3 AUDIOBOOK COLLECTIONS

6 BOOK COLLECTIONS
 Kinematics fundamentals

By: Sunil Singh

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This selection and arrangement of content as a collection is copyrighted by Sunil Singh.

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Collection structure revised: 2008/09/28
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 Kinematics fundamentals

Table of Contents

Chapter 1. Motion
1.1. Motion
We require an observer to identify motion
Frame of reference and observer
We need to change our mind set
Is there an absolute frame of reference?
Motion types
Kinematics
1.2. Coordinate systems in physics
Coordinate system types
Rectangular (Cartesian) coordinate system
Spherical coordinate system
Cylindrical coordinate system
1.3. Distance
Distance – time plot
1.4. Position
Position
Plotting motion
Description of motion
Position – time plot
1.5. Vectors
What is a vector?
Vector algebra
Unit vector
Other important vector terms
Null vector
Negative vector
Co-planar vectors
Axial vector
Why should we study vectors?
1.6. Vector addition
Vector addition : graphical method
Triangle law
Parallelogram law
Polygon law
Subtraction
Vector addition : Analytical method
 Nature of vector addition
Vector sum and difference
Lami's theorem
Exercises
1.7. Components of a vector
Components of a vector
Planar components of a vector
Representation of a vector in component form
Vector addition : Algebraic method
Exercises
1.8. Scalar (dot) product
Multiplication with scalar
Products of vectors
Scalar product (dot product)
Angle between vectors
Meaning of scalar product
Values of scalar product
Scalar product in component form
Component as scalar (dot) product
Attributes of scalar (dot) product
Law of cosine and dot product
Differentiation and dot product
Exercises
1.9. Scalar product (application)
Representative problems and their solutions
Angle between two vectors
Condition of perpendicular vectors
Component as scalar product
Nature of scalar product
Scalar product of a vector with itself
Evaluation of dot product
1.10. Vector (cross) product
Direction of vector product
Values of cross product
Cross product in component form
Geometric meaning vector product
Attributes of vector (cross) product
1.11. Vector product (application)
Representative problems and their solutions
Condition of parallel vectors
Unit vector of cross product
Nature of vector product
Evaluation of vector product
 Area of parallelogram
1.12. Position vector
Position Vector in component form
Motion types and position vector
Examples
1.13. Displacement
Displacement and Position vector
Displacement and dimension of motion
Displacement – time plot
Interpreting change of position
Example
1.14. Speed
Distance .vs. time plots
Average speed
Instantaneous speed (v)
Speed - time plot
Position - time plot
1.15. Velocity
Position vector and velocity
Average velocity
Position – time plot and average velocity
Instantaneous velocity
Instantaneous velocity and position - time plot
Components of velocity
Few words of caution
Summary
Exercises
1.16. Rectilinear motion
Position vector in rectilinear motion
Vector interpretation and equivalent system of scalars
Position - time plot
Nature of slope
Direction of motion
Variation in the velocity
Velocity - time plot
The nature of velocity – time plot
Area under velocity – time plot
Uniform motion
Motion of separated bodies
1.17. Rectilinear motion (application)
Representative problems and their solutions
Position vector
Interpretation of displacement - time plot
 Displacement
Average velocity
1.18. Understanding motion
Similarities and differences
1.19. Velocity (application)
Representative problems and their solutions
Position vector
Displacement
Constrained motion
Nature of velocity
Comparing velocities
Chapter 2. Acceleration
2.1. Acceleration
Acceleration
Average acceleration
Instantaneous acceleration
Acceleration in terms of position vector
2.2. Understanding acceleration
Velocity, acceleration and force
External force and possible scenarios
2.3. Acceleration and deceleration
Negative vector quantities
“Increase” and “decrease” of vectors quantities
Deceleration
Graphical interpretation of negative vector quantities describing motion
Position vector
Velocity vector
Acceleration vector
2.4. Accelerated motion in one dimension
Nature of acceleration in one dimensional motion
Graphs of one dimensional motion
Acceleration – time plot
Area under acceleration - time plot
Velocity – time plot
2.5. Constant acceleration
Understanding constant acceleration
Equation of motion
First equation
Second equation
Third equation
Graphical interpretation of equations of motion
Equations of motion in component form
Equivalent scalar system of equations of motion
2.6. Constant acceleration (application)
Hints on solving problems
Representative problems and their solutions
Average velocity
Differentiation and Integration methods
Components of acceleration
Rectilinear motion with constant acceleration
Equations of motion
2.7. One dimensional motion with constant acceleration
Equation of motion for one dimensional motion with constant acceleration
Motion under gravity
Additional equations of motion
Displacement in a particular second
Average acceleration
Interpretation of equations of motion
Constant acceleration (force) is applied in the direction of velocity
Constant acceleration (force) is applied in the opposite direction of velocity
Exercises
2.8. Graphs of motion with constant acceleration
Nature of graphs
Nature of coefficient of squared term
Nature of discriminant
Reading of graph
Acceleration is positive (in the reference direction)

Acceleration is negative (opposite to the reference direction)

Example
2.9. Vertical motion under gravity
Velocity
Displacement and distance
Position
Exercises
2.10. Vertical motion under gravity (application)
Representative problems and their solutions
Motion plots
Equal displacement
Equal time
Displacement in a particular second
Twice in a position
Collision in air
 2.11. Non-uniform acceleration
Important calculus results
Differentiation
Integration
Velocity and acceleration is expressed in terms of time “t
Velocity and acceleration is expressed in terms of time “x”
Acceleration in terms of velocity
Obtaining expression of velocity in time, “t”
Obtaining expression of velocity in time, “x”
Graphical method
Velocity .vs. time
Acceleration .vs. time
Exercises
Chapter 3. Relative motion
3.1. Relative velocity in one dimension
Relative motion in one dimension
Position of the point object
Velocity of the point object
Acceleration of the point object
Interpretation of the equation of relative velocity
Equation with reference to earth
Order of subscript
Evaluating relative velocity by making reference object stationary
Direction of relative velocities
Relative velocity .vs. difference in velocities
Relative acceleration
Worked out problems
Check your understanding
3.2. Relative velocity in one dimension(application)
Hints on solving problems
Representative problems and their solutions
3.3. Relative velocity in two dimensions
Relative motion in two dimensions
Position of the point object
Velocity of the point object
Acceleration of the point object
Interpretation of the equation of relative velocity
Equation with reference to earth
Evaluation of equation using analytical technique
Equation in component form
Check your understanding
3.4. Relative velocity in two dimensions (application)
Hints on solving problems
 Representative problems and their solutions
Velocity of an individual object
Relative velocity
Closest approach
3.5. Analysing motion in a medium
Concept of independence of motion
Motion of boat in a stream
Resultant velocity
Time to cross the stream
Drift of the boat
Special cases
Shortest interval of time to cross the stream
Direction to reach opposite point of the stream
The velocity to reach opposite point of the stream
Shortest path
Motion of an object in a medium
3.6. Resultant motion (application)
Representative problems and their solutions
Velocity of the object
Time to cross the river
Multiple references
Minimum time, distance and speed
Chapter 4. Accelerated motion in two dimensions
4.1. Projectile motion
Projectile motion
Force(s) in projectile motion
Analysis of projectile motion
Projectile motion and equations of motion
Initial velocity
Equations of motion in vertical direction
Velocity
Displacement
Time of flight
Equations of motion in horizontal direction
Displacement of projectile
Velocity of projectile
Equation of the path of projectile
Exercises
Projectile motion (application)
Representative problems and their solutions
Direction of motion on return
Maximum height
Equation of projectile motion
 Change in angles during motion
Kinetic energy of a projectile
Change in the direction of velocity vector
Features of projectile motion
Time of flight, T

Maximum height reached by the projectile, H

Range of projectile, R
Equation of projectile motion and range of projectile

Impact of air resistance

Situations involving projectile motion
Clearing posts of equal height
Hitting a specified target
Determining attributes of projectile trajectory
Exercises
More exercises
Features of projectile motion (application)
Hints on solving problems
Representative problems and their solutions
Time of flight
Horizontal range
Maximum height
Height attained by a projectile
Composition of motion
Projectile motion with wind/drag force
Projectile motion types
Projection from a higher level
Projectile thrown in horizontal direction

Projectile thrown at an angle with horizontal direction

Projectile thrown up at an angle with horizontal direction
Projectile thrown down at an angle with horizontal direction
Exercises
Acknowledgment
Projectile motion types (application)
Hints on solving problems
Representative problems and their solutions
Time of flight
Range of flight
Initial velocity
Final velocity
 Projectile motion on an incline
Analyzing alternatives
Projection up the incline
Coordinates along incline (x) and perpendicular to incline (y)
Time of flight
Range of flight
Maximum range
Coordinates in horizontal (x) and vertical (y) directions
Projection down the incline
Exercises
Projectile motion on an incline (application)
Hints for solving problems
Representative problems and their solutions
Range of the flight
Angle of projection
Final speed of the projectile
Elastic collision with the incline
Projectile motion on two inclines
Relative motion of projectiles
Relative velocity of projectiles
Interpretation of relative velocity of projectiles
Relative velocity in horizontal direction
Relative velocity in vertical direction
Resultant relative motion
Physical interpretation of relative velocity of projectiles
Special cases
Exercises
Collision of projectiles
Analysis of motion
Relative motion in x-direction
Relative motion in y-direction
Collision of projectiles initiated without vertical separation
Collision of projectiles initiated without horizontal separation
Collision of projectiles initiated from different horizontal and vertical levels
Exercises
4.2. Circular motion
Uniform circular motion
Requirement of uniform circular motion
Analysis of uniform circular motion
Coordinates of the particle
Position of the particle
Velocity of the particle
Centripetal acceleration
 Direction of centripetal acceleration
Time period of uniform circular motion

Uniform circular motion and projectile motion

Exercise
Uniform circular motion (application)
Representative problems and their solutions
Direction of velocity
Direction of position vector
Velocity
Relative speed
Nature of UCM
Circular motion and rotational kinematics
Angular quantities
Angular position (θ)
Angular displacement (Δθ)
Angular velocity (ω)
Description of circular motion
Relationship between linear (v) and angular speed (ω)
Vector representation of angular quantities
Linear and angular velocity relation in vector form
Uniform circular motion
Linear .vs. angular quantity
Exercises
Circular motion and rotational kinematics (application)
Representative problems and their solutions
Measurement of angular displacement
Angular speeds
Centripetal acceleration
Accelerated motion in two dimensions
Characteristics of two dimensional motion
Tangential acceleration
Normal acceleration
Total acceleration
Tangential and normal accelerations in circular motion
Elliptical motion
Path of motion
Nature of velocity and acceleration
Application
Representative problems and their solutions
Path of motion
Tangential and normal accelerations
Nature of motion
 Displacement in two dimensions
Transformation of graphs
Important concepts
Graph of a function
Input to the function
Output of the function
Arithmetic operations
Addition/subtraction operations
Product/division operations
Negation
Effect of arithmetic operations
Forms of representation
Transformation of graph by input
Addition and subtraction to independent variable
Multiplication and division of independent variable
Negation of independent variable
Combined input operations
Horizontal shift
Non-uniform circular motion
Radial (centripetal) acceleration
Angular velocity
Tangential acceleration
Angular acceleration
Relationship between linear and angular acceleration
Linear and angular acceleration relation in vector form
Uniform circular motion
Description of circular motion using vectors
Exercises
Non – uniform circular motion(application)
Hints on problem solving
Representative problems and their solutions
Velocity
Average total acceleration
Total acceleration
Circular motion with constant acceleration
What corresponds to what ?
Angular quantities
Basic equations
Derived equations
Sign of angular quantities
Angular velocity
Angular displacement
Exercises
 Circular motion with constant acceleration (application)
Check understanding
Hints for problem solving
Representative problems and their solutions
Nature of angular motion
Time interval
Angular displacement
Index
 Chapter 1. Motion

1.1. Motion*

Motion is a state, which indicates change of position. Surprisingly, everything in this world is
constantly moving and nothing is stationary. The apparent state of rest, as we shall learn, is a
notional experience confined to a particular system of reference. A building, for example, is at
rest in Earth’s reference, but it is a moving body for other moving systems like train, motor,
airplane, moon, sun etc.

Figure 1.1. Motion of an airplane

The position of plane with respect to the earth keeps changing with time.

Definition: Motion
Motion of a body refers to the change in its position with respect to time in a given frame of
reference.

A frame of reference is a mechanism to describe space from the perspective of an observer. In

other words, it is a system of measurement for locating positions of the bodies in space with
respect to an observer (reference). Since, frame of reference is a system of measurement of
positions in space as measured by the observer, frame of reference is said to be attached to the
observer. For this reason, terms “frame of reference” and “observer” are interchangeably used to
describe motion.

In our daily life, we recognize motion of an object with respect to ourselves and other stationary
objects. If the object maintains its position with respect to the stationary objects, we say that the
object is at rest; else the object is moving with respect to the stationary objects. Here, we conceive
all objects moving with earth without changing their positions on earth surface as stationary
objects in the earth’s frame of reference. Evidently, all bodies not changing position with respect
to a specific observer is stationary in the frame of reference attached with the observer.

We require an observer to identify motion

Motion has no meaning without a reference system.

An object or a body under motion, as a matter of fact, is incapable of identifying its own motion.
It would be surprising for some to know that we live on this earth in a so called stationary state
without ever being aware that we are moving around sun at a very high speed - at a speed faster
than the fastest airplane that the man kind has developed. The earth is moving around sun at a
speed of about 30 km/s (≈ 30000 m/s ≈ 100000 km/hr) – a speed about 1000 times greater than
the motoring speed and 100 times greater than the aircraft’s speed.

Likewise, when we travel on aircraft, we are hardly aware of the speed of the aircraft. The state of
fellow passengers and parts of the aircraft are all moving at the same speed, giving the impression
that passengers are simply sitting in a stationary cabin. The turbulence that the passengers
experience occasionally is a consequence of external force and is not indicative of the motion of
the aircraft.

It is the external objects and entities which indicate that aircraft is actually moving. It is the
passing clouds and changing landscape below, which make us think that aircraft is actually
moving. The very fact that we land at geographically distant location at the end of travel in a short
time, confirms that aircraft was actually cruising at a very high speed.

The requirement of an observer in both identifying and quantifying motion brings about new
dimensions to the understanding of motion. Notably, the motion of a body and its measurement is
found to be influenced by the state of motion of the observer itself and hence by the state of
motion of the attached frame of reference. As such, a given motion is evaluated differently by
different observers (system of references).

Two observers in the same state of motion, such as two persons standing on the platform, perceive
the motion of a passing train in exactly same manner. On the other hand, the passenger in a
speeding train finds that the other train crossing it on the parallel track in opposite direction has
the combined speed of the two trains . The observer on the ground, however, find them
running at their individual speeds v1 and v2.

From the discussion above, it is clear that motion of an object is an attribute, which can not be
stated in absolute term; but it is a kind of attribute that results from the interaction of the motions
of the both object and observer (frame of reference).
Frame of reference and observer
Frame of reference is a mathematical construct to specify position or location of a point object in
space. Basically, frame of reference is a coordinate system. There are plenty of coordinate
systems in use, but the Cartesian coordinate system, comprising of three mutually perpendicular
axes, is most common. A point in three dimensional space is defined by three values of
coordinates i.e. x,y and z in the Cartesian system as shown in the figure below. We shall learn
about few more useful coordinate systems in next module titled " Coordinate systems in physics
".

Figure 1.2. Frame of reference

A point in three dimensional space is defined by three values of coordinates

We need to be specific in our understanding of the role of the observer and its relation with frame
of reference. Observation of motion is considered an human endeavor. But motion of an object is
described in reference of both human and non-human bodies like clouds, rivers, poles, moon etc.
From the point of view of the study of motion, we treat reference bodies capable to make
observations, which is essentially a human like function. As such, it is helpful to imagine
ourselves attached to the reference system, making observations. It is essentially a notional
endeavor to consider that the measurements are what an observer in that frame of reference would
make, had the observer with the capability to measure was actually present there.

Earth is our natural abode and we identify all non-moving ground observers equivalent and at rest
with the earth. For other moving systems, we need to specify position and determine motion by
virtually (in imagination) transposing ourselves to the frame of reference we are considering.
 Figure 1.3. Measurement from a moving reference

Take the case of observations about the motion of an aircraft made by two observers one at a
ground and another attached to the cloud moving at certain speed. For the observer on the ground,
the aircraft is moving at a speed of ,say, 1000 km/hr.

Further, let the reference system attached to the cloud itself is moving, say, at the speed of 50
km/hr, in a direction opposite to that of the aircraft as seen by the person on the ground. Now,
locating ourselves in the frame of reference of the cloud, we can visualize that the aircraft is
changing its position more rapidly than as observed by the observer on the ground i.e. at the
combined speed and would be seen flying by the observer on the cloud at the speed of 1000 + 50
= 1050 km/hr.

We need to change our mind set

The scientific measurement requires that we change our mindset about perceiving motion and its
scientific meaning. To our trained mind, it is difficult to accept that a stationary building standing
at a place for the last 20 years is actually moving for an observer, who is moving towards it. Going
by the definition of motion, the position of the building in the coordinate system of an
approaching observer is changing with time. Actually, the building is moving for all moving
bodies. What it means that the study of motion requires a new scientific approach about
perceiving motion. It also means that the scientific meaning of motion is not limited to its
interpretation from the perspective of earth or an observer attached to it.
 Figure 1.4. Motion of a tree
Motion of the tree as seen by the person driving the truck

Consider the motion of a tree as seen from a person driving a truck (See Figure above) . The tree
is undeniably stationary for a person standing on the ground. The coordinates of the tree in the
frame of reference attached to the truck, however, is changing with time. As the truck moves
ahead, the coordinates of the tree is increasing in the opposite direction to that of the truck. The
tree, thus, is moving backwards for the truck driver – though we may find it hard to believe as the
tree has not changed its position on the ground and is stationary. This deep rooted perception
negating scientific hard fact is the outcome of our conventional mindset based on our life long
perception of the bodies grounded to the earth.

Is there an absolute frame of reference?

Let us consider following :

In nature, we find that smaller entities are contained within bigger entities, which themselves are
moving. For example, a passenger is part of a train, which in turn is part of the earth, which in turn
is part of the solar system and so on. This aspect of containership of an object in another moving
object is chained from smaller to bigger bodies. We simply do not know which one of these is the
ultimate container and the one, which is not moving.

These aspects of motion as described in the above paragraph leads to the following conclusions
about frame of reference :

"There is no such thing like a “mother of all frames of reference” or the ultimate container, which
can be considered at rest. As such, no measurement of motion can be considered absolute. All
measurements of motion are, therefore, relative."

Motion types
Nature displays motions of many types. Bodies move in a truly complex manner. Real time
motion is mostly complex as bodies are subjected to various forces. These motions are not simple
straight line motions. Consider a bird’s flight for example. Its motion is neither in the straight line
nor in a plane. The bird flies in a three dimensional space with all sorts of variations involving
direction and speed. A boat crossing a river, on the other hand, roughly moves in the plane of
water surface.

Motion in one dimension is rare. This is surprising, because the natural tendency of all bodies is to
maintain its motion in both magnitude and direction. This is what Newton’s first law of motion
tells us. Logically all bodies should move along a straight line at a constant speed unless it is
acted upon by an external force. The fact of life is that objects are subjected to verities of forces
during their motion and hence either they deviate from straight line motion or change speed.

Since, real time bodies are mostly non-linear or varying in speed or varying in both speed and
direction, we may conclude that bodies are always acted upon by some force. The most common
and omnipresent forces in our daily life are the gravitation and friction (electrical) forces. Since
force is not the subject of discussion here, we shall skip any further elaboration on the role of
force. But, the point is made : bodies generally move in complex manner as they are subjected to
different forces.

Figure 1.5. Real time motion

A gas molecule in a container moves randomly under electrostatic interaction with other molecules

Nevertheless, study of motion in one dimension is basic to the understanding of more complex
scenarios of motion. The very nature of physical laws relating to motion allows us to study motion
by treating motions in different directions separately and then combining the motions in
accordance with vector rules to get the overall picture.

A general classification of motion is done in the context of the dimensions of the motion. A
motion in space, comprising of three dimensions, is called three dimensional motion. In this case,
all three coordinates are changing as the time passes by. While, in two dimensional motion, any
two of the three dimensions of the position are changing with time. The parabolic path described
by a ball thrown at certain angle to the horizon is an example of the two dimensional motion (See
Figure). A ball thrown at an angle with horizon is described in terms of two coordinates x and y.
 Figure 1.6. Two dimensional motion
A ball thrown at an angle with horizon is described in terms of two coordinates x and y

One dimensional motion, on the other hand, is described using any one of the three coordinates;
remaining two coordinates remain constant through out the motion. Generally, we believe that one
dimensional motion is equivalent to linear motion. This is not further from truth either. A linear
motion in a given frame of reference, however, need not always be one dimensional. Consider the
motion of a person swimming along a straight line on a calm water surface. Note here that
position of the person at any given instant in the coordinate system is actually given by a pair of
coordinate (x,y) values (See Figure below).

Figure 1.7. Linear motion

Description of motion requires two coordinate values

There is a caveat though. We can always rotate the pair of axes such that one of it lies parallel to
the path of motion as shown in the figure. One of the coordinates, y y1 is constant through out the
motion. Only the x-coordinate is changing and as such motion can be described in terms of x-
coordinate alone. It follows then that all linear motion can essentially be treated as one
dimensional motion.
 Figure 1.8. Linear and one dimensional motion
Choice of appropriate coordinate system renders linear motion as one dimensional motion.

Kinematics
Kinematics refers to the study of motion of natural bodies. The bodies that we see and deal with in
real life are three dimensional objects and essentially not a point object.

A point object would occupy a point (without any dimension) in space. The real bodies, on the
other hand, are entities with dimensions, having length, breadth and height. This introduces
certain amount of complexity in so far as describing motion. First of all, a real body can not be
specified by a single set of coordinates. This is one aspect of the problem. The second equally
important aspect is that different parts of the bodies may have path trajectories different to each
other.

When a body moves with rotation (rolling while moving), the path trajectories of different parts
of the bodies are different; on the other hand, when the body moves without rotation (slipping/
sliding), the path trajectories of the different parts of the bodies are parallel to each other.

In the second case, the motion of all points within the body is equivalent as far as translational
motion of the body is concerned and hence, such bodies may be said to move like a point object. It
is, therefore, possible to treat the body under consideration to be equivalent to a point so long
rotation is not involved.

For this reason, study of kinematics consists of studies of :

1. Translational kinematics

2. Rotational kinematics

A motion can be pure translational or pure rotational or a combination of the two types of motion.

The translational motion allows us to treat a real time body as a point object. Hence, we freely
refer to bodies, objects and particles in one and the same sense that all of them are point entities,
whose position can be represented by a single set of coordinates. We should keep this in mind
while studying translational motion of a body and treating the same as point.

1.2. Coordinate systems in physics*

Coordinate system is a system of measurement of distance and direction with respect to rigid
bodies. Structurally, it comprises of coordinates and a reference point, usually the origin of the
coordinate system. The coordinates primarily serve the purpose of reference for the direction of
motion, while origin serves the purpose of reference for the magnitude of motion.

Measurements of magnitude and direction allow us to locate a position of a point in terms of

measurable quantities like linear distances or angles or their combinations. With these
measurements, it is possible to locate a point in the spatial extent of the coordinate system. The
point may lie anywhere in the spatial (volumetric) extent defined by the rectangular axes as shown
in the figure. (Note : The point, in the figure, is shown as small sphere for visual emphasis only)

Figure 1.9. A point in the coordinate system

A distance in the coordinate system is measured with a standard rigid linear length like that of a
“meter” or a “foot”. A distance of 5 meters, for example, is 5 times the length of the standard
length of a meter. On the other hand, an angle is defined as a ratio of lengths and is dimensional-
less. Hence, measurement of direction is indirectly equivalent to the measurement of distances
only.

The coordinate system represents the system of rigid body like earth, which is embodied by an
observer, making measurements. Since measurements are implemented by the observer, they (the
measurements in the coordinate system) represent distance and direction as seen by the observer.
It is, therefore, clearly implied that measurements in the coordinates system are specific to the
state of motion of the coordinate system.

