LECTURE 4 – Part 1

Breaking and Bending:

Deformation in the Earths crust
GL5534 FUNDAMENTALS OF PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE

PAGE 1
 2
http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~imw/jpg-Stair-Hole/14STH-General-View-Eastward.jpg
Lecture 4 – Learning Outcomes part 1

1. Explain the difference 2. Describe the types of 3. Recognise the

between force and stress deformation that occur in differences between
in the context of geology relation to different elastic, brittle and ductile
- Force stresses strain in the context of
- Deformation - Compression
rock deformation
- Strain - Tension - Folds
- Force vs Stress - Shear Stress - Fractures
- Pressure

PAGE 3
Lecture 4 – Learning Outcomes part 2

4. Identify the different 5. Identify the main types of 6. Explain key reasons
types of fractures faults and describe them why the deformation of
- Joints using the appropriate rocks is important in the
nomenclature hydrocarbon industry
- Veins and Dykes
- Normal Faults - Traps
- Faults - Drilling Challenges
- Reverse/Thrust Faults
- Fluid Flow
- Strike-Slip Faults

PAGE 4
Lecture 4 - Breaking & Bending
Learning Outcome 1 – Explain the difference between
force and stress in the context of geology

PAGE 5
Force: A Reminder

• Force: entity that pushes or pulls on material causing an object to speed up, slow down
or change direction.
F=ma
Where:
f = unit of force in Newtons (N)
m = mass in (kg)
a = acceleration metres per second squared (m s-2)

• Measured in Newtons [N] = [kg m s-2]

• Body forces: act on the whole volume of a body and are therefore proportional to the mass of the body.
e.g.: gravity.
• Surface forces: act on the surface of a body (e.g. a volume of rock). Are independent of the body’s mass or
volume.

1.Stress 6
 Forces applied to rocks result in deformation. Deformation results in -

Translation

Displacement

Rotation

Distortion Folding is one type of distortion

1.Stress 7
 Result of deformation = Strain
• Strain: actual change of shape of a rock volume in response to forces acting on it
• Different kinds of strain according to nature of shape change - Stretching, shortening, shear

https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/gif

1.Stress 8
Types of Strain
Elastic Strain – reversible
• Elastic: the strain disappears when force is
removed, and the rock regains its original Brittle behaviour - fracture
shape.

Permanent Strain – irreversible

• Ductile: the rock flows (like a fluid) when
Ductile
forces act on it. Deformation is distributed deformation
within the rock.
• Brittle: the rock breaks when it can no longer
sustain the forces acting on it. All deformation
is localised at the plane along which the rock
breaks (fracture). Physical Geology. Authored by: Steven Earle. Provided by: BC Campus. Located at:
https://opentextbc.ca/geology/. License: CC BY: Attribution

1.Stress 9
 Permanent Strain – Brittle Deformation

1.Stress 10
 Permanent Strain – Ductile Deformation

1.Stress 11
 Force vs Stress

Plate interactions and continent-continent collisions apply forces to rock and cause deformation

Geologists use stress instead of force when talking about the cause of deformation…why…?

1.Stress 12
 Force vs Stress: What is Stress?
Stress: is the force per unit area on a body that tends to cause it
to change shape

F
Stress (σ) =
Where:
A
S = Stress in Pascals (Pa)
F = Force in Newtons (N)
A = Surface Area in square meters (m2)

– It is a surface force
– newtons per square meter, or N/m2
– Measured in Pascal [Pa] where 1 Pascal = 1 Newton per
square meter [N m2].
– Stress and Force are both vectors and Area is a scalar.
1.Stress 13
 Force vs Stress Video

1.Stress 14
 Force vs Stress: Why Stress rather than Force?
• Stress: force per unit area acting on a plane within a body.
- A large force per area results in >deformation
- A small force per unit area results in <deformation
• The force of one plate interacting with another is distributed across the area of contact
between two plates
• So the deformation resulting at any specific location actually depends on the stress
developed at that location, not on the total force produced by the plate interaction

