field work (2016)