In a plane language, we can say that the description of motion is specific to a system of rigid
bodies, which involves measurement of distance and direction. The measurements are done, using
standards of length, by an observer, who is at rest with the system of rigid bodies. The observer
makes use of a coordinate system attached to the system of rigid bodies and uses the same as
reference to make measurements.

It is apparent that the terms “system of rigid bodies”, “observer” and “coordinate system” etc. are
similar in meaning; all of which conveys a system of reference for carrying out measurements to
describe motion. We sum up the discussion thus far as :

1. Measurements of distance, direction and location in a coordinate system are specific to the
system of rigid bodies, which serve as reference for both magnitude and direction.

2. Like point, distance and other aspects of motion, the concept of space is specific to the
reference represented by coordinate system. It is, therefore, suggested that use of word “space”
independent of coordinate system should be avoided and if used it must be kept in mind that it
represents volumetric extent of a specific coordinate system. The concept of space, if used
without caution, leads to an inaccurate understanding of the laws of nature.

3. Once the meanings of terms are clear, “the system of reference” or “frame of reference” or
“rigid body system” or “observer” or “coordinate system” may be used interchangeably to
denote an unique system for determination of motional quantities and the representation of a
motion.

Coordinate system types

Coordinate system types determine position of a point with measurements of distance or angle or
combination of them. A spatial point requires three measurements in each of these coordinate
types. It must, however, be noted that the descriptions of a point in any of these systems are
equivalent. Different coordinate types are mere convenience of appropriateness for a given
situation. Three major coordinate systems used in the study of physics are :

Rectangular (Cartesian)

Spherical

Cylindrical

Rectangular (Cartesian) coordinate system is the most convenient as it is easy to visualize and
associate with our perception of motion in daily life. Spherical and cylindrical systems are
specifically designed to describe motions, which follow spherical or cylindrical curvatures.

Rectangular (Cartesian) coordinate system

The measurements of distances along three mutually perpendicular directions, designated as x,y
and z, completely define a point A (x,y,z).

Figure 1.10. A point in rectangular coordinate system

A point is specified with three coordinate values

From geometric consideration of triangle OAB,

From geometric consideration of triangle OBD,

Combining above two relations, we have :

The numbers are assigned to a point in the sequence x, y, z as shown for the points A and B.
 Figure 1.11. Specifying points in rectangular coordinate system
A point is specified with coordinate values

Rectangular coordinate system can also be viewed as volume composed of three rectangular
surfaces. The three surfaces are designated as a pair of axial designations like “xy” plane. We may
infer that the “xy” plane is defined by two lines (x and y axes) at right angle. Thus, there are “xy”,
“yz” and “zx” rectangular planes that make up the space (volumetric extent) of the coordinate
system (See figure).

Figure 1.12. Planes in rectangular coordinate system

Three mutually perpendicular planes define domain of rectangular system

The motion need not be extended in all three directions, but may be limited to two or one
dimensions. A circular motion, for example, can be represented in any of the three planes,
whereby only two axes with an origin will be required to describe motion. A linear motion, on the
other hand, will require representation in one dimension only.

Spherical coordinate system

A three dimensional point “A” in spherical coordinate system is considered to be located on a

sphere of a radius “r”. The point lies on a particular cross section (or plane) containing origin of
the coordinate system. This cross section makes an angle “θ” from the “zx” plane (also known as
longitude angle). Once the plane is identified, the angle, φ, that the line joining origin O to the
point A, makes with “z” axis, uniquely defines the point A (r, θ, φ).

Figure 1.13. Spherical coordinate system

A point is specified with three coordinate values

It must be realized here that we need to designate three values r, θ and φ to uniquely define the
point A. If we do not specify θ, the point could then lie any of the infinite numbers of possible
cross section through the sphere like A'(See Figure below).

Figure 1.14. Spherical coordinate system

A point is specified with three coordinate values

From geometric consideration of spherical coordinate system :

These relations can be easily obtained, if we know to determine projection of a directional
quantity like position vector. For example, the projection of "r" in "xy" plane is "r sinφ". In turn,
projection of "r sinφ" along x-axis is ""r sinφ cosθ". Hence,

In the similar fashion, we can determine other relations.

Cylindrical coordinate system

A three dimensional point “A” in cylindrical coordinate system is considered to be located on a

cylinder of a radius “r”. The point lies on a particular cross section (or plane) containing origin of
the coordinate system. This cross section makes an angle “θ” from the “zx” plane. Once the plane
is identified, the height, z, parallel to vertical axis “z” uniquely defines the point A(r, θ, z)

Figure 1.15. Cylindrical coordinate system

A point is specified with three coordinate values
 1.3. Distance*

Distance represents the magnitude of motion in terms of the "length" of the path, covered by an
object during its motion. The terms "distance" and "distance covered" are interchangeably used to
represent the same length along the path of motion and are considered equivalent terms. Initial
and final positions of the object are mere start and end points of measurement and are not
sufficient to determine distance. It must be understood that the distance is measured by the length
covered, which may not necessarily be along the straight line joining initial and final positions.
The path of the motion between two positions is an important consideration for determining
distance. One of the paths between two points is the shortest path, which may or may not be
followed during the motion.

Definition: Distance
Distance is the length of path followed during a motion.

Figure 1.16. Distance

Distance depends on the choice of path between two points

In the diagram shown above, s 1 , represents the shortest distance between points A and B.
Evidently,

s 2≥ s 1

The concept of distance is associated with the magnitude of movement of an object during the
motion. It does not matter if the object goes further away or suddenly moves in a different
direction or reverses its path. The magnitude of movement keeps adding up so long the object
moves. This notion of distance implies that distance is not linked with any directional attribute.
The distance is, thus, a scalar quantity of motion, which is cumulative in nature.
An object may even return to its original position over a period of time without any “net” change
in position; the distance, however, will not be zero. To understand this aspect of distance, let us
consider a point object that follows a circular path starting from point A and returns to the initial
position as shown in the figure above. Though, there is no change in the position over the period
of motion; but the object, in the meantime, covers a circular path, whose length is equal to its
perimeter i.e. 2πr.

Generally, we choose the symbol 's' to denote distance. A distance is also represented in the form
of “∆s” as the distance covered in a given time interval ∆t. The symbol “∆” pronounced as “del”
signifies the change in the quantity before which it appears.

Distance is a scalar quantity but with a special feature. It does not take negative value unlike some
other scalar quantities like “charge”, which can assume both positive and negative values. The
very fact that the distance keeps increasing regardless of the direction, implies that distance for a
body in motion is always positive. Mathematically : s > 0

Since distance is the measurement of length, its dimensional formula is [L] and its SI
measurement unit is “meter”.

Distance – time plot

Distance – time plot is a simple plot of two scalar quantities along two axes. However, the nature
of distance imposes certain restrictions, which characterize "distance - time" plot.

The nature of "distance – time" plot, with reference to its characteristics, is summarized here :

1. Distance is a positive scalar quantity. As such, "the distance – time" plot is a curve in the first
quadrant of the two dimensional plot.

2. As distance keeps increasing during a motion, the slope of the curve is always positive.

3. When the object undergoing motion stops, then the plot becomes straight line parallel to time
axis so that distance is constant as shown in the figure here.
 Figure 1.17. Distance - time plot

One important implication of the positive slope of the "distance - time" plot is that the curve never
drops below a level at any moment of time. Besides, it must be noted that "distance - time" plot is
handy in determining "instantaneous speed", but we choose to conclude the discussion of "distance
- time" plot as these aspects are separately covered in subsequent module.

Example 1.1. Distance – time plot

Question : A ball falling from an height ‘h’ strikes the ground. The distance covered during
the fall at the end of each second is shown in the figure for the first 5 seconds. Draw distance –
time plot for the motion during this period. Also, discuss the nature of the curve.

Figure 1.18. Motion of a falling ball

Solution : We have experienced that a free falling object falls with increasing speed under the
influence of gravity. The distance covered in successive time intervals increases with time.
The magnitudes of distance covered in successive seconds given in the plot illustrate this
point. In the plot between distance and time as shown, the origin of the reference (coordinate
system) is chosen to coincide with initial point of the motion.
 Figure 1.19. Distance – time plot

From the plot, it is clear that the ball covers more distance as it nears the ground. The
"distance- time" curve during fall is, thus, flatter near start point and steeper near earth
surface. Can you guess the nature of plot when a ball is thrown up against gravity?

Exercise 1.

A ball falling from an height ‘h’ strikes a hard horizontal surface with increasing speed. On each
rebound, the height reached by the ball is half of the height it fell from. Draw "distance – time"
plot for the motion covering two consecutive strikes, emphasizing the nature of curve (ignore
actual calculation). Also determine the total distance covered during the motion.

Here we first estimate the manner in which distance is covered under gravity as the ball falls or
rises.

The distance- time curve during fall is flatter near start point and steeper near earth surface. On
the other hand, we can estimate that the distance- time curve, during rise, is steeper near the earth
surface (covers more distance due to greater speed) and flatter as it reaches the maximum height,
when speed of the ball becomes zero.

The "distance – time" plot of the motion of the ball, showing the nature of curve during motion, is
:
 Figure 1.19. Distance – time plot

The origin of plot (O) coincides with the initial position of the ball (t = 0). Before striking the
surface for the first time (A), it travels a distance of ‘h’. On rebound, it rises to a height of ‘h/2’
(B on plot). Total distance is ‘h + h/2 = 3h/2’. Again falling from a height of ‘h/2’, it strikes the
surface, covering a distance of ‘h/2’. The total distance from the start to the second strike (C on
plot) is ‘3h/2 + h/2 = 2h’.

1.4. Position*

Coordinate system enables us to specify a point in its defined volumetric space. We must
recognize that a point is a concept without dimensions; whereas the objects or bodies under
motion themselves are not points. The real bodies, however, approximates a point in translational
motion, when paths followed by the particles, composing the body are parallel to each other (See
Figure). As we are concerned with the geometry of the path of motion in kinematics, it is,
therefore, reasonable to treat real bodies as “point like” mass for description of translational
motion.
 Figure 1.20. Translational motion
Particles follow parallel paths

We conceptualize a particle in order to facilitate the geometric description of motion. A particle is

considered to be dimensionless, but having a mass. This hypothetical construct provides the basis
for the logical correspondence of point with the position occupied by a particle.

Without any loss of purpose, we can designate motion to begin at A or A’ or A’’ corresponding to
final positions B or B’ or B’’ respectively as shown in the figure above.

For the reasons as outlined above, we shall freely use the terms “body” or “object” or “particle” in
one and the same way as far as description of translational motion is concerned. Here, pure
translation conveys the meaning that the object is under motion without rotation, like sliding of a
block on a smooth inclined plane.

Position
Definition: Position
The position of a particle is a point in the defined volumetric space of the coordinate system.
 Figure 1.21. Position of a point object
Position of a point is specified by three coordinate values

The position of a point like object, in three dimensional coordinate space, is defined by three
values of coordinates i.e. x, y and z in Cartesian coordinate system as shown in the figure above.

It is evident that the relative position of a point with respect to a fixed point such as the origin of
the system “O” has directional property. The position of the object, for example, can lie either to
the left or to the right of the origin or at a certain angle from the positive x - direction. As such the
position of an object is associated with directional attribute with respect to a frame of reference
(coordinate system).

Example 1.2. Coordinates

Problem : The length of the second’s hand of a round wall clock is ‘r’ meters. Specify the
coordinates of the tip of the second’s hand corresponding to the markings 3,6,9 and 12
(Consider the center of the clock as the origin of the coordinate system.).

Figure 1.22. Coordinates of the tip of the second’s hand

The origin coincides with the center

Solution : The coordinates of the tip of the second’s hand is given by the coordinates :

3 : r, 0, 0
6 : 0, -r, 0
9 : -r, 0, 0
12 : 0, r, 0

Exercise 2.
What would be the coordinates of the markings 3,6,9 and 12 in the earlier example, if the origin
coincides with the marking 6 on the clock ?

Figure 1.22. Coordinates of the tip of the second’s hand

Origin coincides with the marking 6 O’ clock

The coordinates of the tip of the second’s hand is given by the coordinates :

3 : r, r, 0
6 : 0, 0, 0
9 : -r, r, 0
12 : 0, 2r, 0

The above exercises point to an interesting feature of the frame of reference: that the specification
of position of the object (values of coordinates) depends on the choice of origin of the given frame
of reference. We have already seen that description of motion depends on the state of observer i.e.
the attached system of reference. This additional dependence on the choice of origin of the
reference would have further complicated the issue, but for the linear distance between any two
points in a given system of reference, is found to be independent of the choice of the origin. For
example, the linear distance between the markings 6 and 12 is ‘2r’, irrespective of the choice of
the origin.

Plotting motion
Position of a point in the volumetric space is a three dimensional description. A plot showing
positions of an object during a motion is an actual description of the motion in so far as the curve
shows the path of the motion and its length gives the distance covered. A typical three
dimensional motion is depicted as in the figure below :

Figure 1.23. Motion in three dimension

The plot is the path followed by the object during motion.

In the figure, the point like object is deliberately shown not as a point, but with finite dimensions.
This has been done in order to emphasize that an object of finite dimensions can be treated as
point when the motion is purely translational.

The three dimensional description of positions of an object during motion is reduced to be two or
one dimensional description for the planar and linear motions respectively. In two or one
dimensional motion, the remaining coordinates are constant. In all cases, however, the plot of the
positions is meaningful in following two respects :

The length of the curve (i.e. plot) is equal to the distance.

A tangent in forward direction at a point on the curve gives the direction of motion at that point

Description of motion
Position is the basic element used to describe motion. Scalar properties of motion like distance
and speed are expressed in terms of position as a function of time. As the time passes, the
positions of the motion follow a path, known as the trajectory of the motion. It must be
emphasized here that the path of motion (trajectory) is unique to a frame of reference and so is the
description of the motion.

To illustrate the point, let us consider that a person is traveling on a train, which is moving with
the velocity v along a straight track. At a particular moment, the person releases a small pebble.
The pebble drops to the ground along the vertical direction as seen by the person.
 Figure 1.24. Trajectory as seen by the passenger
Trajectory is a straight line.

The same incident, however, is seen by an observer on the ground as if the pebble followed a
parabolic path (See Figure blow). It emerges then that the path or the trajectory of the motion is
also a relative attribute, like other attributes of the motion (speed and velocity). The coordinate
system of the passenger in the train is moving with the velocity of train ( v) with respect to the
earth and the path of the pebble is a straight line. For the person on the ground, however, the
coordinate system is stationary with respect to earth. In this frame, the pebble has a horizontal
velocity, which results in a parabolic trajectory.

Figure 1.25. Trajectory as seen by the person on ground

Trajectory is a parabolic curve.

Without overemphasizing, we must acknowledge that the concept of path or trajectory is

essentially specific to the frame of reference or the coordinate system attached to it. Interestingly,
we must be aware that this particular observation happens to be the starting point for the
development of special theory of relativity by Einstein (see his original transcript on the subject
of relativity).
Position – time plot
The position in three dimensional motion involves specification in terms of three coordinates.
This requirement poses a serious problem, when we want to investigate positions of the object
with respect to time. In order to draw such a graph, we would need three axes for describing
position and one axis for plotting time. This means that a position – time plot for a three
dimensional motion would need four (4) axes !

A two dimensional position – time plot, however, is a possibility, but its drawing is highly
complicated for representation on a two dimensional paper or screen. A simple example
consisting of a linear motion in the x-y plane is plotted against time on z – axis (See Figure).

Figure 1.26. Two dimensional position – time plot

As a matter of fact, it is only the one dimensional motion, whose position – time plot can be
plotted conveniently on a plane. In one dimensional motion, the point object can either be to the
left or to the right of the origin in the direction of reference line. Thus, drawing position against
time is a straight forward exercise as it involves plotting positions with appropriate sign.

Example 1.3. Coordinates

Problem : A ball moves along a straight line from O to A to B to C to O along x-axis as shown
in the figure. The ball covers each of the distance of 5 m in one second. Plot the position –
time graph.

Figure 1.27. Motion along a straight line

 Solution : The coordinates of the ball are 0,5,10, -5 and 0 at points O, A, B, C and O (on
return) respectively. The position – time plot of the motion is as given below :

Figure 1.28. Position – time plot in one dimension

Exercise 3.

A ball falling from a height ‘h’ strikes a hard horizontal surface with increasing speed. On each
rebound, the height reached by the ball is half of the height it fell from. Draw position – time plot
for the motion covering two consecutive strikes, emphasizing the nature of curve (ignore actual
calculation).

Now, as the ball falls towards the surface, it covers path at a quicker pace. As such, the position
changes more rapidly as the ball approaches the surface. The curve (i.e. plot) is, therefore, steeper
towards the surface. On the return upward journey, the ball covers lesser distance as it reaches the
maximum height. Hence, the position – time curve (i.e. plot) is flatter towards the point of
maximum height.
 Figure 1.28. Position – time plot in one dimension

Exercise 4.

The figure below shows three position – time plots of a motion of a particle along x-axis. Giving
reasons, identify the valid plot(s) among them. For the valid plot(s), determine following :

Figure 1.28. Position – time plots in one dimension

1. How many times the particle has come to rest?

2. Does the particle reverse its direction during motion?

Validity of plots : In the portion of plot I, we can draw a vertical line that intersects the curve at
three points. It means that the particle is present at three positions simultaneously, which is not
possible. Plot II is also not valid for the same reason. Besides, it consists of a vertical portion,
which would mean presence of the particle at infinite numbers of positions at the same instant.
Plot III, on the other hand, is free from these anomalies and is the only valid curve representing
motion of a particle along x – axis (See Figure).
 Figure 1.28. Valid position – time plot in one dimension
A particle can not be present at more than one position at a given instant.

When the particle comes to rest, there is no change in the value of “x”. This, in turn, means that
tangent to the curve at points of rest is parallel to x-axis. By inspection, we find that tangent to the
curve is parallel to x-axis at four points (B,C,D and E) on the curve shown in the figure below.
Hence, the particle comes to rest four times during the motion.

Figure 1.28. Positions of rest

At rest, the tangent to the path is parallel to time axis.

1.5. Vectors*

A number of key fundamental physical concepts relate to quantities, which display directional
property. Scalar algebra is not suited to deal with such quantities. The mathematical construct
called vector is designed to represent quantities with directional property. A vector, as we shall
see, encapsulates the idea of “direction” together with “magnitude”.

In order to elucidate directional aspect of a vector, let us consider a simple example of the motion
of a person from point A to point B and from point B to point C, covering a distance of 4 and 3
meters respectively as shown in the Figure . Evidently, AC represents the linear distance between
the initial and the final positions. This linear distance, however, is not equal to the sum of the
linear distances of individual motion represented by segments AB and BC ( 4 + 3 = 7 m) i.e.

Figure 1.29. Displacement

Scalar inequality

However, we need to express the end result of the movement appropriately as the sum of two
individual movements. The inequality of the scalar equation as above is basically due to the fact
that the motion represented by these two segments also possess directional attributes; the first
segment is directed along the positive x – axis, where as the second segment of motion is directed
along the positive y –axis. Combining their magnitudes is not sufficient as the two motions are
perpendicular to each other. We require a mechanism to combine directions as well.

The solution of the problem lies in treating individual distance with a new term "displacement" –
a vector quantity, which is equal to “linear distance plus direction”. Such a conceptualization of a
directional quantity allows us to express the final displacement as the sum of two individual
displacements in vector form :

The magnitude of displacement is obtained by applying Pythagoras theorem :

It is clear from the example above that vector construct is actually devised in a manner so that
physical reality having directional property is appropriately described. This "fit to requirement"
aspect of vector construct for physical phenomena having direction is core consideration in
defining vectors and laying down rules for vector operation.

A classical example, illustrating the “fit to requirement” aspect of vector, is the product of two
vectors. A product, in general, should evaluate in one manner to yield one value. However, there
are natural quantities, which are product of two vectors, but evaluate to either scalar (example :
work) or vector (example : torque) quantities. Thus, we need to define the product of vectors in
two ways : one that yields scalar value and the other that yields vector value. For this reason
product of two vectors is either defined as dot product to give a scalar value or defined as cross
product to give vector value. This scheme enables us to appropriately handle the situations as the
case may be.

Mathematical concept of vector is basically secular in nature and general in application. This
means that mathematical treatment of vectors is without reference to any specific physical
quantity or phenomena. In other words, we can employ vector and its methods to all quantities,
which possess directional attribute, in a uniform and consistent manner. For example two vectors
would be added in accordance with vector addition rule irrespective of whether vectors involved
represent displacement, force, torque or some other vector quantities.

The moot point of discussion here is that vector has been devised to suit the requirement of
natural process and not the other way around that natural process suits vector construct as defined
in vector mathematics.

What is a vector?
Definition: Vector
Vector is a physical quantity, which has both magnitude and direction.

A vector is represented graphically by an arrow drawn on a scale as shown Figure i. In order to

process vectors using graphical methods, we need to draw all vectors on the same scale. The arrow
head point in the direction of the vector.

A vector is notionally represented in a characteristic style. It is denoted as bold face type like “ a ”
as shown Figure (i) or with a small arrow over the symbol like “ ” or with a small bar as in “
”. The magnitude of a vector quantity is referred by simple identifier like “a” or as the absolute
value of the vector as “ | a | ” .

Two vectors of equal magnitude and direction are equal vectors ( Figure (ii) ). As such, a vector
can be laterally shifted as long as its direction remains same ( Figure (ii) ). Also, vectors can be
shifted along its line of application represented by dotted line ( Figure (iii) ). The flexibility by
virtue of shifting vector allows a great deal of ease in determining vector’s interaction with other
scalar or vector quantities.

Figure 1.30. Vectors

It should be noted that graphical representation of vector is independent of the origin or axes of
coordinate system except for few vectors like position vector (called localized vector), which is
tied to the origin or a reference point by definition. With the exception of localized vector, a
change in origin or orientation of axes or both does not affect vectors and vector operations like
addition or multiplication (see figure below).

Figure 1.31. Vectors

The vector is not affected, when the coordinate is rotated or displaced as shown in the figure
above. Both the orientation and positioning of origin i.e reference point do not alter the vector
representation. It remains what it is. This feature of vector operation is an added value as the study
of physics in terms of vectors is simplified, being independent of the choice of coordinate system
in a given reference.
Vector algebra
Graphical method is slightly meticulous and error prone as it involves drawing of vectors on scale
and measurement of angles. In addition, it does not allow algebraic manipulation that otherwise
would give a simple solution as in the case of scalar algebra. We can, however, extend algebraic
techniques to vectors, provided vectors are represented on a rectangular coordinate system. The
representation of a vector on a coordinate system uses the concept of unit vectors and scalar
magnitudes. We shall discuss these aspects in a separate module titled Components of a vector .
Here, we briefly describe the concept of unit vector and technique to represent a vector in a
particular direction.

Unit vector

Unit vector has a magnitude of one and is directed in a particular direction. It does not have
dimension or unit like most other physical quantities. Thus, multiplying a scalar by unit vector
converts the scalar quantity into a vector without changing its magnitude, but assigning it a
direction ( Figure ).

Figure 1.32. Vector representation with unit vector

This is an important relation as it allows determination of unit vector in the direction of any
vector " a as :

Conventionally, unit vectors along the rectangular axes is represented with bold type face symbols
like : i , j and k , or with a cap heads like . The unit vector along the axis denotes the
direction of individual axis.
Using the concept of unit vector, we can denote a vector by multiplying the magnitude of the
vector with unit vector in its direction.

Following this technique, we can represent a vector along any axis in terms of scalar magnitude
and axial unit vector like (for x-direction) :

a=ai

Other important vector terms

Null vector

Null vector is conceptualized for completing the development of vector algebra. We may
encounter situations in which two equal but opposite vectors are added. What would be the result?
Would it be a zero real number or a zero vector? It is expected that result of algebraic operation
should be compatible with the requirement of vector. In order to meet this requirement, we define
null vector, which has neither magnitude nor direction. In other words, we say that null vector is a
vector whose all components in rectangular coordinate system are zero.