1.Stress 15
 Stress
Stress can be decomposed in: normal stress (σ) ⊥ to surface
shear stress (τ) // to surface
Normal stresses are denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma)
shear stresses are given the Greek letter τ (tau)

1.Stress 16
 Stress
The overall force applied to a plane can be a composed of both
normal stress and shear stress as demonstrated below:

https://www.tec-science.com/material-science/ductility-of-metals/fundamentals-of-deformation/

1.Stress 17
Lecture 4 - Breaking & Bending
Learning Outcome 2 – Describe the types of deformation
that occur in relation to the 4 different stresses

PAGE 18
Stress and Strain

• Stress and Strain have different meanings to geologists

• Stress – amount of force applied per unit area of a rock
• Strain – a measure of the change in shape or distortion
that deformation causes
• Stress causes Strain
• Different types of stress result in different natures of
strain
• Compression  Shortening
• Tension  Stretching
• Shear Stress  Shearing
• Pressure  Decrease in size (but not change shape)

1.Stress 2. Deform 19
 Pressure
Pressure : stress that is the same in all directions.

• Measured in Pascals (Pa)

• 1Pa is 1N applied over 1m2 P=F/A
Where:
• Pressure in geology:
P = pressure in pascals.
– pore pressure F = unit of force in newtons
– Confining or lithostatic pressure A = unit of area in m2

1.Stress 2. Deform 20
Lecture 4 - Breaking & Bending
Learning Outcome 3 – Recognise the differences between elastic,
brittle and ductile strain in the context of rock deformation

PAGE 21
 Permanent Strain – Brittle Deformation

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 22

 Brittle Failure - Fractures

Fracture: a separation that divides the rock into two or

more pieces formed under the action of stress

A general term for any non-sedimentary mechanical

discontinuity thought to represent a surface or zone of
mechanical failure.
Fracturing happens because of the loss of cohesion in the rock
and is a typical expression of brittle deformation in the Earth’s
upper crust.

Fractures
• found in all types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic)
https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2014/08/fracture-fracture- • in all plate-tectonic settings
everywhere-part-i

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 23

 What happens after failure?
After the moment a rock fails, if the stress continues the fracture normally propagates and
becomes longer and wider.
Propagation at fracture tip Propagation by linkage of fractures
Propagation
mechanisms:

(after Scholz, 2002).

Propagation is often related to seismic

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC events and relaxes rock stress.
1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 24
Why are fractures important?

• Drilling wells in petroleum reservoirs cost millions of dollars

• Fractures strongly affect fluid flow in the subsurface. Therefore,
fracture prediction is essential for successful hydrocarbon production
• Key issues:
• Know when fractures are conduits or barriers to fluid flow
• Predict fracture distribution and associated fluid flow
• Generate new (induced) fractures to enhance permeability

• First we have to understand the basic principles of fracture mechanics

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 25

Permanent Strain – Fracture vs Fault

• Fracture is a general term for any type of brittle failure and a fault is a specific
type of fracture.

• Fractures can be natural or induced

“That animal is
either a dog or
• Key types of fractures a poodle”
• Joints
• Faults
• Veins
• Dykes

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 26

 Ductile Deformation - Folds

Distortion
Folding is one type of distortion
1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 27
 Folds – The Basics

3 Fold Types
• Anticline
• Syncline
• Monocline

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 28

 Folds – The Basics
Anticline Syncline

How to remember…
A is for arch and anticline
S is for sink or saucer and syncline

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 29

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND
 Folds – Descriptive Terms

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 30

 Fold – Types and Terms

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 31

 Folds - Plunge

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 32

 Folds – Terminology 1

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 33

https://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/fileadmin/Documents/Admissions/Masters/step-up/Introduction_to_structural_geology_1.pdf
 Folds – Terminology 2

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 34

 Dipping Beds 1
• Structural deformation such as folding
causes the beds (layers of rock) to
become tilted
• Geologists use 3 key measurements to
document the geometry of folds when
looking at rocks in the field:
 Strike
 Dip Angle
 Dip Direction

