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    Clo 5

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    Shahadat Awan

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    Clo 5

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    Shahadat Awan
    41 views33 pages

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    CLO 5

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    Clo 5

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    of 33

    Chapter 8

    Periodic
    Relationships
    Among the Elements

    © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or
    further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
    2

    Electron configuration is how the electrons are


    distributed among the various atomic orbitals in an
    atom.
    number of electrons
    The number of energy levels is equal to in the orbital or subshell
    sub-levels. 1s1
    principal quantum angular momentum
    number n quantum number l
    3
    Order of orbitals (filling) in multi-electron atom

    1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s
    4
    5

    What is the electron configuration of Mg?

    Mg 12 electrons

    1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s

    1s22s22p63s2 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 12 electrons

    Abbreviated as [Ne]3s2 [Ne] 1s22s22p6

    What is the electronic configuration of Cl?

    Cl 17 electrons 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s

    1s22s22p63s23p5 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 5 = 17 electrons

    Last electron added to 3p orbital


    6

    The chemical reactivity of the elements is largely determined


    by their valence electrons, which are the outermost
    electrons. For the representative elements, the valence
    electrons are those in the highest occupied n shell. All
    nonvalence electrons in an atom are referred to as core
    electrons. Looking at the electron configurations of the
    representative elements once again, a clear pattern
    emerges: all the elements in a given group have the same
    number and type of valence electrons. The similarity of the
    valence electron configurations is what makes the elements
    in the same group resemble one another in chemical
    behavior..
    7
    Thus, for instance, the alkali metals (the Group 1A
    elements) all have the valence electron configuration
    of ns1 (Table 8.1) and they all tend to lose one electron to
    form the unipositive cations
    Similarly, the alkaline earth metals (the Group 2A
    elements) all have the valence electron configuration of
    ns2, and they all tend to lose two electrons to form the
    dipositive cations
    8
    Valence electrons are the outer shell electrons of an
    atom. The valence electrons are the electrons that
    particpate in chemical bonding.
    Group e- configuration # of valence e-
    1A ns1 1
    2A ns2 2
    3A ns2np1 3
    4A ns2np2 4
    5A ns2np3 5
    6A ns2np4 6
    7A ns2np5 7
    9
    Electron Configurations of Cations and Anions
    Of Representative Elements

    Na [Ne]3s1 Na+ [Ne]


    Atoms lose electrons so that cation has a
    Ca [Ar]4s2 Ca2+ [Ar] noble-gas outer electron configuration.

    Al [Ne]3s23p1 Al3+ [Ne]

    H 1s1 H- 1s2 or [He]


    Atoms gain electrons so that anion
    has a noble-gas outer electron F 1s22s22p5 F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
    configuration.
    O 1s22s22p4 O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

    N 1s22s22p3 N3- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]


    10
    +1 Cations and Anions Of Representative Elements
    +2

    +3

    -3

    -2

    -1
    11

    Na+: [Ne] Al3+: [Ne] F-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

    O2-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne] N3-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

    All of these anions also have stable noble gas


    configurations. Notice that F−, Na+, and Ne (and Al3+, O2−,
    and N3−) have the same electron configuration. They are
    said to be isoelectronic because they have the same
    number of electrons, and hence the same ground-state
    electron configuration. Thus, H− and He are also
    isoelectronic.
    Isoelectronic Species

    Isoelectronic: have the same number of electrons, and


    hence the same ground-state electron configuration

    Na + : [ Ne ] Al3+ : [ Ne ] F− :1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 or [ Ne ]

    o 2 − :1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 or [ Ne ] N 3− :1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 or [ Ne ]

    Na + , Al3+ , F− , o 2 − , and N 3− are all isoelectronic with Ne

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 3-12


    Atomic Radii (1 of 2)

    covalent radius
    metallic radius

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 8-13


    Atomic Radii (2 of 2)

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 8-14


    Trends in Atomic Radii

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 8-15


    Example 8.2 (1 of 2)

    Referring to a periodic table, arrange the following


    atoms in order of increasing atomic radius: P, Si, N.

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 3-16


    Example 8.2 (2 of 2)
    Strategy
    What are the trends in atomic radii in a periodic group and in a particular period?
    Which of the preceding elements are in the same group? in the same period?

    Solution
    From Figure 8.1 we see that N and P are in the same group (Group 5A).
    Therefore, the radius of N is smaller than that of P (atomic radius increases as we
    go down a group).

    Both Si and P are in the third period, and Si is to the left of P. Therefore, the
    radius of P is smaller than that of Si (atomic radius decreases as we move from
    left to right across a period).

    Thus, the order of increasing radius is


    N < P < Si

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 3-17


    Comparison of Atomic Radii with Ionic
    Radii

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 8-18


    Ion Size

    Cation is always smaller than atom from which it is


    formed.
    Anion is always larger than atom from which it is formed.