Strictly, we should denote null vector like other vectors using a bold faced letter or a letter with an
overhead arrow. However, it may generally not be done. We take the exception to denote null
vector by number “0” as this representation does not contradicts the defining requirement of null
vector.

a+b=0

Negative vector

Definition: Negative vector

A negative vector of a given vector is defined as the vector having same magnitude, but applied
in the opposite direction to that of the given vector.

It follows that if b is the negative of vector a , then

There is a subtle point to be made about negative scalar and vector quantities. A negative scalar
quantity, sometimes, conveys the meaning of lesser value. For example, the temperature -5 K is a
smaller temperature than any positive value. Also, a greater negative like – 100 K is less than the
smaller negative like -50 K. However, a scalar like charge conveys different meaning. A negative
charge of -10 μC is a bigger negative charge than – 5 μC. The interpretation of negative scalar is,
thus, situational.

On the other hand, negative vector always indicates the sense of opposite direction. Also like
charge, a greater negative vector is larger than smaller negative vector or a smaller positive
vector. The magnitude of force -10 i N, for example is greater than 5 i N, but directed in the
opposite direction to that of the unit vector i. In any case, negative vector does not convey the
meaning of lesser or greater magnitude like the meaning of a scalar quantity in some cases.

Co-planar vectors

A pair of vectors determines an unique plane. The pair of vectors defining the plane and other
vectors in that plane are called coplanar vectors.

Axial vector

Motion has two basic types : translational and rotational motions. The vector and scalar quantities,
describing them are inherently different. Accordingly, there are two types of vectors to deal with
quantities having direction. The system of vectors that we have referred so far is suitable for
describing translational motion and such vectors are called “rectangular” or "polar" vectors.

A different type of vector called axial vector is used to describe rotational motion. Its graphical
representation is same as that of rectangular vector, but its interpretation is different. What it
means that the axial vector is represented by a straight line with an arrow head as in the case of
polar vector; but the physical interpretation of axial vector differs. An axial vector, say ω , is
interpreted to act along the positive direction of the axis of rotation, while rotating anti –
clockwise. A negative axial vector like, – ω , is interpreted to act along the negative direction of
axis of rotation, while rotating clockwise.

Figure 1.33. Axial vector

The figure above captures the concept of axial vector. It should be noted that the direction of the
axial vector is essentially tied with the sense of rotation (clockwise or anti-clockwise). This
linking of directions is stated with "Right hand (screw) rule". According to this rule ( see figure
below ), if the stretched thumb of right hand points in the direction of axial vector, then the curl of
the fist gives the direction of rotation. Its inverse is also true i.e if the curl of the right hand fist is
placed in a manner to follow the direction of rotation, then the stretched thumb points in the
direction of axial vector.

Figure 1.34. Righ hand rule

Axial vector is generally shown to be perpendicular to a plane. In such cases, we use a shortened
symbol to represent axial or even other vectors, which are normal to the plane, by a "dot" or
"cross" inscribed within a small circle. A "dot" inscribed within the circle indicates that the vector
is pointing towards the viewer of the plane and a "cross" inscribed within the circle indicates that
the vector is pointing away from the viewer of the plane.

Axial vector are also known as "pseudovectors". It is because axial vectors do not follow
transformation of rectangular coordinate system. Vectors which follow coordinate transformation
are called "true" or "polar" vectors. One important test to distinguish these two types of vector is
that axial vector has a mirror image with negative sign unlike true vectors. Also, we shall learn
about vector or cross product subsequently. This operation represent many important physical
phenomena such as rotation and magnetic interaction etc. We should know that the vector
resulting from cross product of true vectors is always axial i.e. pseudovectors vector like magnetic
field, magnetic force, angular velocity, torque etc.

Why should we study vectors?

The basic concepts in physics – particularly the branch of mechanics - have a direct and inherently
characterizing relationship with the concept of vector. The reason lies in the directional attribute
of quantities, which is used to describe dynamical aspect of natural phenomena. Many of the
physical terms and concepts are simply vectors like position vector, displacement vector etc. They
are as a matter of fact defined directly in terms of vector like “it is a vector ……………”.

The basic concept of “cause and effect” in mechanics (comprising of kinematics and dynamics), is
predominantly based on the interpretation of direction in addition to magnitude. Thus, there is no
way that we could accurately express these quantities and their relationship without vectors. There
is, however, a general tendency (particular in the treatment designed for junior classes) to try to
evade vectors and look around ways to deal with these inherently vector based concepts without
using vectors! As expected this approach is a poor reflection of the natural process, where basic
concepts are simply ingrained with the requirement of handling direction along with magnitude.

It is, therefore, imperative that we switch over from work around approach to vector approach to
study physics as quickly as possible. Many a times, this scalar “work around” inculcates incorrect
perception and understanding that may persist for long, unless corrected with an appropriate
vector description.

The best approach, therefore, is to study vector in the backdrop of physical phenomena and use it
with clarity and advantage in studying nature. For this reasons, our treatment of “vector physics” –
so to say - in this course will strive to correlate vectors with appropriate physical quantities and
concepts.

The most fundamental reason to study nature in terms of vectors, wherever direction is involved,
is that vector representation is concise, explicit and accurate.

To score this point, let us consider an example of the magnetic force experienced by a charge, q,
moving with a velocity v in a magnetic field, “ B . The magnetic force, F , experienced by moving
particle, is perpendicular to the plane, P, formed by the the velocity and the magnetic field vectors
as shown in the figure .

Figure 1.35. Magnetic force as cross product of vectors

The force is given in the vector form as :

This equation does not only define the magnetic force but also outlines the intricacies about the
roles of the each of the constituent vectors. As per vector rule, we can infer from the vector
equation that :

The magnetic force ( F) is perpendicular to the plane defined by vectors v and B.

The direction of magnetic force i.e. which side of plane.

The magnitude of magnetic force is "qvB sinθ", where θ is the smaller angle enclosed between
the vectors v and B.

This example illustrates the compactness of vector form and completeness of the information it
conveys. On the other hand, the equivalent scalar strategy to describe this phenomenon would
involve establishing an empirical frame work like Fleming’s left hand rule to determine direction.
It would be required to visualize vectors along three mutually perpendicular directions
represented by three fingers in a particular order and then apply Fleming rule to find the direction
of the force. The magnitude of the product, on the other hand, would be given by qvB sinθ as
before.

The difference in two approaches is quite remarkable. The vector method provides a paragraph of
information about the physical process, whereas a paragraph is to be followed to apply scalar
method ! Further, the vector rules are uniform and consistent across vector operations, ensuring
correctness of the description of physical process. On the other hand, there are different set of
rules like Fleming left and Fleming right rules for two different physical processes.

The last word is that we must master the vectors rather than avoid them - particularly when the
fundamentals of vectors to be studied are limited in extent.

1.6. Vector addition*

Vectors operate with other scalar or vector quantities in a particular manner. Unlike scalar
algebraic operation, vector operation draws on graphical representation to incorporate directional
aspect.

Vector addition is, however, limited to vectors only. We can not add a vector (a directional
quantity) to a scalar (a non-directional quantity). Further, vector addition is dealt in three
conceptually equivalent ways :

1. graphical methods
2. analytical methods

3. algebraic methods

In this module, we shall discuss first two methods. Third algebraic method will be discussed in a
separate module titled Components of a vector

The resulting vector after addition is termed as sum or resultant vector. The resultant vector
corresponds to the “resultant” or “net” effect of a physical quantities having directional attributes.
The effect of a force system on a body, for example, is determined by the resultant force acting on
it. The idea of resultant force, in this case, reflects that the resulting force (vector) has the same
effect on the body as that of the forces (vectors), which are added.

Figure 1.36. Resultant force

It is important to emphasize here that vector rule of addition (graphical or algebraic) do not
distinguish between vector types (whether displacement or acceleration vector). This means that
the rule of vector addition is general for all vector types.

It should be clearly understood that though rule of vector addition is general, which is applicable
to all vector types in same manner, but vectors being added should be like vectors only. It is
expected also. The requirement is similar to scalar algebra where 2 plus 3 is always 5, but we need
to add similar quantity like 2 meters plus 3 meters is 5 meters. But, we can not add, for example,
distance and temperature.

Vector addition : graphical method

Let us examine the example of displacement of a person in two different directions. The two
displacement vectors, perpendicular to each other, are added to give the “resultant” vector. In this
case, the closing side of the right triangle represents the sum (i.e. resultant) of individual
displacements AB and BC.
 Figure 1.37. Displacement

()

The method used to determine the sum in this particular case (in which, the closing side of the
triangle represents the sum of the vectors in both magnitude and direction) forms the basic
consideration for various rules dedicated to implement vector addition.

Triangle law

In most of the situations, we are involved with the addition of two vector quantities. Triangle law
of vector addition is appropriate to deal with such situation.

Definition: Triangle law of vector addition

If two vectors are represented by two sides of a triangle in sequence, then third closing side of
the triangle, in the opposite direction of the sequence, represents the sum (or resultant) of the
two vectors in both magnitude and direction.

Here, the term “sequence” means that the vectors are placed such that tail of a vector begins at the
arrow head of the vector placed before it.
 Figure 1.38. Triangle law of vector addition

The triangle law does not restrict where to start i.e. with which vector to start. Also, it does not put
conditions with regard to any specific direction for the sequence of vectors, like clockwise or anti-
clockwise, to be maintained. In figure (i), the law is applied starting with vector, b; whereas the
law is applied starting with vector, a, in figure (ii). In either case, the resultant vector, c, is same
in magnitude and direction.

This is an important result as it conveys that vector addition is commutative in nature i.e. the
process of vector addition is independent of the order of addition. This characteristic of vector
addition is known as “commutative” property of vector addition and is expressed mathematically
as :
()

If three vectors are represented by three sides of a triangle in sequence, then resultant vector is
zero. In order to prove this, let us consider any two vectors in sequence like AB and BC as shown
in the figure. According to triangle law of vector addition, the resultant vector is represented by
the third closing side in the opposite direction. It means that :

Figure 1.39. Three vectors

Three vectors are represented by three sides in sequence.

Adding vector CA on either sides of the equation,

The right hand side of the equation is vector sum of two equal and opposite vectors, which
evaluates to zero. Hence,
 Figure 1.40. Three vectors
The resultant of three vectors represented by three sides is zero.

Note : If the vectors represented by the sides of a triangle are force vectors, then resultant force is
zero. It means that three forces represented by the sides of a triangle in a sequence is a balanced
force system.

Parallelogram law

Parallelogram law, like triangle law, is applicable to two vectors.

Definition: Parallelogram law

If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the diagonal of
parallelogram through the common point represents the sum of the two vectors in both
magnitude and direction.

Parallelogram law, as a matter of fact, is an alternate statement of triangle law of vector addition.
A graphic representation of the parallelogram law and its interpretation in terms of the triangle is
shown in the figure :

Figure 1.41. Parallelogram law

Converting parallelogram sketch to that of triangle law requires shifting vector, b, from the
position OB to position AC laterally as shown, while maintaining magnitude and direction.

Polygon law

The polygon law is an extension of earlier two laws of vector addition. It is successive application
of triangle law to more than two vectors. A pair of vectors ( a, b) is added in accordance with
triangle law. The intermediate resultant vector ( a + b) is then added to third vector (c) again,
successively till all vectors to be added have been exhausted.

Figure 1.42. Successive application of triangle law

Definition: Polygon law

Polygon law of vector addition : If (n-1) numbers of vectors are represented by (n-1) sides of a
polygon in sequence, then nth side, closing the polygon in the opposite direction, represents the
sum of the vectors in both magnitude and direction.

In the figure shown below, four vectors namely a, b, c and d are combined to give their sum.
Starting with any vector, we add vectors in a manner that the subsequent vector begins at the
arrow end of the preceding vector. The illustrations in figures i, iii and iv begin with vectors a, d
and c respectively.
 Figure 1.43. Polygon law

Matter of fact, polygon formation has great deal of flexibility. It may appear that we should elect
vectors in increasing or decreasing order of direction (i.e. the angle the vector makes with
reference to the direction of the first vector). But, this is not so. This point is demonstrated in
figure (i) and (ii), in which the vectors b and c have simply been exchanged in their positions in
the sequence without affecting the end result.

It means that the order of grouping of vectors for addition has no consequence on the result. This
characteristic of vector addition is known as “associative” property of vector addition and is
expressed mathematically as :
()

Subtraction

Subtraction is considered an addition process with one modification that the second vector (to be
subtracted) is first reversed in direction and is then added to the first vector. To illustrate the
process, let us consider the problem of subtracting vector, b, from , a. Using graphical techniques,
we first reverse the direction of vector, b, and obtain the sum applying triangle or parallelogram
law.

Symbolically,
()
 Figure 1.44. Subtraction

Similarly, we can implement subtraction using algebraic method by reversing sign of the vector
being subtracted.

Vector addition : Analytical method

Vector method requires that all vectors be drawn true to the scale of magnitude and direction. The
inherent limitation of the medium of drawing and measurement techniques, however, renders
graphical method inaccurate. Analytical method, based on geometry, provides a solution in this
regard. It allows us to accurately determine the sum or the resultant of the addition, provided
accurate values of magnitudes and angles are supplied.

Here, we shall analyze vector addition in the form of triangle law to obtain the magnitude of the
sum of the two vectors. Let P and Q be the two vectors to be added, which make an angle θ with
each other. We arrange the vectors in such a manner that two adjacent sides OA and AB of the
triangle OAB, represent two vectors P and Q respectively as shown in the figure.

Figure 1.45. Analytical method

According to triangle law, the closing side OB represent sum of the vectors in both magnitude and
direction.
In order to determine the magnitude, we drop a perpendicular BC on the extended line OC.

Figure 1.46. Analytical method

In ∆ACB,

In right ∆OCB, we have :

Substituting for AC and BC,

()

Let "α" be the angle that line OA makes with OC, then

The equations give the magnitude and direction of the sum of the vectors. The above equation
reduces to a simpler form, when two vectors are perpendicular to each other. In that case, θ = 90°;
sinθ = sin90° = 1; cosθ = cos90° = 0 and,
()

These results for vectors at right angle are exactly same as determined, using Pythagoras theorem.
Example 1.4.
Problem : Three radial vectors OA, OB and OC act at the center of a circle of radius “r” as
shown in the figure. Find the magnitude of resultant vector.

Figure 1.47. Sum of three vectors

Three radial vectors OA, OB and OC act at the center of a circle of radius “r”.

Solution : It is evident that vectors are equal in magnitude and is equal to the radius of the
circle. The magnitude of the resultant of horizontal and vertical vectors is :

The resultant of horizontal and vertical vectors is along the bisector of angle i.e. along the
remaining third vector OB. Hence, magnitude of resultant of all three vectors is :

Example 1.5.
Problem : At what angle does two vectors a+ b and a- b act so that the resultant is .
Solution : The magnitude of resultant of two vectors is given by :

Figure 1.48. Angle

The angle between the sum and difference of vectors.

Substituting the expression for magnitude of resultant as given,

 Squaring on both sides, we have :

Nature of vector addition

Vector sum and difference

The magnitude of sum of two vectors is either less than or equal to sum of the magnitudes of
individual vectors. Symbolically, if a and b be two vectors, then

We know that vectors a, b and their sum a+ b is represented by three side of a triangle OAC.
Further we know that a side of triangle is always less than the sum of remaining two sides. It
means that :

Figure 1.49. Two vectors

Sum of two vectors

There is one possibility, however, that two vectors a and b are collinear and act in the same
direction. In that case, magnitude of their resultant will be "equal to" the sum of the magnitudes of
individual vector. This magnitude represents the maximum or greatest magnitude of two vectors
being combined.
Combining two results, we have :

On the other hand, the magnitude of difference of two vectors is either greater than or equal to
difference of the magnitudes of individual vectors. Symbolically, if a and b be two vectors, then

We know that vectors a, b and their difference a- b are represented by three side of a triangle
OAE. Further we know that a side of triangle is always less than the sum of remaining two sides.
It means that sum of two sides is greater than the third side :

Figure 1.50. Two vectors

Difference of two vectors

There is one possibility, however, that two vectors a and b are collinear and act in the opposite
directions. In that case, magnitude of their difference will be equal to the difference of the
magnitudes of individual vector. This magnitude represents the minimum or least magnitude of
two vectors being combined.

Combining two results, we have :

Lami's theorem

Lami's theorem relates magnitude of three non-collinear vectors with the angles enclosed between
pair of two vectors, provided resultant of three vectors is zero (null vector). This theorem is a
manifestation of triangle law of addition. According to this theorem, if resultant of three vectors
a, b and c is zero (null vector), then
 Figure 1.51. Three vectors
Three non-collinear vectors.

where α, β and γ be the angle between the remaining pairs of vectors.

We know that if the resultant of three vectors is zero, then they are represented by three sides of a
triangle in magnitude and direction.

Figure 1.52. Three vectors

Three vectors are represented by three sides of a triangle.

Considering the magnitude of vectors and applying sine law of triangle, we have :

It is important to note that the ratio involves exterior (outside) angles – not the interior angles of
the triangle. Also, the angle associated with the magnitude of a vector in the individual ratio is the
included angle between the remaining vectors.

Exercises
Exercise 5.

Two forces of 10 N and 25 N are applied on a body. Find the magnitude of maximum and
minimum resultant force.

Resultant force is maximum when force vectors act along the same direction. The magnitude of
resultant force under this condition is :

Exercise 6.

Can a body subjected to three coplanar forces 5 N, 17 N and 9 N be in equilibrium?

The resultant force, on a body in equilibrium, is zero. It means that three forces can be
represented along three sides of a triangle. However, we know that sum of any two sides is greater
than third side. In this case, we see that :

Clearly, three given forces can not be represented by three sides of a triangle. Thus, we conclude
that the body is not in equilibrium.

Exercise 7.

Under what condition does the magnitude of the resultant of two vectors of equal magnitude, is
equal in magnitude to either of two equal vectors?

We know that resultant of two vectors is represented by the closing side of a triangle. If the
triangle is equilateral then all three sides are equal. As such magnitude of the resultant of two
vectors is equal to the magnitude of either of the two vectors.
 Figure 1.52. Two vectors
Resultant of two vectors

Under this condition, vectors of equal magnitude make an angle of 120° between them.

1.7. Components of a vector*

The concept of component of a vector is tied to the concept of vector sum. We have seen that the
sum of two vectors represented by two sides of a triangle is given by a vector represented by the
closing side (third) of the triangle in opposite direction. Importantly, we can analyze this process
of summation of two vectors inversely. We can say that a single vector (represented by third side
of the triangle) is equivalent to two vectors in two directions (represented by the remaining two
sides).

We can generalize this inverse interpretation of summation process. We can say that a vector can
always be considered equivalent to a pair of vectors. The law of triangle, therefore, provides a
general frame work of resolution of a vector in two components in as many ways as we can draw
triangle with one side represented by the vector in question. However, this general framework is
not very useful. Resolution of vectors turns out to be meaningful, when we think resolution in
terms of vectors at right angles. In that case, associated triangle is a right angle. The vector being
resolved into components is represented by the hypotenuse and components are represented by
two sides of the right angle triangle.

Resolution of a vector into components is an important concept for two reasons : (i) there are
physical situations where we need to consider the effect of a physical vector quantity in specified
direction. For example, we consider only the component of weight along an incline to analyze the
motion of the block over it and (ii) the concept of components in the directions of rectangular
axes, enable us to develop algebraic methods for vectors.

Resolution of a vector in two perpendicular components is an extremely useful technique having

extraordinary implication. Mathematically, any vector can be represented by a pair of co-planar
vectors in two perpendicular directions. It has, though, a deeper meaning with respect to physical
phenomena and hence physical laws. Consider projectile motion for example. The motion of
projectile in two dimensional plane is equivalent to two motions – one along the vertical and one
along horizontal direction. We can accurately describe motion in any of these two directions
independent of motion in the other direction! To some extent, this independence of two
component vector quantities from each other is a statement of physical law – which is currently
considered as property of vector quantities and not a law by itself. But indeed, it is a law of great
importance which we employ to study more complex physical phenomena and process.

Second important implication of resolution of a vector in two perpendicular directions is that we

can represent a vector as two vectors acting along two axes of a rectangular coordinate system.
This has far reaching consequence. It is the basis on which algebraic methods for vectors are
developed – otherwise vector analysis is tied, by definition, to geometric construct and analysis.
The representation of vectors along rectangular axes has the advantage that addition of vector is
reduced to simple algebraic addition and subtraction as consideration along an axis becomes one
dimensional. It is not difficult to realize the importance of the concept of vector components in
two perpendicular directions. Resolution of vector quantities is the way we transform two and
three dimensional phenomena into one dimensional phenomena along the axes.

Components of a vector
A scalar component, also known as projection, of a vector AB in the positive direction of a
straight line C’C is defined as :

AC = | AB | cos θ = AB cos θ

Where θ is the angle that vector AB makes with the specified direction C’C as shown in the figure.

Figure 1.53. Analytical method

It should be understood that the component so determined is not rooted to the common point “A”
or any specific straight line like C’C in a given direction. Matter of fact, component of vector AB
drawn on any straight lines like D’D parallel to CC’ are same. Note that the component i.e.
projection of the vector is graphically obtained by drawing two perpendicular lines from the ends
of the vector on the straight line in the specified direction.

ED = AC = AB cos θ ()

It is clear that scalar component can either be positive or negative depending on the value of angle
that the vector makes with the referred direction. The angle lies between the range given by 0 ≤ θ
≤ 180°. This interval means that we should consider the smaller angle between two vectors.

In accordance with the above definition, we resolve a given vector in three components in three
mutually perpendicular directions of rectangular coordinate system. Note here that we measure
angle with respect to parallel lines to the axes. By convention, we denote components by using the
non-bold type face of the vector symbol with a suffix representing direction (x or y or z).

Figure 1.54. Components of a vector

Where α, β and γ are the angles that vector AB makes with the positive directions of x, y and z
directions respectively.

As a vector can be resolved in a set of components, the reverse processing of components in a

vector is also expected. A vector is composed from vector components in three directions along
the axes of rectangular coordinate system by combining three component vectors. The vector
component is the vector counterpart of the scalar component, which is obtained by multiplying the
scalar component with the unit vector in axial direction. The vector components of a vector , a, are
a x i , a y j and a z k .
A vector, a, is equal to the vector sum of component vectors in three mutually perpendicular
directions of rectangular coordinate system.

a=axi +ayj+azk ()

where i , j and k are unit vectors in the respective directions.

a = a cos α i + a cos β j + a cos γ k ()

Magnitude of the sum of two vectors ( a x i + a y j ) in x and y direction, which are perpendicular
to each other, is :

We observe here that resultant vector lies in the plane formed by the two component vectors being
added. The resultant vector is, therefore, perpendicular to third component vector. Thus, the
magnitude of the sum of vector ( a x i + a y j ) and third vector , a z k , which are perpendicular to
each other, is :
()

Example 1.6.
Problem : Find the angle that vector 2 i + j – k makes with y-axis.
Solution : We can answer this question with the help of expression for the cosine of angle that
a vector makes with a given axis. We know that component along y-axis is :

Figure 1.55. Angle

 Vector makes an angle with y-axis.

Here,

and

Hence,

Planar components of a vector

The planar components of a vector lies in the plane of vector. Since there are two perpendicular
axes involved with a plane, a vector is resolved in two components which lie in the same plane as
that of vector. Clearly, a vector is composed of components in only two directions :

From the figure depicting a planar coordinate, it is clear that angle “β” is compliment of angle
“α”. If α = θ, then

Figure 1.56. Planar vector

The direction of a planar vector with respect to rectangular axes can be described by a single angle.

Putting in the expression for the vector,

 ()

From graphical representation, the tangent of the angle that vector makes with x-axis is :
()

Similarly, the tangent of the angle that vector makes with y-axis is :
()

Example 1.7.
Problem : Find the unit vector in the direction of a bisector of the angle between a pair of
coordinate axes.
Solution : The unit vector along the direction of a bisector lies in the plane formed by two
coordinates. The bisector makes an angle of 45° with either of the axes. Hence, required unit
vector is :

Figure 1.57. Unit vector

Unit vector along the bisector.