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 35

Dipping Beds 2

• The geologists can then plot these

measurements on maps to represent
3D structures like folds on a 2D surface
• Geologists use a symbol to mark the
dip and strike information on a map
• The long line represents the strike
direction the short line represents the
dip direction and the number the dip
angle
• In this example the bed is dipping 30°
to the south-east
30
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 36

 Folds - How Geologists measure dipping beds 2

Another example of
how folds and other
3D structures from
outcrops and in the
subsurface can be
represented on a
map

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 37

End of Part 1

38
LECTURE 4 – PART 2
BREAKING AND BENDING:
DEFORMATION IN THE EARTHS
CRUST
GL5033 FUNDAMENTALS OF PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE

PAGE 39
Lecture 4 – Learning Outcomes part 1

1. Explain the difference 2. Describe the types of 3. Recognise the

between force and stress deformation that occur in differences between
in the context of geology relation to different elastic, brittle and ductile
- Force stresses strain in the context of
- Deformation - Compression
rock deformation
- Strain - Tension - Folds
- Force vs Stress - Shear Stress - Fractures
- Pressure

PAGE 40
Lecture 4 – Learning Outcomes part 2

4. Identify the different 5. Identify the main types of 6. Explain key reasons
types of fractures faults and describe them why the deformation of
- Joints using the appropriate rocks is important in the
nomenclature hydrocarbon industry
- Veins and Dykes
- Normal Faults - Traps
- Faults - Drilling Challenges
- Reverse/Thrust Faults
- Fluid Flow
- Strike-Slip Faults

PAGE 41
Lecture 4 - Breaking & Bending
Learning Outcome 4 – Identify the different types of
fractures

PAGE 42
 Fracture Types
JOINTS: no displacement along VEINS and DYKES: fractures FAULTS: shear displacement
the fracture plane filled with mineral deposits from along the fracture plane, causing
fluid (veins) or magma (dykes) offset

From Buckley et al. 2019

https://hiveminer.com/Tags/ketobe%2Cknob

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 43

Brittle Failure - Fractures
• The foundation of fracture taxonomy is the
fracture mode terminology of standard
engineering fracture mechanics
• All three modes can occur separately or in any
combination

https://www.naturalfractures.com/1.1.htm
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 44

 Fracture Types
JOINTS: no displacement along VEINS and DYKES: fractures FAULTS: shear displacement
the fracture plane filled with mineral deposits from along the fracture plane, causing
fluid (veins) or magma (dykes) offset

From Buckley et al. 2019

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 45

Fracture Types - Joints

JOINTS: no displacement along the fracture plane

A natural rock fracture formed predominantly by

mode I movement

Joints often form families of straight to curviplanar

fractures typically perpendicular to the layer
boundaries in sedimentary rocks.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)#/media/File:Joints_Caithness.JPG

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 46

 Fracture Types
JOINTS: no displacement along VEINS and DYKES: fractures FAULTS: shear displacement
the fracture plane filled with mineral deposits from along the fracture plane, causing
fluid (veins) or magma (dykes) offset

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 47

Fracture Types - Veins
Quartz and K-feldspar vein.
VEINS: A tabular deposit of minerals The K-feldspar is flesh pink
occupying a pre-existing fracture in a host https://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/mineralisation.htm
in colour
rock
The formation of veins involves two steps: Asbestos
vein in
a) transport of vein forming material to a vein Cyprus
b) precipitation of the vein forming mineral

The association of many ore deposits

(particularly gold) with veins makes them even
more relevant to geology

http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~imw/Cyprus-Akrotiri-Lake-Coast.htm

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 48

Fracture Types – Dykes

DYKES: are self-induced magma-filled fractures

Dykes are igneous intrusions and are the
dominant mechanism by which basaltic melts are
transported through the lithosphere and the
crust.
Dykes are sheetlike intrusions of magma that cut
at high angle across bedding
Sheetlike intrusions form because country rock
fractures most easily along a plane that is
perpendicular to the axis of least compressive
stress
Fossen, 2016
1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 49
 Fracture Types
JOINTS: no displacement along VEINS and DYKES: fractures FAULTS: shear displacement
the fracture plane filled with mineral deposits from along the fracture plane, causing
fluid (veins) or magma (dykes) offset

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)#/media/File:Joints_Caithness.JPG From Buckley et al. 2019

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 50

Faults
Fault - A specific type of natural rock fracture formed
predominantly by mode II and/or mode III movements.