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 8-19


    The Radii (in pm) of Ions of Familiar
    Elements

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 8-20


    Example 8.3 (1 of 3)

    For each of the following pairs, indicate which one of the


    two species is larger:

    (a) N3¯ or F¯
    (b) Mg 2 + or Ca 2 +
    2+ 3+
    (c) Fe or Fe

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 3-21


    Example 8.3 (3 of 3)
    Solution
    a) N 3− and F− are isoelectronic anions, both containing 10 electrons.
    Because N 3− has only seven protons and F− has nine, the smaller
    attraction exerted by the nucleus on the electrons results in a large
    N 3− ion.

    b) Both Mg and Ca belong to Group 2A (the alkaline earth metals).


    Thus, Ca 2 + ion is larger than Mg 2 + because Ca’s valence electrons
    are in a larger shell (n = 4) than are Mg’s (n = 3).

    2+
    c) Both ions have the same nuclear charge, but Fe has one more
    3+
    electron (24 electrons compared to 23 electrons for Fe ) and hence
    2+
    greater electron-electron repulsion. The radius of Fe is larger.

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 3-22


    Ionization Energy
    Ionization energy is the minimum energy (kj/mol) required
    to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground
    state.

    I1 + X ( g ) → X + ( g ) + e − I1 first ionization energy

    I 2 + X + ( g ) → X 2+ ( g ) + e− I 2 second ionization energy

    I 3 + X 2 + ( g ) → X 3+ ( g ) + e − I 3 third ionization energy

    I1 < I 2 < I 3

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 3-23


    Ionization Energies

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 8-24


    General Trends in First Ionization
    Energies

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 8-25


    Example 8.4 (1 of 4)
    a) Which atom should have a smaller first ionization energy:
    oxygen or sulfur?

    b) Which atom should have a higher second ionization


    energy: lithium or beryllium?

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 8-26


    Example 8.4 (2 of 4)
    Strategy
    a) First ionization energy decreases as we go down a group because
    the outermost electron is farther away from the nucleus and feels
    less attraction.

    b) Removal of the outermost electron requires less energy if it is


    shielded by a filled inner shell.

    Solution
    a) Oxygen and sulfur are members of Group 6A. They have the same
    2 4
    valence electron configuration ( ns np ), but the 3p electron in
    sulfur is farther from the nucleus and experiences less nuclear
    attraction than the 2p electron in oxygen. Thus, we predict that
    sulfur should have a smaller first ionization energy.
    © McGraw-Hill Education. 3-27
    Example 8.4 (3 of 4)
    b) The electron configurations of Li and Be are 1s 2 2 s1 and 1s 2 2 s 2 ,
    respectively. The second ionization energy is the minimum energy
    required to remove an electron from a gaseous unipositive ion in
    its ground state. For the second ionization process, we write

    Li + ( g ) → Li 2 + ( g ) + e −
    1s 2 1s 1
    Be + ( g ) → Be 2 + ( g ) + e −
    1s1 2 s 1 1s 2
    Because 1s electrons shield 2s electrons much more effectively than
    they shield each other, we predict that it should be easier to remove a
    2s electron from Be than to remove a 1s electron from Li .
    + +

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 3-28


    Example 8.4 (4 of 4)

    Check
    Compare your result with the data shown in Table 8.2.

    In (a), is your prediction consistent with the fact that the


    metallic character of the elements increases as we move
    down a periodic group?

    In (b), does your prediction account for the fact that alkali
    metals form +1 ions while alkaline earth metals form +2
    ions?

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 3-29


    Electron Affinity
    Electron affinity is the negative of the energy change that
    occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the
    gaseous state to form an anion.

    X(g ) + e− → X −( g )

    F( g ) + e − → F− ( g ) ΔH =
    − 328 kJ / mol EA =
    + 328 kJ / mol

    O( g ) + e − → O − ( g ) ΔH =
    − 141 kJ / mol EA =
    + 141 kJ / mol

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 3-30


    Electron Affinities

    © McGraw-Hill Education. 8-31


    32

    EA generally increases across a period (row) in the periodic


    table, due to the filling of the valence shell of the atom. For
    instance, within the same period, a Group-17 atom releases
    more energy than a Group-1 atom upon gaining an electron
    because the added electron creates a filled valence shell and
    therefore is more stable.

    A trend of decreasing EA down the groups in the periodic table


    would be expected, since the additional electron is entering an
    orbital farther away from the nucleus. Since this electron is
    farther away, it should be less attracted to the nucleus and
    release less energy when added. However, this trend applies
    only to Group-1 atoms. Electron affinity follows the trend of
    electronegativity: fluorine (F) has a higher electron affinity than
    oxygen (O), and so on.
    33

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