Note : We may check that the magnitude of the unit vector is indeed 1.

Representation of a vector in component form

The angle involved in determination of components plays important role. There is a bit of
ambiguity about angle being used. Actually, there are two ways to write a vector in component
form. We shall illustrate these two methods with an illustration. Let us consider an example. Here,
we consider a vector OA having magnitude of 10 units. The vector makes 150° and 30° angle with
x and y axes as shown in the figure.

Figure 1.58. Component of a vector

Component of a vector

Using definition of components, the vector OA is represented as :

OA = 10 cos 1500 i + 10 cos 300 j

Note that we use angles that vector makes with the axes to determine scalar components. We
obtain corresponding component vectors by multiplying scalar components with respective unit
vectors of the axes involved. We can, however, use another method in which we only consider
acute angle – irrespective of directions of axes involved. Here, vector OA makes acute angle of
60° with x-axis. While representing vector, we put a negative sign if the component is opposite to
the positive directions of axes. We can easily determine this by observing projection of vector on
the axes. Following this :

OA = – cos 600 i + 10 sin 600 j

Note that we put a negative sign before component along x-direction as projection of vector on x-
axis is in opposite direction with respect to positive direction of x-axis. The y - projection,
however, is in the positive direction of y-axis. As such, we do not need to put a negative sign
before the component. Generally, people prefer second method as trigonometric functions are
positive in first quadrant. We are not worried about the sign of trigonometric function at all.

Exercise 8.

Write force OA in component form.

 Figure 1.58. Component of a vector
Component of a vector.

Exercise 9.

Write force OA in component form.

Figure 1.58. Component of a vector

Component of a vector.

Vector addition : Algebraic method

Graphical method is meticulous and tedious as it involves drawing of vectors on a scale and
measurement of angles. More importantly, it does not allow algebraic operations that otherwise
would give a simple solution. We can, however, extend algebraic techniques to vectors, provided
vectors are represented on a rectangular coordinate system. The representation of a vector on
coordinate system uses the concept of unit vector and component.

Now, the stage is set to design a frame work, which allows vector addition with algebraic
methods. The frame work for vector addition draws on two important concepts. The first concept
is that a vector can be equivalently expressed in terms of three component vectors :

The component vector form has important significance. It ensures that component vectors to be
added are restricted to three known directions only. This paradigm eliminates the possibility of
unknown direction. The second concept is that vectors along a direction can be treated
algebraically. If two vectors are along the same line, then resultant is given as :

When θ = 0°, cosθ = cos 0° = 1 and,

When θ = 180°, cosθ = cos 180° = -1 and,

Thus, we see that the magnitude of the resultant is equal to algebraic sum of the magnitudes of the
two vectors.

Using these two concepts, the addition of vectors is affected as outlined here :

1: Represent the vectors ( a and b) to be added in terms of components :

2: Group components in a given direction :

3: Find the magnitude and direction of the sum, using analytical method
()

Exercises
Exercise 10.

Find the angle that vector √3 i - j makes with y-axis.

From graphical representation, the angle that vector makes with y-axis has following
trigonometric function :

Figure 1.58. Angle

Vector makes an angle with y-axis.

Now, we apply the formulae to find the angle, say θ, with y-axis,

In case, we are only interested to know the magnitude of angle between vector and y-axis, then we
can neglect the negative sign,

Exercise 11.

If a vector makes angles α,β and γ with x,y and z axes of a rectangular coordinate system, then
prove that :

The vector can be expressed in terms of its component as :

where .
 Figure 1.58. Angles
Vector makes different angles with axes..

The magnitude of the vector is given by :

Putting expressions of components in the equation,

Squaring both sides,

Exercise 12.

Find the components of weight of a block along the incline and perpendicular to the incline.

The component of the weight along the incline is :

Figure 1.58. Weight on an incline

 Components of weight along the incline and perpendicualt to the incline.

and the component of weight perpendicular to incline is :

Exercise 13.

The sum of magnitudes of two forces acting at a point is 16 N. If the resultant of the two forces is
8 N and it is normal to the smaller of the two forces, then find the forces.

We depict the situation as shown in the figure. The resultant force R is shown normal to small
force F 1 . In order that the sum of the forces is equal to R, the component of larger force along the
x-direction should be equal to smaller force :

Figure 1.58. Two forces acting on a point

The resultant force is perpendicular to smaller of the two forces.

Also, the component of the larger force along y-direction should be equal to the magnitude of
resultant,

Squaring and adding two equations, we have :

However, according to the question,

Substituting, we have :

Solving,

More illustrations on the subject are available in the module titled Resolution of forces

1.8. Scalar (dot) product*

In physics, we require to multiply a vector with other scalar and vector quantities. The vector
multiplication, however, is not an unique mathematical construct like scalar multiplication. The
multiplication depends on the nature of quantities (vector or scalar) and on the physical process,
necessitating scalar or vector multiplication.

The rules of vector multiplication have been formulated to encapsulate physical processes in their
completeness. This is the core consideration. In order to explore this aspect, let us find out the
direction of acceleration in the case of parabolic motion of a particle. There may be two ways to
deal with the requirement. We may observe the directions of velocities at two points along the
path and find out the direction of the change of velocities. Since we know that the direction of
change of velocity is the direction of acceleration, we draw the vector diagram and find out the
direction of acceleration. We can see that the direction of acceleration turns out to act in vertically
downward direction.
 Figure 1.59. Direction of acceleration

The conceptualization of physical laws in vector form, however, provides us with powerful means
to arrive at the result in relatively simpler manner. If we look at the flight of particle in parabolic
motion, then we observe that the motion of particle is under the force of gravity, which is acting
vertically downward. There is no other force (neglecting air resistance). Now, from second law of
motion, we know that :

This equation reveals that the direction of acceleration is same as that of the resultant force acting
on the particle. Thus, acceleration of the particle in parabolic motion is acting vertically
downward. We see that this second approach is more elegant of the two methods. We could arrive
at the correct answer in a very concise manner, without getting into the details of the motion. It is
possible, because Newton's second law in vector form states that net force on the body is product
of acceleration vector with scalar mass. As multiplication of scalar with a vector does not change
the direction of resultant vector, we conclude that direction of acceleration is same as that of net
force acting on the projectile.

Multiplication with scalar

Multiplication of a vector, A, with another scalar quantity, a, results in another vector, B. The
magnitude of the resulting vector is equal to the product of the magnitude of vector with the scalar
quantity. The direction of the resulting vector, however, is same as that of the original vector (See
Figures below).
()
 Figure 1.60. Multiplication with scalar

We have already made use of this type of multiplication intuitively in expressing a vector in
component form.

In this vector representation, each component vector is obtained by multiplying the scalar
component with the unit vector. As the unit vector has the magnitude of 1 with a specific
direction, the resulting component vector retains the magnitude of the scalar component, but
acquires the direction of unit vector.
()

Products of vectors
Some physical quantities are themselves a scalar quantity, but are composed from the product of
vector quantities. One such example is “work”. On the other hand, there are physical quantities
like torque and magnetic force on a moving charge, which are themselves vectors and are also
composed from vector quantities.

Thus, products of vectors are defined in two distinct manner – one resulting in a scalar quantity
and the other resulting in a vector quantity. The product that results in scalar value is scalar
product, also known as dot product as a "dot" ( .) is the symbol of operator for this product. On the
other hand, the product that results in vector value is vector product, also known as cross product
as a "cross" ( x) is the symbol of operator for this product. We shall discuss scalar product only in
this module. We shall cover vector product in a separate module.

Scalar product (dot product)

Scalar product of two vectors a and b is a scalar quantity defined as :
 ()

where “a” and “b” are the magnitudes of two vectors and “θ” is the angle between the direction of
two vectors. It is important to note that vectors have two angles θ and 2π - θ. We can use either of
them as cosine of both “θ” and “2π - θ” are same. However, it is suggested to use the smaller of
the enclosed angles to be consistent with cross product in which it is required to use the smaller of
the enclosed angles. This approach will maintain consistency with regard to enclosed angle in two
types of vector multiplications.

The notation “ a.b” is important and should be mentally noted to represent a scalar quantity – even
though it involves bold faced vectors. It should be noted that the quantity on the right hand side of
the equation is a scalar.

Angle between vectors

The angle between vectors is measured with precaution. The direction of vectors may sometimes
be misleading. The basic consideration is that it is the angle between vectors at the common point
of intersection. This intersection point, however, should be the common tail of vectors. If
required, we may be required to shift the vector parallel to it or along its line of action to obtain
common point at which tails of vectors meet.

Figure 1.61. Angle between vectors

Angle between vectors

See the steps shown in the figure. First, we need to shift one of two vectors say, a so that it
touches the tail of vector b. Second, we move vector a along its line of action till tails of two
vectors meet at the common point. Finally, we measure the angle θ such that 0≤ θ≤π.

Meaning of scalar product

We can read the definition of scalar product in either of the following manners :
 ()

Recall that “bcos θ” is the scalar component of vector b along the direction of vector a and “a cos
θ” is the scalar component of vector a along the direction of vector b. Thus, we may consider the
scalar product of vectors a and b as the product of the magnitude of one vector and the scalar
component of other vector along the first vector.

The figure below shows drawing of scalar components. The scalar component of vector in figure
(i) is obtained by drawing perpendicular from the tip of the vector, b, on the direction of vector, a.
Similarly, the scalar component of vector in figure (ii) is obtained by drawing perpendicular from
the tip of the vector, a, on the direction of vector, b.

Figure 1.62. Scalar product

The two alternate ways of evaluating dot product of two vectors indicate that the product is
commutative i.e. independent of the order of two vectors :

()

Exercise 14.

A block of mass “m” moves from point A to B along a smooth plane surface under the action of
force as shown in the figure. Find the work done if it is defined as :

W = F. Δ x
 Figure 1.62. Work done

where F and Δ x are force and displacement vectors.

Expanding the expression of work, we have :

Figure 1.62. Work done

Here, F = 10 N, Δx = 10 m and cosθ = cos60° = 0.5.

Values of scalar product

The value of dot product is maximum for the maximum value of cosθ. Now, the maximum value
of cosine is cos 0 ° = 1 . For this value, dot product simply evaluates to the product of the
magnitudes of two vectors.

For θ = 180 ° , cos 180 ° = - 1 and

Thus, we see that dot product can evaluate to negative value as well. This is a significant result as
many scalar quantities in physics are given negative value. The work done, for example, can be
negative, when displacement is in the opposite direction to the component of force along that
direction.

The scalar product evaluates to zero for θ = 90° and 270° as cosine of these angles are zero. These
results have important implication for unit vectors. The dot products of same unit vector evaluates
to 1.

The dot products of combination of different unit vectors evaluate to zero.

Example 1.8.
Problem : Find the angle between vectors 2 i + j – k and i – k.
Solution : The cosine of the angle between two vectors is given in terms of dot product as :

Now,

Ignoring dot products of different unit vectors (they evaluate to zero), we have :

Putting in the expression of cosine, we have :

Scalar product in component form

Two vectors in component forms are written as :

In evaluating the product, we make use of the fact that multiplication of the same unit vectors is 1,
while multiplication of different unit vectors is zero. The dot product evaluates to scalar terms as :
 ()

Component as scalar (dot) product

A closer look at the expansion of dot product of two vectors reveals that the expression is very
similar to the expression for a component of a vector. The expression of the dot product is :

On the other hand, the component of a vector in a given direction is :

Comparing two equations, we can define component of a vector in a direction given by unit vector
" n" as :
()

This is a very general and useful relation to determine component of a vector in any direction.
Only requirement is that we should know the unit vector in the direction in which component is to
be determined.

Example 1.9.
Problem : Find the components of vector 2 i + 3 j along the direction i+ j.
Solution : The component of a vector “ a” in a direction, represented by unit vector “ n” is
given by dot product :

Thus, it is clear that we need to find the unit vector in the direction of i+ j. Now, the unit
vector in the direction of the vector is :

Here,

Hence,

The component of vector 2 i + 3 j in the direction of “ n” is :

Attributes of scalar (dot) product
In this section, we summarize the properties of dot product as discussed above. Besides, some
additional derived attributes are included for reference.

1: Dot product is commutative

This means that the dot product of vectors is not dependent on the sequence of vectors :

We must, however, be careful while writing sequence of dot product. For example, writing a
sequence involving three vectors like a.b.c is incorrect. For, dot product of any two vectors is a
scalar. As dot product is defined for two vectors (not one vector and one scalar), the resulting dot
product of a scalar ( a.b) and that of third vector c has no meaning.

2: Distributive property of dot product :

3: The dot product of a vector with itself is equal to the square of the magnitude of the vector.

4: The magnitude of dot product of two vectors can be obtained in either of the following manner :

The dot product of two vectors is equal to the algebraic product of magnitude of one vector and
component of second vector in the direction of first vector.

5: The cosine of the angle between two vectors can be obtained in terms of dot product as :

6: The condition of two perpendicular vectors in terms of dot product is given by :

7: Properties of dot product with respect to unit vectors along the axes of rectangular coordinate
system are :

8: Dot product in component form is :

9: The dot product does not yield to cancellation. For example, if a.b = a.c, then we can not
conclude that b = c. Rearranging, we have :

This means that a and ( b - c) are perpendicular to each other. In turn, this implies that ( b - c) is
not equal to zero (null vector). Hence, b is not equal to c as we would get after cancellation.

We can understand this difference with respect to cancellation more explicitly by working through
the problem given here :

Example 1.10.
Problem : Verify vector equality B = C, if A.B = A.C.
Solution : The given equality of dot products is :

We should understand that dot product is not a simple algebraic product of two numbers (read
magnitudes). The angle between two vectors plays a role in determining the magnitude of the
dot product. Hence, it is entirely possible that vectors B and C are different yet their dot
products with common vector A are equal. Let θ 1 and θ 2 be the angles for first and second
pairs of dot products. Then,

If θ 1 = θ 2 , then B = C . However, if θ 1 ≠ θ 2 , then B ≠ C .

Law of cosine and dot product

Law of cosine relates sides of a triangle with one included angle. We can determine this
relationship using property of a dot product. Let three vectors are represented by sides of the
triangle such that closing side is the sum of other two vectors. Then applying triangle law of
addition :

Figure 1.63. Cosine law

Cosine law

We know that the dot product of a vector with itself is equal to the square of the magnitude of the
vector. Hence,

This is known as cosine law of triangle. Curiously, we may pay attention to first two equations
above. As a matter of fact, second equation gives the square of the magnitude of resultant of two
vectors a and b.

Differentiation and dot product

Differentiation of a vector expression yields a vector. Consider a vector expression given as :

The derivative of the vector with respect to x is :

As the derivative is a vector, two vector expressions with dot product is differentiated in a manner
so that dot product is retained in the final expression of derivative. For example,

Exercises
Exercise 15.

Sum and difference of two vectors a and b are perpendicular to each other. Find the relation
between two vectors.
The sum a+ b and difference a- b are perpendicular to each other. Hence, their dot product should
evaluate to zero.

Figure 1.63. Sum and difference of two vectors

Sum and difference of two vectors are perpendicular to each other.

Using distributive property,

Using commutative property, a.b = b.a, Hence,

It means that magnitudes of two vectors are equal. See figure below for enclosed angle between
vectors, when vectors are equal :

Figure 1.63. Sum and difference of two vectors

Sum and difference of two vectors are perpendicular to each other, when vectors are equal.

Exercise 16.

If | a + b| = | a – b|, then find the angle between vectors a and b.

A question that involves modulus or magnitude of vector can be handled in specific manner to
find information about the vector (s). The specific identity that is used in this circumstance is :

We use this identity first with the sum of the vectors ( a+ b),

Using distributive property,

Similarly, using the identity with difference of the vectors (a-b),

It is, however, given that :

Squaring on either side of the equation,

Putting the expressions,

Note : We can have a mental picture of the significance of this result. As given, the magnitude of
sum of two vectors is equal to the magnitude of difference of two vectors. Now, we know that
difference of vectors is similar to vector sum with one exception that one of the operand is
rendered negative. Graphically, it means that one of the vectors is reversed.

Reversing one of the vectors changes the included angle between two vectors, but do not change
the magnitudes of either vector. It is, therefore, only the included angle between the vectors that
might change the magnitude of resultant. In order that magnitude of resultant does not change
even after reversing direction of one of the vectors, it is required that the included angle between
the vectors is not changed. This is only possible, when included angle between vectors is 90°. See
figure.
 Figure 1.63. Sum and difference of two vectors
Magnitudes of Sum and difference of two vectors are same when vectors at right angle to each other.

Exercise 17.

If a and b are two non-collinear unit vectors and | a + b| = √3, then find the value of expression :

The given expression is scalar product of two vector sums. Using distributive property we can
expand the expression, which will comprise of scalar product of two vectors a and b.

We can evaluate this scalar product, if we know the angle between them as magnitudes of unit
vectors are each 1. In order to find the angle between the vectors, we use the identity,

Now,

It is given that :

Putting this value,

Using this value, we now proceed to find the value of given identity,

Exercise 18.

In an experiment of light reflection, if a, b and c are the unit vectors in the direction of incident
ray, reflected ray and normal to the reflecting surface, then prove that :

Let us consider vectors in a coordinate system in which “x” and “y” axes of the coordinate system
are in the direction of reflecting surface and normal to the reflecting surface respectively as
shown in the figure.

Figure 1.63. Reflection

Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

We express unit vectors with respect to the incident and reflected as :

Subtracting first equation from the second equation, we have :

Now, we evaluate dot product, involving unit vectors :

Substituting for cosθ, we have :

 1.9. Scalar product (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the scalar vector product. For this reason,
questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the subject matter :

Angle between two vectors

Condition of perpendicular vectors

Component as scalar product

Nature of scalar product

Scalar product of a vector with itself

Evaluation of dot product

Angle between two vectors

Example 1.11.
Problem : Find the angle between vectors 2 i + j – k and i – k.
Solution : The cosine of the angle between two vectors is given in terms of dot product as :

Now,
Ignoring dot products of different unit vectors (they evaluate to zero), we have :

Putting in the expression of cosine, we have :

Condition of perpendicular vectors

Example 1.12.
Problem : Sum and difference of two vectors a and b are perpendicular to each other. Find the
relation between two vectors.
Solution : The sum a+ b and difference a- b are perpendicular to each other. Hence, their dot
product should evaluate to zero.

Figure 1.64. Sum and difference of two vectors

Sum and difference of two vectors are perpendicular to each other.

Using distributive property,

Using commutative property, a.b = b.a, Hence,

It means that magnitudes of two vectors are equal. See figure below for enclosed angle
between vectors, when vectors are equal :
 Figure 1.65. Sum and difference of two vectors
Sum and difference of two vectors are perpendicular to each other, when vectors are equal.

Component as scalar product

Example 1.13.
Problem : Find the components of vector 2 i + 3 j along the direction i+ j.
Solution : The component of a vector “ a” in a direction, represented by unit vector “ n” is
given by dot product :

Thus, it is clear that we need to find the unit vector in the direction of i+ j. Now, the unit
vector in the direction of the vector is :

Here,

Hence,

The component of vector 2 i + 3 j in the direction of “ n” is :

Nature of scalar product

Example 1.14.
Problem : Verify vector equality B = C, if A.B = A.C.
Solution : The given equality of dot products is :

The equality will result if B = C. We must, however, understand that dot product is not a
simple algebraic product of two numbers (read magnitudes). The angle between two vectors
plays a role in determining the magnitude of the dot product. Hence, it is entirely possible that
vectors B and C are different yet their dot products with common vector A are equal.
We can attempt this question mathematically as well. Let θ 1 and θ 2 be the angles for first and
second pairs of dot products. Then,

If θ 1 = θ 2 , then B = C . However, if θ 1 ≠ θ 2 , then B ≠ C .

Scalar product of a vector with itself

Example 1.15.
Problem : If | a + b| = | a – b|, then find the angle between vectors a and b.
Solution : A question that involves modulus or magnitude of vector can be handled in specific
manner to find information about the vector (s). The specific identity that is used in this
circumstance is :

We use this identity first with the sum of the vectors ( a+ b),

Using distributive property,

Similarly, using the identity with difference of the vectors (a-b),

It is, however, given that :

Squaring on either side of the equation,

Putting the expressions,

Note : We can have a mental picture of the significance of this result. As given, the magnitude
of sum of two vectors is equal to the magnitude of difference of two vectors. Now, we know
that difference of vectors is similar to vector sum with one exception that one of the operand
is rendered negative. Graphically, it means that one of the vectors is reversed.
Reversing one of the vectors changes the included angle between two vectors, but do not
change the magnitudes of either vector. It is, therefore, only the included angle between the
vectors that might change the magnitude of resultant. In order that magnitude of resultant does
not change even after reversing direction of one of the vectors, it is required that the included
angle between the vectors is not changed. This is only possible, when included angle between
vectors is 90°. See figure.

Figure 1.66. Sum and difference of two vectors

Magnitudes of Sum and difference of two vectors are same when vectors at right angle to each other.

Example 1.16.
Problem : If a and b are two non-collinear unit vectors and | a + b| = √3, then find the value
of expression :

Solution : The given expression is scalar product of two vector sums. Using distributive
property we can expand the expression, which will comprise of scalar product of two vectors a
and b.
We can evaluate this scalar product, if we know the angle between them as magnitudes of unit
vectors are each 1. In order to find the angle between the vectors, we use the identity,

Now,

It is given that :

Putting this value,

Using this value, we now proceed to find the value of given identity,

Evaluation of dot product

Example 1.17.
Problem : In an experiment of light reflection, if a, b and c are the unit vectors in the
direction of incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the reflecting surface, then prove that :

Solution : Let us consider vectors in a coordinate system in which “x” and “y” axes of the
coordinate system are in the direction of reflecting surface and normal to the reflecting
surface respectively as shown in the figure.
 Figure 1.67. Reflection
Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

We express unit vectors with respect to the incident and reflected as :

Subtracting first equation from the second equation, we have :

Now, we evaluate dot product, involving unit vectors :

Substituting for cosθ, we have :

1.10. Vector (cross) product*

The cross product of two vectors a and b is a third vector. The magnitude of the vector product is
given by the following expression :
()

where θ is the smaller of the angles between the two vectors. It is important to note that vectors
have two angles θ and 2π - θ. We should use the smaller of the angles as sine of θ and 2π - θ are
different.

If " n" denotes unit vector in the direction of vector product, then
()

Direction of vector product

The two vectors ( a and b) define an unique plane. The vector product is perpendicular to this
plane defined by the vectors as shown in the figure below. The most important aspect of the
direction of cross product is that it is independent of the angle, θ, enclosed by the vectors. The
enclosed angle , θ, only impacts the magnitude of the cross product and not its direction.
 Figure 1.68. Direction of vector product

Incidentally, the requirement for determining direction suits extremely well with rectangular
coordinate system. We know that rectangular coordinate system comprises of three planes, which
are at right angles to each other. It is, therefore, easier if we orient our coordinate system in such a
manner that vectors lie in one of the three planes defined by the rectangular coordinate system.
The cross product is, then, oriented in the direction of axis, perpendicular to the plane of vectors.

Figure 1.69. Direction of vector product

As a matter of fact, the direction of vector product is not yet actually determined. We can draw the
vector product perpendicular to the plane on either of the two sides. For example, the product can
be drawn either along the positive direction of y – axis or along the negative direction of y-axis
(See Figure below).
 Figure 1.70. Direction of vector product

The direction of the vector product, including which side of the plane, is determined by right hand
rule for vector products. According to this rule, we place right fist such that the curl of the fist
follows as we proceed from the first vector, a, to the second vector, b. The stretched thumb, then
gives the direction of vector product.

Figure 1.71. Direction of vector product

When we apply this rule to the case discussed earlier, we find that the vector product is in the
positive y – direction as shown below :
 Figure 1.72. Direction of vector product

Here, we notice that we move in the anti-clockwise direction as we move from vector, a, to vector,
b, while looking at the plane formed by the vectors. This fact can also be used to determine the
direction of the vector product. If the direction of movement is anticlockwise, then the vector
product is directed towards us; otherwise the vector product is directed away on the other side of
the plane.