A break or planar surface of fracture in a

rock body caused by brittle failure, and
along which observable relative
displacement has occurred between
adjacent fault blocks

Movement is described as either:

• Normal
• Reverse
• Strike-slip
1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)#/media/File:Joints_Caithness.JPG
51
 Combining Structures 1
Faults, Folds and Unconformities

Cawood & Bond 2019

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 52

 Combining Structures 2
Faults, Folds and Unconformities

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 53

Lecture 4 - Breaking & Bending
Learning Outcome 5 – Identify the main types of faults
and describe them using the appropriate nomenclature

PAGE 54
 Faults – Basic Types
At the most basic level there are 3 types of faults…

Normal faulting occurs when two When the plates are compressed, In strike-slip faulting, the two plates
plates move away from each other, or pushed together, reverse or are moving horizontally past one
causing one to slide down relative thrust faulting occurs. This means another like cars going in opposite
to the other. that one plate was pushed up onto directions on highway.
another plate.

Images from https://www.nps.gov/articles/faults-and-fractures.htm

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 55

 Faults – Hanging Wall and Footwall
The hanging wall of a fault is the rock above the fault. The footwall is the rock below.
These terms were originally used by miners to describe the rocks above and below an ore body.

Source: Photo- Gold Hill Mine, Yukon Territory, by Eric A. Hegg (1898)
Public Domain view source. Diagram- Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY 4.0

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 56

 Faults – Terminology

• Footwall – Fault block • Hanging wall – Fault block

beneath the fault surface beneath the fault surface
• Footwall cut-off – Where • Hanging wall cut-off –
a rock layer or feature in Where a rock layer or
the footwall is cut by the feature in the hanging
fault wall is cut by the fault

• Displacement – The relative offset of points once adjacent on either side of the fault
• Throw – Vertical component of displacement along a fault Magnitudes of displacement
can range from cm to km
• Heave – Horizontal component of displacement along a fault
1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 57
 Types of Movement
Different kinds of faults develop under different stress conditions.
We describe faults in terms of how the rocks on one side of the fault move relative to the other.
If you have a dip and a strike element of movement you get oblique-slip

foot wall (block

below the fault) hanging wall (block
above the fault)

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 58

Fault
Types

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults

 Faults – Extension and Shortening

Tension produces normal faults, in which the crust

undergoes extension. This permits the hanging wall Compression produces reverse faults, pushing
to slide down the footwall in response to gravity. the hanging wall up relative to the footwall.
Reverse faults shorten and thicken the crust.
https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 60

 Faults – Sinistral and Dextral
• In sinistral strike-slip faults • In dextral strike-slip faults
the far side moves to the the far side moves to the
• Faults where the motion is left of the observer - It is right of the observer - It is
mostly horizontal and along the left-handed or left-lateral right-handed or right-lateral
“strike” or the length of the
fault are called strike-slip faults.
• Rocks on either side of the fault
move parallel to the fault
• Happen where shear stress
causes bodies of rock to slide
sideways with respect to each
other (i.e. transform boundary)

https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 61

 1. Normal Faults

• HW down relative to FW
• Dip slip fault - extensional
setting
• Sedimentary rift basins
(e.g. North Sea)
• Typically 50-60° dip
- Local conditions can
cause this to vary

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 62

2. Thrust or Reverse Faults
• HW up relative to FW • Typically 0-30° dip
• Dip slip fault in compressional setting • Repeat Stratigraphy
• Dominate structure of collisional mountain belts

From Buckley et al. 2019

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 63

3. Strike-Slip Faults
• Shear stress
• Relative displacement parallel to strike of fault
• Commonly steep (vertical)
• Active faults associated with spectacular tectonic landforms
• Create basins or uplift where they bend
https://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/structure/faults/strike/basics/sbend1.htm

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 64

3. Strike-Slip Faults - Scales

https://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/fileadmin/Documents/Admissions/Masters/step-up/Introduction_to_structural_geology_1.pdf