It is important to note that the direction of cross product can be on a particular side of the plane,
depending upon whether we take the product from a to b or from b to a. This implies :

Thus, vector product is not commutative like vector addition. It can be inferred from the
discussion of direction that change of place of vectors in the sequence of cross product actually
changes direction of the product such that :
()

Values of cross product

The value of vector product is maximum for the maximum value of sinθ. Now, the maximum
value of sine is sin 90° = 1. For this value, the vector product evaluates to the product of the
magnitude of two vectors multiplied. Thus maximum value of cross product is :
()

The vector product evaluates to zero for θ = 0° and 180° as sine of these angles are zero. These
results have important implication for unit vectors. The cross product of same unit vector
evaluates to 0.
()

The cross products of combination of different unit vectors evaluate as :

 ()

There is a simple rule to determine the sign of the cross product. We write the unit vectors in
sequence i, j, k. Now, we can form pair of vectors as we move from left to right like i x j, j x k
and right to left at the end like k x i in cyclic manner. The cross products of these pairs result in
the remaining unit vector with positive sign. Cross products of other pairs result in the remaining
unit vector with negative sign.

Cross product in component form

Two vectors in component forms are written as :

In evaluating the product, we make use of the fact that multiplication of the same unit vectors
gives the value of 0, while multiplication of two different unit vectors result in remaining vector
with appropriate sign. Finally, the vector product evaluates to vector terms :
()

Evidently, it is difficult to remember above expression. If we know to expand determinant, then

we can write above expression in determinant form, which is easy to remember.
()

Exercise 19.

If a = 2 i + 3 j and b = -3 i – 2 j, find A x B.

Neglecting terms involving same unit vectors, we expand the multiplication algebraically as :

Exercise 20.

Consider the magnetic force given as :

F = q ( v x B)

Given q = 10 – 6 C, v = (3 i + 4 j) m/s, B = 1 i Tesla. Find the magnetic force.

Geometric meaning vector product

In order to interpret the geometric meaning of the cross product, let us draw two vectors by the
sides of a parallelogram as shown in the figure. Now, the magnitude of cross product is given by :

Figure 1.73. Cross product of two vectors

Two vectors are represented by two sides of a parallelogram.

We drop a perpendicular BD from B on the base line OA as shown in the figure. From ΔOAB,

Substituting, we have :

It means that the magnitude of cross product is equal to the area of parallelogram formed by the
two vectors. Thus,
()

Since area of the triangle OAB is half of the area of the parallelogram, the area of the triangle
formed by two vectors is :
()

Attributes of vector (cross) product

In this section, we summarize the properties of cross product :

1: Vector (cross) product is not commutative

A change of sequence of vectors results in the change of direction of the product (vector) :

The inequality resulting from change in the order of sequence, denotes “anti-commutative” nature
of vector product as against scalar product, which is commutative.

Further, we can extend the sequence to more than two vectors in the case of cross product. This
means that vector expressions like a x b x c is valid. Ofcourse, the order of vectors in sequence
will impact the ultimate product.

2: Distributive property of cross product :

3: The magnitude of cross product of two vectors can be obtained in either of the following
manner :

or,

or,

4: Vector product in component form is :

5: Unit vector in the direction of cross product

Let “ n” be the unit vector in the direction of cross product. Then, cross product of two vectors is
given by :
6: The condition of two parallel vectors in terms of cross product is given by :

If the vectors involved are expressed in component form, then we can write the above condition as
:

Equivalently, this condition can be also said in terms of the ratio of components of two vectors in
mutually perpendicular directions :

7: Properties of cross product with respect to unit vectors along the axes of rectangular coordinate
system are :

1.11. Vector product (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the vector product. For this reason,
questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the subject matter :

Condition of parallel vectors

 Unit vector of cross product

Nature of vector product

Evaluation of vector product

Area of parallelogram

Condition of parallel vectors

Example 1.18.
Problem : Determine whether vectors 2 i – j + 2 k and 3 i – 3 j + 6 k are parallel to each
other?
Solution : If the two vectors are parallel, then ratios of corresponding components of vectors
in three coordinate directions are equal. Here,

The ratios are, therefore, not equal. Hence, given vectors are not parallel to each other.

Unit vector of cross product

Example 1.19.
Problem : Find unit vector in the direction perpendicular to vectors i + j – 2 k and 2 i – j + 3
k.
Solution : We know that cross product of two vectors is perpendicular to each of vectors.
Thus, unit vector in the direction of cross product is perpendicular to the given vectors. Now,
unit vector of cross product is given by :
 Figure 1.74. Vector product
Unit vector in the direction of vector product.

Here,

Nature of vector product

Example 1.20.
Problem : Verify vector equality B = C, if AxB = AxC.
Solution : Let θ 1 and θ 2 be the angles for first and second pairs of cross products. Then,

It is clear that B= C is true only when sin θ 1 n 1 = sin θ 2 n 2 . It is always possible that the
angles involved or the directions of cross products are different. Thus, we can conclude that B
need not be equal to C.
Evaluation of vector product

Example 1.21.
Problem : If a.b = | axb| for unit vectors a and b, then find the angle between unit vectors.
Solution : According to question,

Example 1.22.
Problem : Prove that :

Solution : Expanding LHS, we have :

Area of parallelogram

Example 1.23.
Problem : The diagonals of a parallelogram are represented by vectors 3 i+ j+ k and i- j- k.
Find the area of parallelogram.
Solution : The area of parallelogram whose sides are formed by vectors a and b, is given by :

However, we are given in question vectors representing diagonals – not the sides. But, we
know that the diagonals are sum and difference of vectors representing sides of a
parallelogram. It means that :
 Figure 1.75. Diagonals of a parallelogram
The vectors along diagonals are sum and difference of two vectors representing the sides.

and

Now the vector product of vectors representing diagonals is :

Using anti-commutative property of vector product,

Thus,

The volume of the parallelogram is :

1.12. Position vector*

Position vector is a convenient mathematical construct to encapsulate the twin ideas of magnitude
(how far?) and direction (in which direction?) of the position, occupied by an object.

Definition: Position vector

Position vector is a vector that extends from the reference point to the position of the particle.
 Figure 1.76. Position vector
Position vector is represented by a vector, joining origin to the position of point object

Generally, we take origin of the coordinate system as the reference point.

It is easy to realize that vector representation of position is appropriate, where directional

properties of the motion are investigated. As a matter of fact, three important directional
attributes of motion, namely displacement, velocity and acceleration are defined in terms of
position vectors.

Consider the definitions : the “displacement” is equal to the change in position vector; the
“velocity” is equal to the rate of change of position vector with respect to time; and “acceleration”
is equal to the rate of change of velocity with respect to time, which, in turn, is the rate of change
of position vector. Thus, all directional attributes of motion is based on the processing of position
vectors.

Position Vector in component form

One of the important characteristics of position vector is that it is rooted to the origin of the
coordinate system. We shall find that most other vectors associated with physical quantities,
having directional properties, are floating vectors and not rooted to a point of the coordinate
system like position vector.

Recall that scalar components are graphically obtained by dropping two perpendiculars from the
ends of the vector to the axes. In the case of position vector, one of the end is the origin itself. As
position vector is rooted to the origin, the scalar components of position vectors in three mutually
perpendicular directions of the coordinate system are equal to the coordinates themselves. The
scalar components of position vector, r, by definition in the designated directions of the
rectangular axes are :
 Figure 1.77. Scalar components of a vector
Scalar components are equal to coordiantes of the position

and position vector in terms of components (coordinates) is :

where i , j and k are unit vectors in x, y and z directions.

The magnitude of position vector is given by :

Example 1.24. Position and distance

Problem : Position (in meters) of a moving particle as a function of time (in seconds) is given
by :

Find the coordinates of the positions of the particle at the start of the motion and at time t = 2
s. Also, determine the linear distances of the positions of the particle from the origin of the
coordinate system at these time instants.
Solution : The coordinates of the position are projection of position vector on three mutually
perpendicular axes. Whereas linear distance of the position of the particle from the origin of
the coordinate system is equal to the magnitude of the position vector. Now,
When t = 0 (start of the motion)
r=(3x0–3)i+(4–7x0)j+(–0)k
The coordinates are :

and the linear distance from the origin is :

 When t = 2 s

The coordinates are :

and the linear distance from the origin is :

Motion types and position vector

Position is a three dimensional concept, requiring three coordinate values to specify it. Motion of
a particle, however, can take place in one (linear) and two (planar) dimensions as well.

In two dimensional motion, two of the three coordinates change with time. The remaining third
coordinate is constant. By appropriately choosing the coordinate system, we can eliminate the
need of specifying the third coordinate.

In one dimensional motion, only one of the three coordinates is changing with time. Other two
coordinates are constant through out the motion. As such, it would be suffice to describe positions
of the particle with the values of changing coordinate and neglecting the remaining coordinates.

A motion along x –axis or parallel to x – axis is, thus, described by x - component of the position
vector i.e. x – coordinate of the position as shown in the figure. It is only the x-coordinate that
changes with time; other two coordinates remain same.

Figure 1.78. Motion in one dimesnion

The description of one dimensional motion is further simplified by shifting axis to the path of
motion as shown below. In this case, other coordinates are individually equal to zero.

x = x; y = 0; z = 0

Figure 1.79. Motion in one dimesnion

In this case, position vector itself is along x – axis and, therefore, its magnitude is equal to x –
coordinate.

Examples

Example 1.25.
Problem : A particle is executing motion along a circle of radius “a” with a constant angular
speed “ω” as shown in the figure. If the particle is at “O” at t = 0, then determine the position
vector of the particle at an instant in xy - plane with "O" as the origin of the coordinate
system.

Figure 1.80. A particle in circular motion

The particle moves with a constant angular velocity.

Solution : Let the particle be at position “P” at a given time “t”. Then the position vector of
 the particle is :

Figure 1.81. A particle in circular motion

The particle moves with a constant angular velocity starting from “O” at t = 0.

Note that "x" and "y" components of position vector is measured from the origin "O". From
the figure,

It is important to check that as particle moves in clockwise direction, y-coordinate increase in

first quarter starting from origin, decreases in second quarter and so on. Similarly, x-
coordinate is given by the expression :

Thus, position vector of the particle in circular motion is :

1.13. Displacement*

Displacement is a measurement of change in position of the particle in motion. Its magnitude and
direction are measured by the length and direction of the straight line joining initial and final
positions of the particle. Obviously, the length of the straight line between the positions is the
shortest distance between the points.

Definition: Displacement
Displacement is the vector extending from initial to final positions of the particle in motion
during an interval.
From physical view point, displacement conveys the meaning of shortest distance plus direction
of the motion between two time instants or corresponding two positions. Initial and final positions
of the point object are the only important consideration for measuring magnitude of displacement.
Actual path between two positions has no consequence in so far as displacement is concerned.

The quantum of displacement is measured by the length of the straight line joining two ends of
motion. If there is no change in the position at the end of a motion, the displacement is zero.

In order to illustrate the underlying concept of displacement, let us consider the motion of a
particle from A to B to C. The displacement vector is represented by the vector AC and its
magnitude by the length of AC.

Figure 1.82. Displacement

Once motion has begun, magnitude of displacement may increase or decrease (at a slow, fast or
constant rate) or may even be zero, if the object returns to its initial position. Since a body under
motion can take any arbitrary path, it is always possible that the end point of the motion may
come closer or may go farther away from the initial point. Thus, displacement, unlike distance,
may decrease from a given level.

In order to understand the variations in displacement with the progress of motion, let us consider
another example of the motion of a particle along the rectangular path from A to B to C to D to A.
Magnitude of displacement, shown by dotted vectors, is increasing during motion from A to B to
C. Whereas magnitude of displacement is decreasing as the particle moves from C to D to A,
eventually being equal to zero, when the particle returns to A.
 Figure 1.83. Displacement

However, displacement is essentially a measurement of length combined with direction. As

direction has no dimension, its dimensional formula is also [L] like that of distance; and likewise,
its SI measurement unit is ‘meter’.

Displacement and Position vector

We have the liberty to describe displacement vector as an independent vector ( AB) or in terms of
position vectors ( r 1 and r 2 ). The choice depends on the problem in hand. The description,
however, is equivalent.

Let us consider that a point object moves from point A (represented by position vector r 1 ) to
point B (represented by position vector r 2 ) as shown in the figure. Now, using triangle law
(moving from O to A to B to O), we have :

Figure 1.84. Displacement in terms of position vectors

Displacement is equal to the difference between final and initial position vectors

()
Thus, displacement is equal to the difference between final and initial position vectors. It is
important to note that we obtain the difference between final and initial position vectors by
drawing a third vector starting from the tip of the initial position vector and ending at the tip of
the final position vector. This approach helps us to quickly draw the vector representing the
difference of vectors and is a helpful procedural technique that can be used without any
ambiguity. Equivalently, we can express displacement vector in terms of components of position
vectors as :

()

We must emphasize here that position vectors and displacement vector are different vectors
quantities. We need to investigate the relation between position vectors and displacement vector -
a bit more closely. It is very important to mentally note that the difference of position vectors i.e.
displacement,Δ r, has different directional property to that of the position vectors themselves (
r 1 and r 2 ).

In the figure above, the position vectors r 1 and r 2 are directed along OA and OB respectively,
while displacement vector, Δ r, is directed along AB. This means that the direction of
displacement vector need not be same as that of either of the position vectors. Now, what would
be the situation, when the motion begins from origin O instead of A? In that case, initial position
vector is zero (null vector). Now, let the final position vector be denoted as r. Then

and displacement is :

⇒ AB = Δ r = r 2 – r 1 = r – 0 = r ()

This is a special case, when final position vector itself is equal to the displacement. For this
reason, when motion is studied from the origin of reference or origin of reference is chosen to
coincide with initial position, then displacement and final position vectors are same and denoted
by the symbol, " r".

In general, however, it is the difference between final and initial position vectors, which is equal
to the displacement and we refer displacement in terms of change in position vector and use the
symbol Δ r to represent displacement.

Magnitude of displacement is equal to the absolute value of the displacement vector. In physical
sense, the magnitude of displacement is equal to the linear distance between initial and final
positions along the straight line joining two positions i.e. the shortest distance between initial and
final positions. This value may or may not be equal to the distance along the actual path of
motion. In other words, magnitude of displacement represents the minimum value of distance
between any two positions.

Example 1.26. Displacement

Question : Consider a person walking from point A to B to C as shown in the figure. Find
distance, displacement and magnitude of displacement.

Figure 1.85.

Characteristics of motion : Two dimensional

Solution : The distance covered, s, during the motion from A to C is to the sum of the lengths
AB and BC.

Displacement, AC, is given as :

The displacement vector makes an angle with the x – axis given by :

and the magnitude of the displacement is :

The example above brings out nuances associated with terms used in describing motion. In
particular, we see that distance and magnitude of displacement are not equal. This inequality
arises due to the path of motion, which may be other than the shortest linear path between initial
and final positions.
This means that distance and magnitude of displacement may not be equal. They are equal as a
limiting case when particle moves in one direction without reversing direction; otherwise,
distance is greater than the magnitude of displacement in most of the real time situation.

s≥|Δr| ()

This inequality is important. It implies that displacement is not distance plus direction as may
loosely be considered. As a matter of fact, displacement is shortest distance plus direction . For
this reason, we need to avoid representing displacement by the symbol “s” as a vector counterpart
of scalar distance, represented by “s”. In vector algebra, modulus of a vector, A, is represented by
its non bold type face letter “A”. Going by this convention, if “ s” and “s” represent displacement
and distance respectively, then s = | s|, which is incorrect.

When a body moves in a straight line maintaining its direction (unidirectional linear motion), then
magnitude of displacement, |Δ r| is equal to distance, “s”. Often, this situational equality gives the
impression that two quantities are always equal, which is not so. For this reason, we would be
careful to write magnitude of displacement by the modulus |Δ r| or in terms of displacement
vector like | AB| and not by "| s|".

Example 1.27. Displacement

Question : Position (in meters) of a moving particle as a function of time (in second) is given
by :

Find the displacement in first 2 seconds.

Characteristics of motion : Three dimensional, variable velocity, variable speed
Solution : The position vector at t = 0 and 2 seconds are calculated to identify initial and final
positions. Let r 1 and r 2 be the position vectors at t = 0 and t = 2 s.
When t = 0 (start of the motion)

When t = 2 s,

The displacement, Δ r, is given by :

Magnitude of displacement is given by :

Displacement and dimension of motion
We have so far discussed displacement as a general case in three dimensions. The treatment of
displacement in one or two dimensions is relatively simplified. The expression for displacement
in component form for these cases are given here :

1. Motion in two dimension : Let the motion takes place in the plane determined by x and y axes,
then :

Δr=Δxi+Δyj;Δz=0

If the initial position of the particle coincides with the origin of reference system, then :

Δr=r=xi+yj;z=0

2. Motion in one dimension : Let the motion takes place along the straight line parallel to x -
axis, then :

Δr=Δxi;Δy=Δz=0

If the initial position of the particle coincides with the origin of reference system, then :

Δr=r=xi;y=z=0

Displacement – time plot

Plotting displacement vector requires three axes. Displacement – time plot will, therefore, need a
fourth axis for representing time. As such, displacement – time plot can not be represented on a
three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. Even plotting two dimensional displacement with
time is complicated.

One dimensional motion, having only two directions – along or opposite to the positive direction
of axis, allows plotting displacement – time graph. One dimensional motion involves only one
way of changing direction i.e. the particle under motion can reverse its direction of motion. Any
other change of direction is not possible; otherwise the motion would not remain one dimensional
motion.

The simplication, in the case of one directional motion, allows us to do away with the need to use
vector notation . Instead, the vectors are treated simply as scalars with one qualification that
vectors in the direction of chosen reference is considered positive and vectors in the opposite
direction to chosen reference is considered negative.

Representation of a displacement vector as a scalar quantity uses following construct :

1. Assign an axis along the motion

2. Assign the origin with the start of motion; It is, however, a matter of convenience and is not a
requirement of the construct.

3. Consider displacement in the direction of axis as positive

4. Consider displacement in the opposite direction of axis as negative

To illustrate the construct, let us consider a motion of a ball which transverses from O to A to B to
C to O along x-axis as shown in the figure.

Figure 1.86. Rectilinear motion

A particle moves along a straight line.

The magnitude of displacements (in meters) at various points of motion are :

It is important to note from above data that when origin is chosen to coincide with initial position
of the particle, then displacement and position vectors are equal.

The data for displacement as obtained above also reveals that by assigning proper sign to a scalar
value, we can represent directional attribute of a vector quantity. In other words, plotting
magnitude of displacement in one dimension with appropriate sign would completely represent
the displacement vector in both magnitude and direction.

Interpreting change of position

There are different difference terms like Δr, Δ| r|, |Δ r| and Δ r, which denote different aspects of
change in position. It might appear trivial, but it is the understanding and ability to distinguish
these quantities that will enable us to treat and describe motion appropriately in different
dimensions. From the discussion so far, we have realized that the symbol "Δ r" denotes
displacement, which is equal to the difference in position vectors between "final" and "initial"
positions. The meaning of the symbol "|Δ r|" follows from the meaning of "Δ r" as magnitude of
displacement.
As a matter of fact, it is the symbol “Δr”, which creates certain "unexpected" confusion or
ambiguity – if not handled appropriately. Going by the conventional understanding, we may be
tempted to say that “Δr” represents magnitude of displacement and is equal to the absolute value
of displacement i.e. |Δ r|. The point that we want to emphasize here is that it is not so.
()

Going by the plain meaning of the symbol, "Δ", we can interpret two terms as :

Δr = change in the magnitude of position vector, "r"

|Δ r| = magnitude of change in the position vector, " r"

Therefore, what we mean by the inequality emphasized earlier is that change in the magnitude of
position vector, "r”, is not equal to the magnitude of change in the position vector. In order to
appreciate the point, we can consider the case of two dimensional circular motion. Let us consider
the motion from point "A" to "B" along a circle of radius "a", as shown in the figure.

Figure 1.87. Circular motion

A particle transverses a quarter of circle from A to B.

Since radius of the circle remains same, the change in the magnitude of position vector,"r", is zero
during the motion. Hence,

However, the magnitude of displacement during the motion is :

Hence, the magnitude of change in the position vector is :

Clearly,
Further, | r| represents the magnitude of position vector and is equal to “r” by conventional
meaning. Hence,

Therefore,

This completes the discussion on similarities and differences among the four symbols. But, the
question remains why there are differences in the first place. The answer lies in the fact that
position vector is a vector quantity with directional property. It means that it can change in either
of the following manner :

1. change in magnitude

2. change in direction

3. change in both magnitude and direction

Thus we see that it is entirely possible, as in the case of circular motion, that change in position
vector is attributed to the change in direction alone (not the magnitude). In that case, Δr and |Δ r|
are not same. We can see that such difference in meaning arises due to the consideration of
direction. Will this difference persist even in one dimensional motion?

In one dimensional motion, representations of change in position vector and displacement are
done with equivalent scalar system. Let us examine the meaning of equivalent scalar terms. Here,
the change in the magnitude of position vector "r" is equivalent to the change in the magnitude of
position vector, represented by scalar equivalent "|x|". Also, the magnitude of change in the
position vector “ r” is equivalent to the magnitude of change in the position vector, "x" (note that
signed scalar "x" denotes position vector).

Let us consider the case of a rectilinear motion (motion along a straight line) taking place from
from A to B to C. The magnitude of change in the position vector, “x”, considering “O” as the
origin is :

Figure 1.88. Rectilinear motion

A particle moves along a straight line.
Now, the change in the magnitude of position vector, “|x|”, is :

Thus we see that difference in two terms exist even in one dimensional motion. This is expected
also as one dimensional motion can involve reversal of direction as in the case considered above.
Hence,
()

Let us now consider unidirectional one dimensional motion like uniform motion in which velocity
is constant and particle moves in only one direction. In this case, this difference disappears and
()

The discussion here on this subtle difference is very important as this becomes an important
consideration subsequently with velocity and acceleration as well, which are defined in terms of
position vector.

Example

Example 1.28.
Problem : The displacement (x) of a particle is given by :

At what time from the start of motion is the displacement maximum?

Solution : The displacement (x) depends on the value of sine function. It will be maximum for
maximum value of sin(wt + θ). The maximum value of sine function is 1. Hence,

The motion is oscillating as expression for displacement is sinusoidal. The particle will attain
maximum displacement at regular intervals.

1.14. Speed*
Motion is the change of position with respect to time. Speed quantifies this change in position, but
notably without direction. It tells us exactly : how rapidly this change is taking place with respect
to time.

Definition: Motion
Speed is the rate of change of distance with respect to time and is expressed as distance
covered in unit time.
()

()

Evaluation of ratio of distance and time for finite time interval is called “average” speed, where as
evaluation of the ratio for infinitesimally small time interval, when Δt-->0, is called
instantaneous speed. In order to distinguish between average and instantaneous speed, we denote
them with symbols v a and v respectively.

Determination of speed allows us to compare motions of different objects. An aircraft, for

example, travels much faster than a motor car. This is an established fact. But, we simply do not
know how fast the aircraft is in comparison to the motor car. We need to measure speeds of each
of them to state the difference in quantitative terms.

Speed is defined in terms of distance and time, both of which are scalar quantities. It follows that
speed is a scalar quantity, having only magnitude and no sense of direction. When we say that a
person is pacing at a speed of 3 km/hr, then we simply mean that the person covers 3 km in 1 hour.
It is not known, however, where the person is actually heading and in which direction.

Dimension of speed is and its SI unit is meter/second (m/s).

Some values of speed

Light : 3 x 108 m/s

Sound : 330 m/s

Continental drift : 10 – 9 m/s

Distance .vs. time plots

Motion of an object over a period of time may vary. These variations are conveniently represented
on a distance - time plot as shown in the figure.
 Figure 1.89. Distance time plot
Distance is given by the vertical segment parallel to the axis representing distance.

The figure above displays distance covered in two equal time intervals. The vertical segment DB
and FC parallel to the axis represents distances covered in the two equal time intervals. The
distance covered in two equal time Δ t intervals may not be equal as average speeds of the object
in the two equal time intervals may be different.

and

The distance - time plot characterizes the nature of distance. We see that the plot is always drawn
in the first quadrant as distance can not be negative. Further, distance – time plot is ever
increasing during the motion. It means that the plot can not decrease from any level at a given
instant. When the object is at rest, the distance becomes constant and plot is a horizontal line
parallel to time axis. Note that the portion of plot with constant speed does not add to the distance
and the vertical segment representing distance remains constant during the motion.

Figure 1.90. Distance time plot

Static condition is represented by a horizontal section on distance - time plot.
Average speed
Average speed, as the name suggests, gives the overall view of the motion. It does not, however,
give the details of motion. Let us take the example of the school bus. Ignoring the actual, let us
consider that the average speed of the journey is 50 km/ hour. This piece of information about
speed is very useful in planning the schedule, but the information is not complete as far as the
motion is concerned. The school bus could have stopped at predetermined stoppages and
crossings, besides traveling at different speeds for variety of reasons. Mathematically,
()

On a distance time plot, average speed is equal to the slope of the the straight line, joining the end
points of the motion, makes with the time axis. Note that average speed is equal to the slope of the
chord (AB) and not that of the tangent to the curve.

Figure 1.91. Distance time plot

Distance is equal to the tangent of the angle that the chord of motion makes with time axis.

Example 1.29. Average speed

Problem : The object is moving with two different speeds v1 and v2 in two equal time
intervals. Find the average speed.
Solution :The average speed is given by :

Let the duration of each time interval is t. Now, total distance is :

The total time is :

 The average speed is equal to the arithmetic mean of two speeds.

Exercise 21.

The object is moving with two different speeds v1 and v1 in two equal intervals of distances. Find
the average speed.

Solution :

The average speed is given by :

Let "s" be distance covered in each time interval t1 and t2 . Now,

The average speed is equal to the harmonic mean of two velocities.

Instantaneous speed (v)

Instantaneous speed is also defined exactly like average speed i.e. it is equal to the ratio of total
distance and time interval, but with one qualification that time interval is extremely
(infinitesimally) small. This qualification of average speed has important bearing on the value and
meaning of speed. The instantaneous speed is the speed at a particular instant of time and may
have entirely different value than that of average speed. Mathematically,
()

Where Δs is the distance traveled in time Δt.

As Δt tends to zero, the ratio defining speed becomes finite and equals to the first derivative of the
distance. The speed at the moment ‘t’ is called the instantaneous speed at time ‘t’.
On the distance - time plot, the speed is equal to the slope of the tangent to the curve at the time
instant ‘t’. Let A and B points on the plot corresponds to the time t and t + Δt during the motion.
As Δt approaches zero, the chord AB becomes the tangent AC at A. The slope of the tangent
equals ds/dt, which is equal to the instantaneous speed at 't'.

Figure 1.92. Speed time plot

Instantaneous speed is equal to the slope of the tangent at given instant.

Speed - time plot

The distance covered in the small time period dt is given by :

Integrating on both sides between time intervals t1 and t2 ,

()

The right hand side of the integral represents an area on a plot drawn between two variables, speed
(v) and time (t). The area is bounded by (i) v-t curve (ii) two time ordinates t1 and t2 and (iii) time
(t) axis as shown by the shaded region on the plot.

<db:title>Area under v-t plot</db:title> <db:title>Area under v-t plot</db:title>

(a) (b)

Figure 1.93.
Area under v-t plot gives the distance covered by the object in a given time interval.

Alternatively, we can consider the integral as the sum of areas of small strip of rectangular
regions (vxdt), each of which represents the distance covered (ds) in the small time interval (dt).
As such, the area under speed - time plot gives the total distance covered in a given time interval.

Position - time plot

The position – time plot is similar to distance – time plot in one dimensional motion. In this case,
we can assess distance and speed from a position - time plot. Particularly, if the motion is
unidirectional i.e. without any reversal of direction, then we can substitute distance by position
variable. The example here illustrates this aspect of one-dimensional motion.

Example 1.30.
Problem The position – time plot of a particle’s motion is shown below.

Figure 1.94. Position - time plot

Determine :

1. average speed in the first 10 seconds

2. Instantaneous speed at 5 seconds
3. Maximum speed speed
4. The time instant(s), when average speed measured from the beginning of motion equals
instantaneous speed

Solution
1. Average speed in the first 10 seconds
The particle covers a distance of 110 m. Thus, average speed in the first 10 seconds is :

2. Instantaneous speed at 5 second

We draw the tangent at t = 5 seconds as shown in the figure. The tangent coincides the curve
between t = 5 s to 7 s. Now,

Figure 1.95. Position - time plot

3. Maximum speed
We observe that the slope of the tangent to the curve first increase to become constant
between A and B. The slope of the tangent after point B decreases to become almost flat at the
end of the motion. It means the maximum speed corresponds to the constant slope between A
and B, which is is 15 m/s
4. Time instant(s) when average speed equals instantaneous speed
Average speed is equal to slope of chord between one point to another. On the other hand,
speed is equal to slope of tangent at point on the plot. This means that slope of chord between
two times is equal to tangent at the end point of motion. Now, as time is measured from the
start of motion i.e. from origin, we draw a straight line from the origin, which is tangent to the
curve. The only such tangent is shown in the figure below. Now, this straight line is the chord
between origin and a point. This line is also tangent to the curve at that point. Thus, average
speed equals instantaneous speeds at t = 9 s.

Figure 1.96. Position - time plot

Example 1.31.
Problem : Two particles are moving with the same constant speed, but in opposite direction.
Under what circumstance will the separation between two remains constant?
Solution : The condition of motion as stated in the question is possible, if particles are at
diametrically opposite positions on a circular path. Two particles are always separated by the
diameter of the circular path. See the figure below to evaluate the motion and separation
between the particles.

Figure 1.97. Motion along a circular path

Two particles are always separated by the diameter of the circle transversed by the particles.
 1.15. Velocity*

Velocity is the measure of rapidity with which a particle covers shortest distance between initial
and final positions, irrespective of the actual path. It also indicates the direction of motion as
against speed, which is devoid of this information.

Definition: Velocity
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time and is expressed as the
ratio of displacement and time.
()

If the ratio of displacement and time is evaluated for finite time interval, we call the ratio
“average” velocity, whereas if the ratio is evaluated for infinitesimally small time interval(Δt→0)
, then we call the ratio “instantaneous” velocity. Conventionally, we denote average and
instantaneous velocities as v a and v respectively to differentiate between the two concepts of
velocity.

As against speed, which is defined in terms of distance, velocity is defined in terms of

displacement. Velocity amounts to be equal to the multiplication of a scalar (1/Δt) with a vector
(displacement). As scalar multiplication of a vector is another vector, velocity is a vector quantity,
having both magnitude and direction. The direction of velocity is same as that of displacement
and the magnitude of velocity is numerically equal to the absolute value of the velocity vector,
denoted by the corresponding non bold face counterpart of the symbol.

Dimension of velocity is L T – 1    and its SI unit is meter/second (m/s).

Position vector and velocity

The displacement is equal to the difference of position vectors between initial and final positions.
As such, velocity can be conveniently expressed in terms of position vectors.
 Figure 1.98. Displacement in terms of position vector
Displacement is equal to the change in position vector

Let us consider that r1 and r2 be the position vectors corresponding to the object positions at time
instants t1 and t2 . Then, displacement is given by :

()

Definition: Velocity
Velocity is the rate of change of position vector with respect to time and is expressed as the
ratio of change in position vector and time.

The expression of velocity in terms of position vectors is generally considered more intuitive and
basic to the one expressed in terms of displacement. This follows from the fact that displacement
vector itself is equal to the difference in position vectors between final and initial positions.

Average velocity
Average velocity is defined as the ratio of total displacement and time interval.
()

Average velocity gives the overall picture about the motion. The magnitude of the average
velocity tells us the rapidity with which the object approaches final point along the straight line –
not the rapidity along the actual path of motion. It is important to notice here that the magnitude
of average velocity does not depend on the actual path as in the case of speed, but depends on the
shortest path between two points represented by the straight line joining the two ends. Further, the
direction of average velocity is from the initial to final position along the straight line (See
Figure).
 Figure 1.99. Direction of velocity

Average velocity may be different to instantaneous velocities in between the motion in either
magnitude or direction or both. Consider the example of the tip of the second’s hand of a wall
clock. It moves along a circular path of 2п r in 60 seconds. The magnitude of average velocity is
zero in this period (60 seconds) as the second’s hand reaches the initial position. This is the
overall picture. However, the tip of the second’s hand has actually traveled the path of 2п r,
indicating that intermediate instantaneous velocities during the motion were not zero.

Also, the magnitude of average velocity may be entirely different than that of average speed. We
know that distance is either greater than or equal to the magnitude of displacement. It follows then
that average speed is either greater than or equal to the magnitude of average velocity. For the
movement along semi-circle as shown in the figure below, the magnitude of velocity is 2r/30 m/s,
where as average speed is п r/30 = 3.14 r/30 m/s. Clearly, the average speed is greater than the
magnitude of average velocity.

Figure 1.100. Speed and velocity

Position – time plot and average velocity

Position – time plot is a convenient technique to interpret velocity of a motion. The limitation
here is that we can plot position – time graph only for one and two dimensional motions. As a
matter of fact, it is only one dimensional (linear or rectilinear) motion, which renders itself for
convenient drawing.

On the plot, positions are plotted with appropriate sign against time. A positive value of position
indicates that particle is lying on the positive side of the origin, whereas negative value of position
indicates that the particle is lying on the opposite side of the origin. It must, therefore, be realized
that a position – time plot may extend to two quadrants of a two dimensional coordinate system as
the value of x can be negative.

On a position – time plot, the vertical intercept parallel to position axis is the measure of
displacement, whereas horizontal intercept is the measure of time interval (See Figure). On the
other hand, the slope of the chord is equal to the ratio of two intercepts and hence equal to the
magnitude of average velocity.

Figure 1.101. Average velocity

()

Example 1.32. Average velocity

Problem : A particle completes a motion in two parts. It covers a straight distance of 10 m in
1 s in the first part along the positive x - direction and 20 m in 5 s in the second part along
negative x- direction (See Figure). Find average speed and velocity.
 Figure 1.102. Motion in straight line

Characteristics of motion : One dimensional

Solution : In order to find the average speed, we need to find distance and time. Here total
time is 1 + 5 = 6 s and total distance covered is 10 + 20 = 30 m. Hence,

The displacement is equal to the linear distance between initial and final positions. The initial
and final positions are at a linear distance = -10 m. The value is taken as negative as final
position falls on the opposite side of the origin. Hence,

The negative value indicates that the average velocity is directed in the opposite direction to
that of the positive reference direction. We have discussed earlier that one dimensional
motion consists of only two direction and as such an one dimensional velocity can be
equivalently represented by scalar value with appropriate sign scheme. Though, the symbol
for average velocity is shown to be like a scalar symbol (not bold), but its value represents
direction as well (the direction is opposite to reference direction).
Also significantly, we may note that average speed is not equal to the magnitude of average
velocity.

Exercise 22.

Consider position – time plot as shown below showing a trip by a motor car.
 Figure 1.102. Motion in straight line

Determine :

1. Total distance

2. Displacement

3. Average speed and average velocity for the round trip

4. Average speed and average velocity during motion from O to C

5. The parts of motion for which magnitudes of average velocity are equal in each direction.

6. Compare speeds in the portion OB and BD

Characteristics of motion : One dimensional, variable speed

(i) Total distance in the round trip = 120 + 120 = 240 Km

(ii) Displacement = 120 – 120 = 0

(iii) Average speed for the round trip

(iv) Average speed during motion from O to C

As magnitude of average velocity is positive, the direction of velocity is in the positive x –

direction. It is important to note for motion in one dimension and in one direction
(unidirectional), distance is equal to the magnitude of displacement and average speed is equal to
the magnitude of average velocity. Such is the case for this portion of motion.

(v) The part of motion for which average velocity is equal in each direction.

By inspection of the plots, we see that time interval is same for motion from B to C and from C to
B (on return). Also, the displacements in these two segments of motion are equal. Hence
magnitudes of velocities in two segments are equal.

Figure 1.102. Motion in straight line

(vi) Compare speeds in the portion OB and BD.

By inspection of the plots, we see that the motor car travels equal distances of 60 m. We see that
distances in each direction is covered in equal times i.e. 2 hrs. But, the car actually stops for 1
hour in the forward journey and as such average speed is smaller in this case.

Instantaneous velocity
Definition: velocity
Instantaneous velocity is equal to the rate of change of position vector i.e displacement
with respect to time at a given time and is equal to the first differential of position vector.

Instantaneous velocity is defined exactly like speed. It is equal to the ratio of total displacement
and time interval, but with one qualification that time interval is extremely (infinitesimally)
small. Thus, instantaneous velocity can be termed as the average velocity at a particular instant of
time when Δt tends to zero and may have entirely different value than that of average velocity.
Mathematically,

As Δt tends to zero, the ratio defining velocity becomes finite and equals to the first derivative of
the position vector. The velocity at the moment ‘t’ is called the instantaneous velocity or simply
velocity at time ‘t’.

Instantaneous velocity and position - time plot

Position - time plot provides for calculation of the magnitude of velocity, which is equal to speed.
The discussion of position – time plot in the context of velocity, however, differs in one important
respect that we can also estimate the direction of motion.

Figure 1.103. Instantaneous Velocity

In the figure above, as we proceed from point B to A through intermediate points B’ and B’’, the
time interval becomes smaller and smaller and the chord becomes tangent to the curve at point A
as Δ t → 0. The magnitude of instantaneous velocity (speed) at A is given by the slope of the
curve.

There is one important difference between average velocity and instantaneous velocity. The
magnitude of average velocity | v avg | and average speed v avg may not be equal, but magnitude of
instantaneous velocity | v | is always equal to instantaneous speed v .

We have discussed that magnitude of displacement and distance are different quantities. The
magnitude of displacement is a measure of linear shortest distance, whereas distance is measure
of actual path. As such, magnitude of average velocity | v avg | and average speed v avg are not be
equal. However, if the motion is along a straight line and without any change in direction (i.e
unidirectional), then distance and displacement are equal and so magnitude of average velocity
and average speed are equal. In the case of instantaneous velocity, the time interval is
infinitesimally small for which displacement and distance are infinitesimally small. In such
situation, both displacement and distance are same. Hence, magnitude of instantaneous velocity
| v | is always equal to instantaneous speed v .

Components of velocity
Velocity in a three dimensional space is defined as the ratio of displacement (change in position
vector) and time. The object in motion undergoes a displacement, which has components in three
mutually perpendicular directions in Cartesian coordinate system.

It follows from the component form of displacement that a velocity in three dimensional
coordinate space is the vector sum of component velocities in three mutually perpendicular
directions. For a small time interval when Δ t → 0,

For the sake of clarity, it must be understood that components of velocity is a conceptual construct
for examining a physical situation. It is so because it is impossible for an object to have two
velocities at a given time. If we have information about the variations of position along three
mutually perpendicular directions, then we can find out component velocities along the axes
leading to determination of resultant velocity. The resultant velocity is calculated using following
relation :

The component of velocity is a powerful concept that makes it possible to treat a three or two
dimensional motion as composition of component straight line motions. To illustrate the point,
consider the case of two dimensional parabolic motions. Here, the velocity of the body is resolved
in two mutually perpendicular directions; treating motion in each direction independently and
then combining the component directional attributes by using rules of vector addition
 Figure 1.104. Parabolic motion
Motion is treated separately in two perpendicular directions

Similarly, the concept of component velocity is useful when motion is constrained. We may take
the case of the motion of the edge of a pole as shown in the figure here. The motion of the ends of
the pole is constrained in one direction, whereas other component of velocity is zero.

Figure 1.105. Constrained motion

The motion in space is determined by the component velocities in three mutually perpendicular
directions. In two dimensional or planar motion, one of three components is zero. 10. The velocity
of the object is determined by two relevant components of velocities in the plane. For example,
motion in x and y direction yields :

Similarly, one dimensional motion (For example : x – direction) is described by one of the
components of velocity.
Few words of caution
Study of kinematics usually brings about closely related concepts, terms and symbols. It is always
desirable to be precise and specific in using these terms and symbols. Following list of the terms
along with their meaning are given here to work as reminder :

1: Position vector : r : a vector specifying position and drawn from origin to the point occupied by
point object

2: Distance : s : length of actual path : not treated as the magnitude of displacement

3: Displacement : AB or Δ r : a vector along the straight line joining end points A and B of the
path : its magnitude, | AB| or |Δ r | is not equal to distance, s.

4: Difference of position vector : Δ r : equal to displacement, AB. Direction of Δ r is not same as

that of position vector ( r).

5: Magnitude of displacement : | AB| or |Δ r |: length of shortest path.

6: Average speed : v a : ratio of distance and time interval : not treated as the magnitude of
average velocity

7: Speed : v : first differential of distance with respect to time : equal to the magnitude of
velocity, | v|

8: Average velocity : v a : ratio of displacement and time interval : its magnitude, | v a | is not
equal to average speed, v a .

9: Velocity : v : first differential of displacement or position vector with respect to time

Summary
The paragraphs here are presented to highlight the similarities and differences between the two
important concepts of speed and velocity with a view to summarize the discussion held so far.

1: Speed is measured without direction, whereas velocity is measured with direction. Speed and
velocity both are calculated at a position or time instant. As such, both of them are independent of
actual path. Most physical measurements, like speedometer of cars, determine instantaneous
speed. Evidently, speed is the magnitude of velocity,
2: Since, speed is a scalar quantity, it can be plotted on a single axis. For this reason, tangent to
distance – time curve gives the speed at that point of the motion. As d s = v X d t , the area under
speed – time plot gives distance covered between two time instants.

3: On the other hand, velocity requires three axes to be represented on a plot. It means that a
velocity – time plot would need 4 dimensions to be plotted, which is not possible on three
dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. A two dimensional velocity and time plot is possible,
but is highly complicated to be drawn.

4: One dimensional velocity can be treated as a scalar magnitude with appropriate sign to
represent direction. It is, therefore, possible to draw one dimension velocity – time plot.

5: Average speed involves the length of path (distance), whereas average velocity involves
shortest distance (displacement). As distance is either greater than or equal to the magnitude of
displacement,

Exercises
Exercise 23.

The position vector of a particle (in meters) is given as a function of time as :

Determine the time rate of change of the angle “θ” made by the velocity vector with positive x-
axis at time, t = 2 s.

Solution : It is a two dimensional motion. The figure below shows how velocity vector makes an
angle "θ" with x-axis of the coordinate system. In order to find the time rate of change of this
angle "θ", we need to express trigonometric ratio of the angle in terms of the components of
velocity vector. From the figure :
 Figure 1.105. Velocity of a particle in two dimensions
The velocity has two components.

As given by the expression of position vector, its component in coordinate directions are :

We obtain expression of the components of velocity in two directions by differentiating "x" and
"y" components of position vector with respect to time :

Putting in the trigonometric function, we have :

Since we are required to know the time rate of the angle, we differentiate the above trigonometric
ratio with respect to time as,

At t = 2 s,

Exercise 24.

Two particles A and B are connected by a rigid rod AB. The rod slides along perpendicular rails as
Two particles A and B are connected by a rigid rod AB. The rod slides along perpendicular rails as
shown here. The velocity of A moving down is 10 m/s. What is the velocity of B when angle θ =
60° ?

Figure 1.105. Motion of a leaning rod

One end of the ros is moving with a speed 10 m/s in vertically downward direction.

Solution : The velocity of B is not an independent velocity. It is tied to the velocity of the particle
“A” as two particles are connected through a rigid rod. The relationship between two velocities is
governed by the inter-particles separation, which is equal to the length of rod.

The length of the rod, in turn, is linked to the positions of particles “A” and “B” . From figure,

Differentiatiting, with respect to time :

Considering magnitude only,

Exercise 25.

Problem : The position vector of a particle is :

where “a” is a constant. Show that velocity vector is perpendicular to position vector.

Solution : In order to prove as required, we shall use the fact that scalar (dot) product of two
perpendicular vectors is zero. Now, we need to find the expression of velocity to evaluate the dot
product as intended. We can obtain the same by differentiating the expression of position vector
with respect to time as :

To check whether velocity is perpendicular to the position vector, we evalaute the scalar product
of r and v, which should be equal to zero.

In this case,

This means that the angle between position vector and velocity are at right angle to each other.
Hence, velocity is perpendicular to position vector. It is pertinent to mention here that this result
can also be inferred from the plot of motion. An inspection of position vector reveals that it
represents uniform circular motion as shown in the figure here.

Figure 1.105. Circular motion

The particle describes a circular path.

The position vector is always directed radially, whereas velocity vector is always tangential to the
circular path. These two vectors are, therefore, perpendicular to each other.

Exercise 26.

Problem : A car of width 2 m is approaching a crossing at a velocity of 8 m/s. A pedestrian at a

distance of 4 m wishes to cross the road safely. What should be the minimum speed of pedestrian
so that he/she crosses the road safely?

Solution : We draw the figure to illustrate the situation. Here, car travels the linear distance (AB
+ CD) along the direction in which it moves, by which time the pedestrian travels the linear
distance BD. Let pedestrian travels at a speed “v” along BD, which makes an angle “θ” with the
direction of car.

Figure 1.105. Motion of a car and a pedestrian

The pedestrian crosses the road at angle with direction of car.

We must understand here that there may be number of combination of angle and speed for which
pedestrian will be able to safely cross before car reaches. However, we are required to find the
minimum speed. This speed should, then, correspond to a particular value of θ.

We can also observe that pedestrian should move obliquely. In doing so he/she gains extra time to
cross the road.

From triangle BCD,

Also,

According to the condition given in the question, the time taken by car and pedestrian should be
equal for the situation outlined above :

For minimum value of speed, ,

In order to evaluate the expression of velocity with trigonometric ratios, we take the help of right
angle triangle as shown in the figure, which is consistent with the above result.

Figure 1.105. Trigonometric ratio

The tangent of angle is equal to 2.

From the triangle, defining angle “θ”, we have :

and

The minimum velocity is :

1.16. Rectilinear motion*

A motion along straight line is called rectilinear motion. In general, it need not be one –
dimensional; it can take place in a two dimensional plane or in three dimensional space. But, it is
always possible that rectilinear motion be treated as one dimensional motion, by suitably
orienting axes of the coordinate system. This fact is illustrated here for motion along an inclined
plane. The figure below depicts a rectilinear motion of the block as it slides down the incline. In
this particular case, the description of motion in the coordinate system, as shown, involves two
coordinates (x and y).
 Figure 1.106. Motion along inclined plane

The reorientation of the coordinate system renders two dimensional description (requiring x and y
values) of the motion to one dimensional (requiring only x value). A proper selection, most of the
time, results in simplification of measurement associated with motion. In the case of the motion
of the block, we may choose the orientation such that the progress of motion is along the positive
x – direction as shown in the figure. A proper orientation of the coordinates results in positive
values of quantities like displacement and velocity. It must be emphasized here that we have
complete freedom in choosing the orientation of the coordinate system. The description of the
rectilinear motion in independent of the orientation of axes.

Figure 1.107. Motion along inclined plane

In rectilinear motion, we are confined to the measurement of movement of body in only one
direction. This simplifies expressions of quantities used to describe motion. In the following
section, we discuss (also recollect from earlier discussion) the simplification resulting from
motion in one dimension (say in x –direction).

Position vector in rectilinear motion

Position still requires three coordinates for specification. But, only one of them changes during
the motion; remaining two coordinates remain constant. In practice, we choose one dimensional
reference line to coincide with the path of the motion. It follows then that position of the particle
under motion is equal to the value of x – coordinate (others being zero).

Corresponding position vector also remains a three dimensional quantity. However, if the path of
motion coincides with the reference direction and origin of the reference coincides with origin,
then position vector is simply equal to component vector in x – direction i.e
()

The position vectors corresponding to points A, B and C as shown in the figure are 2 i, 4 i and 6 i.
units respectively.

Figure 1.108. Position vectors

As displacement is equal to change in position vector, the displacement for the indicated positions
are given as :

Vector interpretation and equivalent system of scalars

Rectilinear motion involves motion along straight line and thus is described usually in one
dimension. Further, rectilinear motion involves only one way of changing direction i.e. the
particle under motion can only reverse motion. The particle can move either in positive x-
direction or in negative x-direction. There is no other possible direction valid in rectilinear
motion.