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 65

 Fault systems – Extensional
• Faults co-occur in fault systems (Tension, Compression or Shear)
• Regional stresses create many similar faults
• May converge to a common detachment at depth

http://geology.isu.edu/Alamo/rocks/basin_range_uplifts.php

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 66

 Fault systems - Extensional
Fault System: Horst and Graben

https://www.nps.gov/articles/horst-and-graben.htm

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 67

 Fault Systems –
Extensional
• Occur at any scale
• Creates space = Sedimentary Basins
https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2013/06/know-your-faults-part-ii

http://geology.isu.edu/Alamo/rocks/basin_range_uplifts.php

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 68

 Fault Systems – Strike-Slip
• Strike-slip fault systems
• San Andreas
• North Anatolian

https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/

https://earthquake.usgs.gov
/learn/topics/safz-paleo/
Smith & Sandwell, 2006

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults

Lecture 4 - Breaking & Bending
Learning Outcome 6 – Explain key reasons why the deformation of
rocks is important in the hydrocarbon industry

PAGE 70
Why is deformation important?

• Traps
- Structures form trapping features
- Breaching traps
• Drilling position
- Missing section
- Repeated section
- Well positioning
• Fluid flow
- Fault damage zones

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum 71

 Anticlinal trap Fault trap
Traps

Stratigraphic trap
Salt-dome trap (Unconformities)

Marshak, 2012
1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum 72
 Faults – Drilling Challenges
• Missing section
• Repeated section
• Well Positioning
• Well Control

http://www.drillingcontractor.org/digital-solutions-guide-path-to-better-accuracy-in-directional-drilling-45982
Photo Credit to Schlumberger.
Credits: Haakon Fossen (Structural Geology)
1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum 73
Fault Damage Zones
A damage zone is the volume of deformed wall rocks around
a fault surface that results from the initiation, propagation,
interaction and build-up of slip along faults

Image credits Fossen,

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum 74

 Impacts on Fluid Flow in Reservoirs
Fault Breccia Clay Smear
• A Fault breccia is a common product • Occurs where there are layers of more ductile clays
along fault zones, particularly in the top within the rock that has been faulted
few kilometres of crust
• Clay smear can prohibit cross-fault fluid flow and
create barriers in reservoirs

http://earthsci.org/mineral/rockmin/breccia/breccia.html

• Enhanced permeability created in breccia

zones is important in channelling crustal fluids,
sometimes metalliferous or hydrocarbon-rich Vrolijk et al. 2016. Journal of Structural Geology

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum 75

 Impacts to fluid flow - Clay Smear

Vrolijk et al. 2016. Journal

of Structural Geology

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum 76

 Impacts to fluid flow - Deformation Bands
• Strain in highly porous rocks and sediments is not
initially accommodated by extensional fractures or slip
surfaces
Instead, strain localization occurs by the
formation of deformation bands
• These do not develop large offsets, typical
displacements are < a few cm’s
• Can be single structures or cluster
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

• These can have a significant impact on fluid flow

within reservoirs
• Challenging to predict in the subsurface

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum 77

 Impacts to fluid flow – Types of deformation bands
The type of deformation band formed depends on the deformation process and
the mineral constituents of the rock being deformed…

a) Disaggregation bands  shear-related disaggregation of grains (grain sliding and

rotation)
• Commonly found in sand and poorly consolidated sandstones
b) Phyllosilicate bands  smearing of platy minerals
• Form in sand(stones) where the content of platy minerals exceeds 10–15%.
c) Cataclastic bands  Grain fracturing
• Mechanical grain breaking along the zone of deformation
• Mostly observed in rocks buried to depths of 1.5–2.5 km
d) Solution and Cementation bands  Dissolution, cementation and diagenesis
• Cementation and dissolution of quartz and other minerals may occur preferentially in
deformation bands
• Mostly in deeper buried rocks (2-3km)
Fossen et al. 2007 –
1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum
Journal of the Geol
Soc London
78
Deformation Band
Examples
Rapid variation from phyllosilicate
Disaggregation bands cut by band to disaggregation band in
cataclastic deformation bands sandstone in Jurassic sandstone
(white) in the Navajo (Gullfaks Field, North Sea). Mica-
Sandstone, Utah rich layers are local sources of
phyllosilicate minerals.