This attribute of rectilinear motion allows us to do away with the need to use vector notation and
vector algebra for quantities with directional attributes like position vector, displacement and
velocity. Instead, the vectors are treated simply as scalars with one qualification that vectors in
the direction of chosen reference is considered positive and vectors in the opposite direction to the
chosen reference is considered negative.

The most important aspect of the sign convention is that a vector like velocity can be expressed by
a scalar value say, 5 m/s. Though stated without any aid for specifying direction like using unit
vector, the direction of the velocity is indicated, which is in the positive x-direction. If the
velocity of motion is -5 m/s, then the velocity is in the direction opposite to the direction of
reference.

To illustrate the construct, let us consider a motion of a ball which transverses from O to A to B to
C to O along x-axis as shown in the figure.

Figure 1.109. Motion along straight line

The velocities at various points of motion in m/s (vector form) are :

Going by the scalar construct, we can altogether drop use of unit vector like " i" in describing all
vector quantities used to describe motion in one dimension. The velocities at various points of
motion in m/s (in equivalent scalar form) can be simply stated in scalar values for rectilinear
motion as :

Similarly, we can represent position vector simply by the component in one direction, say x, in
meters, as :

Also, the displacement vector (in meters) is represented with scalar symbol and value as :

Following the same convention, we can proceed to write defining equations of speed and velocity
in rectilinear motion as :
()
and

()

Example 1.33. Rectilinear motion

Problem : If the position of a particle along x – axis varies in time as :

Then :

1. What is the velocity at t = 0 ?

2. When does velocity become zero?
3. What is the velocity at the origin ?
4. Plot position – time plot. Discuss the plot to support the results obtained for the questions
above.

Solution : We first need to find out an expression for velocity by differentiating the given
function of position with respect to time as :

(i) The velocity at t = 0,

(ii) When velocity becomes zero :

For v = 0,

(iii) The velocity at the origin :

At origin, x = 0,

This means that particle is twice at the origin at t = 0.5 s and t = 1 s. Now,

Negative sign indicates that velocity is directed in the negative x – direction.

 Figure 1.110. Position – time plot

We observe that slope of the curve from t = 0 s to t < 0.75 s is negative, zero for t = 0.75 and
positive for t > 0.75 s. The velocity at t = 0, thus, is negative. We can realize here that the
slope of the tangent to the curve at t = 0.75 is zero. Hence, velocity is zero at t = 0.75 s.
The particle arrives at x = 0 for t = 0.5 s and t = 1 s. The velocity at first arrival is negative as
the position falls on the part of the curve having negative slope, whereas the velocity at second
arrival is positive as the position falls on the part of the curve having positive slope.

Position - time plot

We use different plots to describe rectilinear motion. Position-time plot is one of them. Position
of the point object in motion is drawn against time. Evidently, it is a two dimensional plot. The
position is plotted with appropriate sign as described earlier.

Nature of slope

One of the important tool used to understand nature of such plots (as drawn above) is the slope of
the tangent drawn on the plot.In particular, we need to qualitatively ascertain whether the slope is
positive or negative. In this section, we seek to find out the ways to determine the nature of slope.
Mathematically, the slope of a straight line is numerically equal to trigonometric tangent of the
angle that the line makes with x – axis. It follows, therefore, that the slope of the straight line may
be positive or negative depending on the angle. It is seen as shown in the figure below, the tangent
of the angle in first and third quarters is positive, whereas it is negative in the remaining second
and fourth quarter. This assessment of the slope of the position - time plot helps us to identify
whether velocity is positive or negative?

Figure 1.111. Sign of the tangent of the angle

We may, however, use yet another simpler and effective technique to judge the nature of the
slope. This employs physical interpretation of the plot. We know that the tangent of the angle is
equal to the ratio of x (position) and t (time). In order to judge the nature of slope, we progress
with the time and determine whether “x” increases or decreases. The increase in “x” corresponds
to positive slope and a decrease, on the other hand, corresponds to negative slope. This assessment
helps us to quickly identify whether velocity is positive or negative?

Figure 1.112. Slope of the curve

Direction of motion

The visual representation of the curve might suggest that the tangent to the position – time plot
gives the direction of velocity. It is not true. It is contradictory to the assumption of the one
dimensional motion. Motion is either in positive or negative x – direction and not in any other
direction as would be suggested by the direction of tangent at various points. As a matter of fact,
the curve of the position – time plot is not the representation of the path of motion. The path of the
motion is simply a straight line. This distinction should always be kept in mind.

In reality, the nature of slope indicates the sense of direction, which can assume either of the two
possible directions. A positive slope of the curve denotes motion along the positive direction of
the referred axis, whereas negative slope indicates reversal of the direction of motion.

In the position – time plot as shown in the example at the beginning of the module (See Figure) ,
the slope of the curve from t = 0 s to t = 0.75 s is negative, whereas slope becomes positive for t
> 0.75 s. Clearly, an inversion of slope indicates reversal of direction. The particle, in the instant
case, changes direction once at t = 0.75 s during the motion.

Variation in the velocity

In addtion to the sense of direction, the position - time plot allows us to determine the magnitude
of velocity i.e. speed, which is equal to the magnitude of the slope. Here we shall see that the
position – time plot is not only helpful in determining magnitude and direction of the velocity, but
also in determining whether speed is increasing or decreasing or a constant.

Let us consider the plot generated in the example at the beginning of this module. The data set of
the plot is as given here :

t(s) x(m) Δx(m)

---------------------
0.0 1.0
0.1 0.72 -0.28
0.2 0.48 -0.24
0.3 0.28 -0.20
0.4 0.12 -0.16
0.5 0.00 -0.12
0.6 -0.08 -0.08
0.7 -0.12 -0.12
0.8 -0.12 0.00
0.9 -0.08 0.04
1.0 0.00 0.08
1.1 0.12 0.12
1.2 0.28 0.16
---------------------
In the beginning of the motion starting from t = 0, we see that particle covers distance in
decreasing magnitude in the negative x - direction. The magnitude of difference, Δx, in equal time
interval decreases with the progress of time. Accordingly, the curve becomes flatter. This is
reflected by the fact that the slope of the tangent becomes gentler till it becomes horizontal at t =
0.75 s. Beyond t = 0.75 s, the velocity is directed in the positive x – direction. We can see that
particle covers more and more distances as the time progresses. It means that the velocity of the
particle increases with time and the curve gets steeper with the passage of time.

Figure 1.113. Position – time plot

In general, we can conclude that a gentle slope indicates smaller velocity and a steeper slope
indicates a larger velocity.

Velocity - time plot

In general, the velocity is a three dimensional vector quantity. A velocity – time would, therefore,
require additional dimension. Hence, it is not possible to draw velocity – time plot on a three
dimensional coordinate system. Two dimensional velocity - time plot is possible, but its drawing
is complex.

One dimensional motion, having only two directions – along positive or negative direction of axis,
allows plotting velocity – time graph. The velocity is treated simply as scalar speed with one
qualification that velocity in the direction of chosen reference is considered positive and velocity
in the opposite direction to chosen reference is considered negative.

In "speed- time" and "velocity – time" plots use the symbol “v” to represent both speed and
velocity. This is likely to create some confusion as these quantities are essentially different.
We use the scalar symbol “v” to represent velocity as a special case for rectilinear motion,
because scalar value of velocity with appropriate sign gives the direction of motion as well.
Therefore, the scalar representation of velocity is consistent with the requirement of
representing both magnitude and direction. Though current writings on the subject allows
duplication of symbol, we must, however, be aware of the difference between two types of
plot. The speed (v) is always positive in speed – time plot and drawn in the first quadrant of
the coordinate system. On the other hand, velocity (v) may be positive or negative in velocity
– time plot and drawn in first and fourth quadrants of the two dimensional coordinate system.

The nature of velocity – time plot

Velocity – time plot for rectilinear motion is a curve (Figure i). The nature of the curve is
determined by the nature of motion. If the particle moves with constant velocity, then the plot is a
straight line parallel to the time axis (Figure ii). On the other hand, if the velocity changes with
respect to time at uniform rate, then the plot is a straight line (Figure iii).

Figure 1.114. Velocity – time plot

The representation of the variation of velocity with time, however, needs to be consistent with
physical interpretation of motion. For example, we can not think of velocity - time plot, which is a
vertical line parallel to the axis of velocity (Figure ii). Such plot is inconsistent as this would
mean infinite numbers of values, against the reality of one velocity at a given instant. Similarly,
the velocity-time plot should not be intersected by a vertical line twice as it would mean that the
particle has more than one velocity at a given time (Figure i).

Figure 1.115. Velocity – time plot

Area under velocity – time plot

The area under the velocity – time plot is equal to displacement. The displacement in the small
time period “dt” is given by :

Integrating on both sides between time intervals

The right hand side integral graphically represents an area on a plot drawn between two variables :
velocity (v) and time (t). The area is bounded by (i) v-t curve (ii) two time ordinates t 1 and t 2 and
(iii) time (t) axis as shown by the shaded region on the plot. Thus, the area under v-t plot bounded
by the ordinates give the magnitude of displacement (Δx) in the given time interval.
 Figure 1.116. Area under velocity – time plot

When v-t curve consists of negative values of velocity, then the curve extends into fourth quadrant
i.e. below time axis. In such cases, it is sometimes easier to evaluate area above and below time
axis separately. The area above time axis represents positive displacement, whereas area under
time axis represents negative displacement. Finally, areas are added with proper sign to obtain the
net displacement during the motion.

To illustrate the working of the process for determining displacement, let us consider the
rectilinear motion of a particle represented by the plot shown.

Figure 1.117. Velocity – time plot

Here,

A switch from positive to negative value of velocity and vice-versa is associated with change of
direction of motion. It means that every intersection of the v – t curve with time axis represents a
reversal of direction. Note that it is not the change of slope (from postive to negative and and vive
versa) like on the position time that indicates a change in the direction of motion; but the
intersection of time axis, which indicates change of direction of velocity. In the motion described
in figure above, particle undergoes reversal of direction at two occasions at B and E.

It is also clear from the above example that displacement is given by the net area (considering
appropriate positive and negative sign), while distance covered during the motion in the time
interval is given by the cumulative area without considering the sign. In the above example,
distance covered is :
s = Area of triangle OAB + Area of trapezium BCDE + Area of triangle EFG

Exercise 27.

A person walks with a velocity given by |t – 2| along a straight line. Find the distance and
displacement for the motion in the first 4 seconds. What is the average velocity in this period?

Here, the velocity is equal to the modulus of a function in time. It means that velocity is always
positive. An inspection of the function reveals that velocity linearly decreases for the first 2
second from 2 m/s to zero. It, then, increases from zero to 2 m/s in the next 2 seconds. In order to
obtain distance and displacement, we draw the Velocity – time plot plot as shown.

The area under the plot gives displacement. In this case, however, there is no negative
displacement involved. As such, distance and displacement are equal.

Figure 1.117. Velocity – time plot

and the average velocity is given by :

Uniform motion
Uniform motion is a subset of rectilinear motion. It is the most simplified class of motion. In this
case, the body under motion moves with constant velocity. It means that the body moves along a
straight line without any change of magnitude and direction as velocity is constant. Also, a
constant velocity implies that velocity is constant all through out the motion. The velocity at
every instant during motion is, therefore, same.

It follows then that instantaneous and averages values of speed and velocity are all equal to a
constant value for uniform motion :

The motion of uniform linear motion has special significance, as this motion exactly echoes the
principle enshrined in the first law of motion. The law states that all bodies in the absence of
external force maintain their speed and direction. It follows, therefore, that the study of uniform
motion is actually the description of motion, when no external force is in play.

The absence of external force is hypothetical in our experience as bodies are always subject to
external force(s). The force of gravitation is short of omnipresent force that can not be overlooked
- atleast on earth. Nevertheless, the concept of uniform motion has great theoretical significance
as it gives us the reference for the accelerated or the non-uniform real motion.

On the earth, a horizontal motion of a block on a smooth plane approximates uniform motion as
shown in the figure. The force of gravity acts and normal reaction force at the contact between
surfaces act in vertically, but opposite directions. The two forces balances each other. As a result,
there is no net force in the vertical direction. As the surface is smooth, we can also neglect
horizontal force due to friction, which could have opposed the motion in horizontal direction. This
situation is just an approxmiation for we can not think of a flawless smooth surface in the first
place; and also there would be intermolecular attraction between the block and surface at the
contact. In brief, we can not achieve zero friction - eventhough the surfaces in contact are
perfectly smooth. However, the approximation like this is helpful for it provides us a situation,
which is equivalent to the motion of an object without any external force(s).

Figure 1.118. Uniform motion

We can also imagine a volumetric space, where massive bodies like planets and stars are not
nearby. The motion of an object in that space, therefore, would be free from any external force and
the motion would be in accordance with the laws of motion. The study of astronauts walking in the
space and doing repairs to the spaceship approximates the situation of the absence of external
force. The astronaut in the absence of the force of gravitation and friction (as there is no
atmosphere) moves along with the velocity of the spaceship.

Motion of separated bodies

The fact that the astronauts moves with the velocity of spaceship is an important statement about
the state of motion of the separated bodies. A separated body acquires the velocity of the
containing body. A pebble released from a moving train or dropped from a rising balloon is an
example of the motion of separated body. The pebble acquires the velocity of the train or the
balloon as the case may be.

Figure 1.119. Motion of separated bodies

It means that we must assign a velocity to the released body, which is equal in magnitude and
direction to that of the body from which the released body has separated. The phenomena of
imparting velocity to the separated body is a peculiarity with regard to velocity. We shall learn
that acceleration (an attribute of non-uniform motion) does not behave in the same fashion. For
example, if the train is accelerating at the time, the pebble is dropped, then the pebble would not
acquire the acceleration of the containing body.

The reason that pebble does not acquire the acceleration of the train is very simple. We know that
acceleration results from application of external force. In this case, the train is accelerated as the
engine of the train pulls the compartment (i.e. applies force on the compartment. The pebble,
being part of the compartment), is also accelerated till it is held in the hand of the passenger.
However, as the pebble is dropped, the connection of the pebble with the rest of the system or with
the engine is broken. No force is applied on the pebble in the horizontal direction. As such, pebble
after being dropped has no acceleration in the horizontal direction.
In short, we can conclude that a separated body acquires velocity, but not the acceleration.

1.17. Rectilinear motion (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of rectilinear motion. The questions are
categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the subject matter :

Interpretation of position - time plot

Interpretation of displacement - time plot

Displacement

Average velocity

Position vector

Example 1.34.
Problem : Two boys (P and Q) walk to their respective school from their homes in the
morning on a particular day. Their motions are plotted on a position – time graph for the day
as shown. If all schools and homes are situated by the side of a straight road, then answer the
followings :
 Figure 1.120. Motion of two boys
Position – time plot of a rectilinear motion.

1. Which of the two resides closer to the school?

2. Which of the two starts earlier for the school?
3. Which of the two walks faster?
4. Which of the two reaches the school earlier?
5. Which of the two overtakes other during walk?

Solution : In order to answer questions, we complete the drawing with vertical and horizontal
lines as shown here. Now,

Figure 1.121. Motion of two boys

Position – time plot of a rectilinear motion.

1: Which of the two resides closer to the school?

We can answer this question by knowing the displacements. The total displacements here are
OC by P and OD by Q. From figure, OC < OD. Hence, P resides closer to the school.
2: Which of the two starts earlier for the school?
The start times are point O for P and A for Q on the time axis. Hence, P starts earlier for
school.
3: Which of the two walks faster?
The speed is given by the slope of the plot. Slope of the motion of P is smaller than that of Q.
Hence, Q walks faster.
4: Which of the two reaches the school earlier?
Both boys reach school at the time given by point B on time axis. Hence, they reach school at
the same time.
5: Which of the two overtakes other during walk?
The plots intersect at a point E. They are at the same location at this time instant. Since, speed
of B is greater, he overtakes A.

Interpretation of displacement - time plot

Example 1.35.
Problem : A displacement – time plot in one dimension is as shown. Find the ratio of
velocities represented by two straight lines.

Figure 1.122. Displacement-time plot

There two segments of different velocities.

Solution : The slope of displacement – time plot is equal to velocity. Let v1 and v2 be the
velocities in two segments, then magnitudes of velocities in two segments are :
We note that velocity in the first segment is positive, whereas velocity in the second segment
is negative. Hence, the required ratio of two velocities is :

Displacement

Example 1.36.
Problem : The displacement “x” of a particle moving in one dimension is related to time “t”
as :

where “t” is in seconds and “x” is in meters. Find the displacement of the particle when its
velocity is zero.
Solution : We need to find “x” when velocity is zero. In order to find this, we require to have
an expression for velocity. This, in turn, requires an expression of displacement in terms of
time. The given expression of time, therefore, is required to be re-arranged :

Squaring both sides, we have :

Now, we obtain the required expression of velocity in one dimension by differentiating the
above relation with respect to time,

According to question,

Putting this value of time in the expression of displacement, we have :

Average velocity

Example 1.37.
 Problem : A particle moving in a straight line covers 1/3rd of the distance with a velocity 4
m/s. The remaining part of the linear distance is covered with velocities 2 m/s and 6 m/s for
equal times. What is the average velocity during the total motion?
Solution : The average velocity is ratio of displacement and time. In one dimensional
unidirectional motion, distance and displacement are same. As such, average velocity is ratio
of total distance and time.
Let the total distance be “x”. Now, we need to find total time in order to find the average
velocity. Let " t 1 ", " t 2 " and " t 2 " be the time periods of the motion in three parts of the
motion as given in the question. Considering the first part of the motion,

Figure 1.123. Unidirectional motion

The particle covers segments of the motion with different average velocities.

For the second part of the motion, the particle covers the remaining distance at two different
velocities for equal time, “ t 2 ”,

Thus, average velocity is :

1.18. Understanding motion*

The discussion of different attributes of motion in previous modules has led us to the study of
motion from the point of view of a general consideration to a simplified consideration such as
uniform or rectilinear motion. The time is now ripe to recapitulate and highlight important results
- particularly where distinctions are to be made.

For convenience, we shall refer general motion as the one that involves non-linear, two/ three
dimensional motion. The simplified motion, on the other hand, shall refer motion that involves
one dimensional, rectilinear and uniform motion.

Consideration of scalar quantities like distance and speed are same for “general” as well as
“simplified” cases. We need to score similarities or differences for vector quantities to complete
our understanding up to this point. It is relevant here to point out that most of these aspects have
already been dealt in detail in previous modules. As such, we shall limit our discussion on main
points/ results and shall generally not use figures and details.

Similarities and differences

Similarity / Difference 1 : In general, the magnitude of displacement is not equal to distance.
()

For rectilinear motion (one dimensional case) also, displacement is not equal to distance as
motion may involve reversal of direction along a line.
()

For uniform motion (unidirectional motion),

()

Similarity / Difference 2 : The change in the magnitude of position vector is not equal to the
magnitude of change in position vector except for uniform motion i.e motion with constant
velocity.

For two/three dimensional motion,

()

For one dimensional motion,

()

For uniform motion (unidirectional),

()

Similarity / Difference 3 : In all cases, we can draw a distance – time or speed – time plot. The
area under speed – time plot equals distance (s).
()
Similarity / Difference 4 : There is an ordered sequence of differentiation with respect to time
that gives motional attributes of higher order. For example first differentiation of position vector
or displacement yields velocity. We shall come to know subsequently that differentiation of
velocity, in turn, with respect to time yields acceleration. Differentiation, therefore, is a tool to get
values for higher order attributes.

These differentiations are defining relations for the attributes of motion and hence applicable in
all cases irrespective of the dimensions of motion or nature of velocity (constant or variable).

For two or three dimensional motion,

()

For one dimensional motion,

()

Similarity / Difference 5 : Just like differentiation, there is an ordered sequence of integration

that gives motional attributes of lower attributes. Since these integrations are based on basic/
defining differential equations, the integration is applicable in all cases irrespective of the
dimensions of motion or nature of velocity (constant or variable).

For two or three dimensional motion,

()

For one dimensional motion,

()

Similarity / Difference 6 : We can not draw position – time, displacement – time or velocity –
time plots for three dimensional motion. We can draw these plots for two dimensional motion, but
the same would be complex and as such we would avoid drawing them.

We can, however, draw the same for one – dimensional motion by treating the vector attributes
(position vector, displacement and velocity) as scalar with appropriate sign. Such drawing would
be in the first and fourth quarters of two – dimensional plots. We should clearly understand that if
we are drawing these plots, then the motion is either one or two dimensional. In general, we draw
attribute .vs. time plots mostly for one – dimensional motion. We should also understand that
graphical method is an additional tool for analysis in one dimensional motion.

The slope of the curve on these plots enables us to calculate the magnitude of higher attributes.
The slope of position – time and displacement – time plot gives the magnitude of velocity;
whereas the slope of velocity – time plot gives the magnitude of acceleration (This will be dealt in
separate module).

Significantly, the tangent to the slopes on a "time" plot does not represent direction of motion. It
is important to understand that the though the nature of slope (positive or negative) gives the
direction of motion with respect to reference direction, but the tangent in itself does not indicate
direction of motion. We must distinguish these “time” plots with simple position plots. The curve
on the simple position plot is actual representation of the path of motion. Hence, tangent to the
curve on position plot (plot on a x,y,z coordinate system) gives the direction of motion.

Similarity / Difference 7 : Needless to say that what is valid for one dimensional motion is also
valid for the component motion in the case of two or three dimensional motion. This is actually a
powerful technique to even treat a complex two or three dimensional motion, using one
dimensional techniques. This aspect will be demonstrated on topics such as projectile and circular
motion.

Similarity / Difference 8 : The area under velocity – time plot (for one dimensional motion) is
equal to displacement.
()

As area represents a vector (displacement), we treat area as scalar with appropriate sign for one
dimensional motion. The positive area above the time axis gives the positive displacement,
whereas the negative area below time axis gives negative displacement. The algebraic sum with
appropriate sign results in net displacement. The algebraic sum without sign results in net
distance.

Important thing to realize is that this analysis tool is not available for analysis of three
dimensional motion as we can not draw the plot in the first place.

Similarity / Difference 9 : There is a difficulty in giving differentiating symbols to speed and

velocity in one dimensional motion as velocity is treated as scalar. Both are represented as simple
letter “v”. Recall that a non-bold faced letter “v” represents speed in two/three dimensional case.
An equivalent representation of speed, in general, is |v|, but is seldom used in practice. As we do
not use vector for one dimensional motion, there is a conflicting representation of the same
symbol, “v”. We are left with no other solution as to be elaborate and specific so that we are able
to convey the meaning either directly or by context. Some conventions, in this regard, may be
helpful :

If “v” is speed, then it can not be negative.

If “v” is velocity, then it can be either positive or negative.

If possible follow the convention as under :

Similarity / Difference 10 : In the case of uniform motion (unidirectional motion), there is no
distinction between scalar and vector attributes at all. The distance .vs. displacement and speed
.vs. velocity differences have no relevance. The paired quantities are treated equal and same.
Motion is one dimensional and unidirectional; there being no question of negative value for
attributes with direction.

Similarity / Difference 11 : Since velocity is a vector quantity being the time rate of change of
position vector (displacement), there can be change in velocity due to the change in position
vector (displacement) in any of the following three ways :

1. change in magnitude

2. change in direction

3. change in both magnitude and direction

This realization brings about important subtle differences in defining terms of velocity and their
symbolic representation. In general motion, velocity is read as the "time rate of change of position
vector" :
()

The speed i.e. the magnitude of velocity is read as the "absolute value (magnitude) of the time rate
of change of position vector" :
()

But the important thing to realize is that “time rate of change in the magnitude of position vector”
is not same as “magnitude of the time rate of change of position vector”. As such the time rate of
change of the magnitude of position vector is not equal to speed. This fact can be stated
mathematically in different ways :
()

We shall work out an example of a motion in two dimensions (circular motion) subsequently in
this module to illustrate this difference.