Photomicrograph of a single
Phyllosilicate band, Brent
cataclastic deformation band,
Group, Gullfaks Field. The
showing a low-porosity cataclastic
positive relief (increase of
core mantled by a zone of
cohesion) and loss of porosity
compaction. Blue indicates pore
in the band should be noted.
space.

Credits Fossen et al. 2007

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum 79

Impact to fluid flow - Deformation
Band Settings

• Typically associated with other larger features

• Faults, Folds and Diapir Structures

• Can occur as clusters, Single Bands or in Damage Zones

around faults
• ↑ number of deformation bands = > impact on fluid flow

Credits Fossen et al. 2007

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum 80
 Lecture 4 Summary
In this lecture you learned to:
• 1. Explain the difference between force and stress in the context of geology
Geologists use the word stress instead of force when talking about the cause of deformation. We define the
stress acting on a plane as the force applied per unit area of the plane. The need to distinguish between
stress and force arises because the actual consequences of applying a force depend not just on the amount
of force but also on the area over which the force acts.
• 2. Describe the types of deformation that occur in relation to the 4 different stresses
Different types of stress result in different natures of strain:
• Compression results in shortening
• Tension results in stretching
• Shear stress in shearing
• Pressure results in a decrease in size (but not change shape)
• 3. Recognise the differences between elastic, brittle and ductile strain in the context of rock deformation
Strain is the change in shape of a rock that develops during deformation. When elastic strain occurs the
strain disappears when force is removed. In the rock record what we see is permanent strain in the form of
either Brittle or Ductile deformation. During brittle deformation rocks fracture and during ductile
deformation rocks flow without breaking.

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum

 Lecture 4 Summary
Here is what you learned
• 4. Identify the different types of fractures
A fracture is a general term for any type of brittle failure and faults, joints and veins are specific type of
fracture. Faults have displacement whereas joints have no displacement and veins are fractures filled with a
mineral.
• 5. Identify the main types of faults and describe them using the appropriate
nomenclature There are 3 basic types of fault Normal, Reverse (or Thrust) and Strike-Slip. A normal fault
is where the hanging wall has moved down relative to the footwall. Normal faults are extensional with
respect to a horizontal layer or the surface of the Earth. A reverse fault is where the hanging wall has moved
up relative to the footwall, implying shortening of horizontal layers. Strike-slip fault is where displacement is
horizontal. These can be dextral (right-lateral) or sinistral (left-lateral).
• 6. Explain key reasons why the deformation of rocks is important in the hydrocarbon
industry
Geological structures such as faults and folds are the mechanisms that form traps for hydrocarbons.
Drilling through a fault results in either a repeated section or a missing section at the point where the
wellbore intersects the fault. Faults can enhance or can seal (be a barrier to fluid flow) in reservoirs
because of their damage zones. Deformation bands are common in porous oil and gas reservoirs
where they can impede fluid flow.

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 82 6. Petroleum

 Reading for this lecture
Recommended General Reading for this Lecture:

This is an online emodule that gives a good overview of the topics in this lecture:
https://folk.uib.no/nglhe/e-modules/Chapter%201/Structural%20geology/1%20Structure%20intro.swf

Another useful resource for this material:

Stress and strain https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/13-1-stress-and-strain-2/
Folds https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/13-2-folds/
Fractures, faults and joints https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/13-3-fractures-faults-and-joints-2/

This resource has the animation of the strike-slip fault I showed in the lecture and some other useful images be aware some
of the material is more advanced than you need but it is still a useful revision tool
http://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/structure/learnstructure/index.htm

Paper on Deformation Bands – Fossen et al. 2007 – Deformation Bands in Sandstone: a review, Journal of the Geological Society, 164, 755-
769, 26 June 2007 – Access through library online

1.Stress 2. Deform 3. Strain 4. Fractures 5. Faults 6. Petroleum 83