However, this difference disappears in the case of one dimensional motion. It is so because we use
scalar quantity to represent vector attribute like position vector and velocity. Physically, we can
interpret that there is no difference as there is no change of direction in one dimensional motion.
It may be argued that there is a change in direction even in one dimensional motion in the form of
reversal of motion, but then we should realize that we are interpreting instantaneous terms only –
not the average terms which may be affected by reversal of motion. Here, except at the point of
reversal of direction, the speed is :

()

Similarity / Difference 12 : Understanding of the class of motion is important from the point of
view of analysis of motion (solving problem). The classification lets us clearly know which tools
are available for analysis and which are not? Basically, our success or failure in understanding
motion largely depends on our ability to identify motion according to a certain scheme of
classification and then apply appropriate tool (formula/ defining equations etc) to analyze or solve
the problem. It is, therefore, always advisable to write down the characteristics of motion for
analyzing a situation involving motion in the correct context.

A simple classification of translational motion types, based on the study up to this point is
suggested as given in the figure below. This classification is based on two considerations (i)
dimensions of motion and (ii) nature of velocity.

Figure 1.124. Classification of motion

Classification based on (i) dimensions and (ii) velocity.

Example 1.38.
Problem : The position vector of a particle in motion is :
where “a” is a constant. Find the time rate of change in the magnitude of position vector.
Solution : We need to know the magnitude of position vector to find its time rate of change.
The magnitude of position vector is :

But “a” is a constant. Hence, the time rate of change of the magnitude of position vector is
zero :

This result is an important result. This highlights that time rate of change of the magnitude of
position vector is not equal to magnitude of time rate of change of the position vector (speed).
The velocity of the particle is obtained by differentiating the position vector with respect to
time as :

The speed, which is magnitude of velocity, is :

Clearly, speed of the particle is not zero. This illustrates that even if there is no change in the
magnitude of position vector, the particle can have instantaneous velocity owing to the change
in the direction.
As a matter of fact, the motion given by the position vector in the question actually represents
uniform circular motion, where particle is always at constant distance (position) from the
center, but has velocity of constant speed and varying directions. We can verify this by finding
the equation of path for the particle in motion, which is nothing but a relation between
coordinates. An inspection of the expression for “x” and “y” coordinates suggest that
following trigonometric identity would give the desired equation of path,

For the given case,

Rearranging, we have :

and
 Now, using trigonometric identity :

This is an equation of a circle of radius “a”.

Figure 1.125. Uniform circular motion

The particle moves along a circular path with a constant speed.

In the nutshell, for motion in general (for two/three dimensions),

It is only in one dimensional motion that this distinction disappears as there is no change of
direction as far as instantaneous velocity is concerned.

1.19. Velocity (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the concept of
velocity. For this reason, questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the
subject matter :

Position vector

Displacement

Constrained motion

Nature of velocity

Comparing velocities

Position vector

Example 1.39.
Problem : A particle is executing motion along a circle of radius “a” with a constant angular
speed “ω” as shown in the figure. If the particle is at “O” at t = 0, then determine the position
vector of the particle at an instant in xy - plane with "O" as the origin of the coordinate
system.

Figure 1.126. A particle in circular motion

The particle moves with a constant angular velocity.

Solution : Let the particle be at position “P” at a given time “t”. Then the position vector of
the particle is :
 Figure 1.127. A particle in circular motion
The particle moves with a constant angular velocity starting from “O” at t = 0.

Note that "x" and "y" components of position vector is measured from the origin "O". From
the figure,

and

Thus, position vector of the particle in circular motion is :

Example 1.40.
Problem : The position vector of a particle (in meters) is given as a function of time as :

Determine the time rate of change of the angle “θ” made by the velocity vector with positive
x-axis at time, t = 2 s.
Solution : It is a two dimensional motion. The figure below shows how velocity vector makes
an angle "θ" with x-axis of the coordinate system. In order to find the time rate of change of
this angle "θ", we need to express trigonometric ratio of the angle in terms of the components
of velocity vector. From the figure :
 Figure 1.128. Velocity of a particle in two dimensions
The velocity has two components.

As given by the expression of position vector, its component in coordinate directions are :

We obtain expression of the components of velocity in two directions by differentiating "x"

and "y" components of position vector with respect to time :

Putting in the trigonometric function, we have :

Since we are required to know the time rate of the angle, we differentiate the above
trigonometric ratio with respect to time as,

At t = 2 s,

Displacement

Example 1.41.
Problem : The displacement (x) of a particle is given by :
At what time is the displacement maximum?
Solution : The displacement (x) depends on the value of sine function. It will be maximum for
maximum value of sin(wt + θ). The maximum value of sine function is 1. Hence,

Constrained motion

Example 1.42.
Problem : Two particles A and B are connected by a rigid rod AB. The rod slides along
perpendicular rails as shown here. The velocity of A moving down is 10 m/s. What is the
velocity of B when angle θ = 60° ?

Figure 1.129. Motion of a leaning rod

One end of the ros is moving with a speed 10 m/s in vertically downward direction.

Solution : The velocity of B is not an independent velocity. It is tied to the velocity of the
particle “A” as two particles are connected through a rigid rod. The relationship between two
velocities is governed by the inter-particles separation, which is equal to the length of rod.
The length of the rod, in turn, is linked to the positions of particles “A” and “B” . From figure,

Differentiatiting, with respect to time :

Considering magnitude only,

Nature of velocity

Example 1.43.
Problem : The position vector of a particle is :

where “a” is a constant. Show that velocity vector is perpendicular to position vector.
Solution : In order to prove as required, we shall use the fact that scalar (dot) product of two
perpendicular vectors is zero. Now, we need to find the expression of velocity to evaluate the
dot product as intended. We can obtain the same by differentiating the expression of position
vector with respect to time as :

To check whether velocity is perpendicular to the position vector, we evalaute the scalar
product of r and v, which should be equal to zero.

In this case,

This means that the angle between position vector and velocity are at right angle to each other.
Hence, velocity is perpendicular to position vector. It is pertinent to mention here that this
result can also be inferred from the plot of motion. An inspection of position vector reveals
that it represents uniform circular motion as shown in the figure here.

Figure 1.130. Circular motion

The particle describes a circular path.

The position vector is always directed radially, whereas velocity vector is always tangential to
the circular path. These two vectors are, therefore, perpendicular to each other.
Example 1.44.
Problem : Two particles are moving with the same constant speed, but in opposite direction.
Under what circumstance will the separation between two remains constant?
Solution : The condition of motion as stated in the question is possible, if particles are at
diametrically opposite positions on a circular path. Two particles are always separated by the
diameter of the circular path. See the figure below to evaluate the motion and separation
between the particles.

Figure 1.131. Motion along a circular path

Two particles are always separated by the diameter of the circle transversed by the particles.

Comparing velocities

Example 1.45.
Problem : A car of width 2 m is approaching a crossing at a velocity of 8 m/s. A pedestrian at
a distance of 4 m wishes to cross the road safely. What should be the minimum speed of
pedestrian so that he/she crosses the road safely?
Solution : We draw the figure to illustrate the situation. Here, car travels the linear distance
(AB + CD) along the direction in which it moves, by which time the pedestrian travels the
linear distance BD. Let pedestrian travels at a speed “v” along BD, which makes an angle “θ”
with the direction of car.

Figure 1.132. Motion of a car and a pedestrian

The pedestrian crosses the road at angle with direction of car.
We must understand here that there may be number of combination of angle and speed for
which pedestrian will be able to safely cross before car reaches. However, we are required to
find the minimum speed. This speed should, then, correspond to a particular value of θ.
We can also observe that pedestrian should move obliquely. In doing so he/she gains extra
time to cross the road.
From triangle BCD,

Also,

According to the condition given in the question, the time taken by car and pedestrian should
be equal for the situation outlined above :

For minimum value of speed, ,

In order to evaluate the expression of velocity with trigonometric ratios, we take the help of
right angle triangle as shown in the figure, which is consistent with the above result.

Figure 1.133. Trigonometric ratio

The tangent of angle is equal to 2.

From the triangle, defining angle “θ”, we have :

and
 The minimum velocity is :

Glossary

Definition: Displacement
Displacement is the vector extending from initial to final positions of the particle in motion
during an interval.
Definition: Distance
Distance is the length of path followed during a motion.
Definition: Negative vector
A negative vector of a given vector is defined as the vector having same magnitude, but applied
in the opposite direction to that of the given vector.
Definition: Parallelogram law
If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the diagonal of
parallelogram through the common point represents the sum of the two vectors in both
magnitude and direction.
Definition: Polygon law
Polygon law of vector addition : If (n-1) numbers of vectors are represented by (n-1) sides of a
polygon in sequence, then simplemath mathml-miitalicsnth n th side, closing the polygon in the
opposite direction, represents the sum of the vectors in both magnitude and direction.
Definition: Position
The position of a particle is a point in the defined volumetric space of the coordinate system.
Definition: Position vector
Position vector is a vector that extends from the reference point to the position of the particle.
Definition: Triangle law of vector addition
If two vectors are represented by two sides of a triangle in sequence, then third closing side of
the triangle, in the opposite direction of the sequence, represents the sum (or resultant) of the
two vectors in both magnitude and direction.
Definition: Vector
Vector is a physical quantity, which has both magnitude and direction.
Definition: Velocity
bold Velocity is the rate of change of position vector with respect to time and is expressed as
the ratio of change in position vector and time.
Definition: velocity
bold Instantaneous velocity is equal to the rate of change of position vector i.e displacement
with respect to time at a given time and is equal to the first differential of position vector.
Definition: Motion
Motion of a body refers to the change in its position with respect to time in a given frame of
reference.
Definition: Motion
boldSpeed is the rate of change of distance with respect to time and is expressed as distance
covered in unit time.
Definition: Velocity
bold Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time and is expressed as the
ratio of displacement and time.

Solutions
 Chapter 2. Acceleration

2.1. Acceleration*

All bodies have intrinsic property to maintain its velocity. This is a fundamental nature of matter.
However, a change in the velocity results when a net external force is applied. In that situation,
velocity is not constant and is a function of time.

In our daily life, we are often subjected to the change in velocity. The incidence of the change in
velocity is so common that we subconsciously treat constant velocity more as a theoretical
consideration. We drive car with varying velocity, while negotiating traffic and curves. We take a
ride on the train, which starts from rest and comes to rest. We use lift to ascend and descend floors
at varying speeds. All these daily life routines involve change in the velocity. The spontaneous
natural phenomena are also largely subjected to force and change in velocity. A flying kite
changes its velocity in response to wind force as shown in the figure below.

Figure 2.1. A flying kite

The kite changes its velocity in response to wind force.

The presence of external force is a common feature of our life and not an exception. Our existence
on earth, as a matter of fact, is under the moderation of force due to gravity and friction. It is
worth while here to point out that the interaction of external force with bodies is not limited to the
earth, but extends to all bodies like stars, planets and other mass aggregation.

For example, we may consider the motion of Earth around Sun that takes one year. For illustration
purpose, let us approximate the path of motion of the earth as circle. Now, the natural tendency of
the earth is to move linearly along the straight line in accordance with the Newton’s first law of
motion. But, the earth is made to change its direction continuously by the force of gravitation
(shown with red arrow in the figure) that operates between the Earth and the Sun. The change in
velocity in this simplified illustration is limited to the change in the direction of the velocity
(shown in with blue arrow).

Figure 2.2. Motion of earth around sun

Gravitational force changes the direction of the motion

This example points to an interesting aspect of the change in velocity under the action of an
external force. The change in velocity need not be a change in the magnitude of velocity alone, but
may involve change of magnitude or direction or both. Also, the change in velocity (effect)
essentially indicates the presence of a net external force (cause).

Acceleration
Definition: Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

It is evident from the definition that acceleration is a vector quantity having both magnitude and
direction, being a ratio involving velocity vector and scalar time. Mathematically,

The ratio denotes average acceleration, when the measurement involves finite time interval;
whereas the ratio denotes instantaneous acceleration for infinitesimally small time interval,
Δt→0.

We know that velocity itself has the dimension of length divided by time; the dimension of the
acceleration, which is equal to the change in velocity divided by time, involves division of length
by squared time and hence its dimensional formula is L T – 2 . The SI unit of acceleration is
meter/ second 2 i.e. m/ s 2 .

Average acceleration

Average acceleration gives the overall acceleration over a finite interval of time. The magnitude
of the average acceleration tells us the rapidity with which the velocity of the object changes in a
given time interval.

Figure 2.3. Average acceleration

The direction of acceleration is along the vector Δ v = v 2 – v 1 and not required to be in the
direction of either of the velocities. If the initial velocity is zero, then Δ v = v 2 = v and average
acceleration is in the direction of final velocity.

Difference of two vectors v 2 – v 1 can be drawn conveniently following certain convention

(We can take a mental note of the procedure for future use). We draw a straight line, starting
from the arrow tip (i.e. head) of the vector being subtracted v 1 to the arrow tip (i.e. head) of
the vector from which subtraction is to be made v 2 . Then, from the triangle law of vector
addition,

Instantaneous acceleration

Instantaneous acceleration, as the name suggests, is the acceleration at a given instant, which is
obtained by evaluating the limit of the average acceleration as Δ t → 0 .
 Figure 2.4. Instantaneous acceleration

As the point B approaches towards A, the limit of the ratio evaluates to a finite value. Note that
the ratio evaluates not along the tangent to the curve as in the case of velocity, but along the
direction shown by the red arrow. This is a significant result as it tells us that direction of
acceleration is independent of the direction of velocity.

Definition: Instantaneous acceleration

Instantaneous acceleration is equal to the first derivative of velocity with respect to time.

It is evident that a body might undergo different phases of acceleration during the motion,
depending on the external forces acting on the body. It means that accelerations in a given time
interval may vary. As such, the average and the instantaneous accelerations need not be equal.

A general reference to the term acceleration ( a) refers to the instantaneous acceleration – not
average acceleration. The absolute value of acceleration gives the magnitude of acceleration :

Acceleration in terms of position vector

Velocity is defined as derivative of position vector :

Combining this expression of velocity into the expression for acceleration, we obtain,

Definition: Acceleration
 Acceleration of a point body is equal to the second derivative of position vector with respect to
time.

Now, position vector is represented in terms of components as :

Substituting in the expression of acceleration, we have :

Example 2.1. Acceleration

Problem : The position of a particle, in meters, moving in space is described by following
functions in time.

Find accelerations of the particle at t = 1 and 4 seconds from the start of motion.
Solution : Here scalar components of accelerations in x,y and z directions are given as :

Thus, acceleration of the particle is :

The acceleration of the particle is constant and is along x-direction. As acceleration is not a
function of time, the accelerations at t = 1 and 4 seconds are same being equal to 4 m / s 2 .

2.2. Understanding acceleration*

The relationship among velocity, acceleration and force is central to the study of mechanics. Text
book treatment normally divides the scope of study between kinematics (study of velocity and
acceleration) and dynamics (study of acceleration and force). This approach is perfectly fine till
we do not encounter some inherent problem as to the understanding of the subject matter.
One important short coming of this approach is that we tend to assume that acceleration depends
on the state of motion i.e. velocity. Such inference is not all too uncommon as acceleration is
defined in terms of velocities. Now the question is “Does acceleration actually depend on the
velocity?”

There are many other such inferences that need to be checked. Following paragraphs investigate
these fundamental issues in detail and enrich our understanding of acceleration.

Velocity, acceleration and force

Acceleration is related to external force. This relationship is given by Newton’s second law of
motion. For a constant mass system,

In words, Newton’s second law states that acceleration (effect) is the result of the application of
net external force (cause). Thus, the relationship between the two quantities is that of cause and
effect. Further, force is equal to the product of a scalar quantity, m, and a vector quantity, a,
implying that the direction of the acceleration is same as that of the net force. This means that
acceleration is though the measurement of the change of velocity, but is strictly determined by the
external force and the mass of the body; and expressed in terms of “change of velocity” per unit
time.

If we look around ourselves, we find that force modifies the state of motion of the objects. The
immediate effect of a net force on a body is that the state of motion of the body changes. In other
words, the velocity of the body changes in response to the application of net force. Here, the word
“net” is important. The motion of the body responds to the net or resultant force. In this sense,
acceleration is mere statement of the effect of the force as measurement of the rate of change of
the velocity with time.

Now, there is complete freedom as to the magnitude and direction of force being applied. From
our real time experience, we may substantiate this assertion. For example, we can deflect a foot
ball, applying force as we wish (in both magnitude and direction). The motion of the ball has no
bearing on how we apply force. Simply put : the magnitude and direction of the force (and that of
acceleration) is not dependent on the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the body.

In the nutshell, we conclude that force and hence acceleration is independent of the velocity of
the body. The magnitude and direction of the acceleration is determined by the magnitude and
direction of the force and mass of the body. This is an important clarification.

To elucidate the assertion further, let us consider parabolic motion of a ball as shown in the figure.
The important aspect of the parabolic motion is that the acceleration associated with motion is
simply ‘g’ as there is no other force present except the force of gravity. The resultant force and
mass of the ball together determine acceleration of the ball.
 Figure 2.5. Parabolic motion
The resultant force and mass of the ball together determine acceleration of the ball

Example 2.2. Acceleration

Problem : If the tension in the string is T, when the string makes an angle θ with the vertical.
Find the acceleration of a pendulum bob, having a mass “m”.
Solution : As pointed out in our discussion, we need not study or consider velocities of bob to
get the answer. Instead we should strive to know the resultant force to find out acceleration,
using Newton’s second law of motion.
The forces, acting on the bob, are (i) force of gravity, mg, acting in the downward direction
and (ii) Tension, T, acting along the string. Hence, the acceleration of the bob is determined
by the resultant force, arising from the two forces.

Figure 2.6. Acceleration of a pendulum bob

Using parallelogram theorem for vector addition, the resultant force is :

The acceleration is in the direction of force as shown in the figure, whereas the magnitude of
the acceleration, a, is given by :
External force and possible scenarios
The change in velocity, resulting from the application of external force, may occur in magnitude
or direction or both.

1: When force is applied in a given direction and the object is stationary.

Under this situation, the magnitude of velocity increases with time, while the body follows a
linear path in the direction of force (or acceleration).

2: When force is applied in the direction of the motion, then it increases the magnitude of the
velocity without any change in the direction.

Let us consider a block sliding on a smooth incline surface as shown in the figure. The component
of the force due to gravity applies in the direction of motion. Under this situation, the magnitude
of velocity increases with time, while the body follows a linear path. There is no change in the
direction of motion.

Figure 2.7. A block sliding along smooth incline

The block moves faster as it moves down the slope

3: When force is applied in the opposite direction to the motion, then it decreases the magnitude
of the velocity without any change in the direction.

Take the example of a ball thrown vertically in the upward direction with certain velocity. Here,
force due to gravity is acting downwards. The ball linearly rises to the maximum height till the
velocity of ball reduces to zero.
 Figure 2.8. A ball thrown in vertical direction
The ball reverses its direction during motion.

During upward motion, we see that the force acts in the opposite direction to that of the velocity.
Under this situation, the magnitude of velocity decreases with time, while the body follows a
linear path. There is no change in the direction of motion.

The velocity of the object at the point, where motion changes direction, is zero and force is acting
downwards. This situation is same as the case 1. The object is at rest. Hence, object moves in the
direction of force i.e. in the downward direction.

In the figure above, the vectors drawn at various points represent the direction and magnitude of
force ( F), acceleration ( a) and velocity ( v) during the motion. Note that both force and
acceleration act in the downward direction during the motion.

4: When force is applied perpendicular to the direction of motion, then it causes change in the
direction of the velocity.

A simple change of direction also constitutes change in velocity and, therefore, acceleration.
Consider the case of a uniform circular motion in which a particle moves along a circular path at
constant speed “v”. Let v 1 and v 2 be the velocities of the particle at two time instants, then
 Figure 2.9. Uniform circular motion
A central force perpendicular to motion causes change in direction.

In the adjoining figure, the vector segments OC and OD represent v 1 and v 2 . Knowing that vector
difference Δv is directed from initial to final position, it is represented by vector CD. Using the
adjoining vector triangle,

The important thing to realize here is that direction of Δ v is along CD, which is directed towards
the origin. This result is in complete agreement of what we know about uniform circular motion
(The topic of uniform circular motion is covered in separate module). We need to apply a force
(causing acceleration to the moving particle) across (i.e. perpendicular) to the motion to change
direction. If the force (hence acceleration) is perpendicular to velocity, then magnitude of velocity
i.e. speed remains same, whereas the direction of motion keeps changing.

Example 2.3. Acceleration

Problem : An object moves along a quadrant AB of a circle of radius 10 m with a constant
speed 5 m/s. Find the average velocity and average acceleration in this interval.
Solution : Here, we can determine time interval form the first statement of the question. The
particle covers a distance of 2πr/4 with a speed v. Hence, time interval,

Magnitude of average velocity is given by the ratio of the magnitude of displacement and time
:
 Figure 2.10. Motion along circular path

Average velocity is directed along vector AB i.e. in the direction of displacement vector.
Magnitude of average acceleration is given by the ratio :

Figure 2.11. Motion along circular path

Direction of acceleration

Here,

Average acceleration is directed along the direction of vector v 2 – v 1 i.e. directed towards the
center of the circle (as shown in the figure).
5: When force is applied at a certain angle with the motion, then it causes change in both
magnitude and direction of the velocity. The component of force in the direction of motion
changes its magnitude (an increase or decrease), while the component of force perpendicular to
the direction of motion changes its direction.

The motion of a small spherical mass “m”, tied to a fixed point with the help of a string illustrates
the changes taking place in both the direction and magnitude of the velocity. Saving the details for
discussion at a later point in the course, here tension in the string and tangential force provide for
the change in the direction and magnitude of velocity respectively.

When the string makes at angle, θ, with the vertical, then :

Figure 2.12. Motion of a pendulum

Forces acting on the pendulum bob

(a) Tension in the string, T is :

This force acts normal to the path of motion at all points and causes the body to continuously
change its direction along the circular path. Note that this force acts perpendicular to the direction
of velocity, which is along the tangent at any given point on the arc.

(b) Tangential force, F, is :

This force acts tangentially to the path and is in the direction of velocity of the spherical mass,
which is also along the tangent at that point. As the force and velocity are in the same direction,
this force changes the magnitude of velocity. The magnitude of velocity increases when force acts
in the direction of velocity and magnitude of velocity decreases when force acts in the opposite
direction to that of velocity.
 2.3. Acceleration and deceleration*

Acceleration and deceleration are terms which are generally considered to have opposite meaning.
However, there is difference between literal and scientific meanings of these terms. In literal
sense, acceleration is considered to describe an increase or positive change of speed or velocity.
On the other hand, deceleration is considered to describe a decrease or negative change of speed or
velocity. Both these descriptions are incorrect in physics. We need to form accurate and exact
meaning of these two terms. In this module, we shall explore these terms in the context of general
properties of vector and scalar quantities.

A total of six (6) attributes viz time, distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration are
used to describe motion. Three of these namely time, distance and speed are scalar quantities,
whereas the remaining three attributes namely displacement, velocity and acceleration are vectors.
Interpretations of these two groups are different with respect to (ii) negative and positive sign and
(i) sense of increase and decrease. Further these interpretations are also affected by whether we
consider these terms in one or two/three dimensional motion.

The meaning of scalar quantities is more and less clear. The scalar attributes have only magnitude
and no sense of direction. The attributes “distance” and “speed” are positive quantities. There is
no possibility of negative values for these two quantities. In general, time is also positive.
However, it can be assigned negative value to represent a time instant that occurs before the start
of observation. For this reason, it is entirely possible that we may get negative time as solution of
kinematics consideration.

Negative vector quantities

A vector like acceleration may be directed in any direction in three dimensional space, which is
defined by the reference coordinate system. Now, why should we call vector (as shown in the
figure below) represented by line (i) positive and that by line (ii) negative? What is the
qualification for a vector being positive or negative? There is none. Hence, in pure mathematical
sense, a negative vector can not be identified by itself.
 Figure 2.13. Vector representation in three dimensional reference
Vectors in isolation have no sense of being negative.

In terms of component vectors, let us represent two accelerations a 1 and a 2 as :

Why should we call one of the above vectors as positive and other as negative acceleration?
Which sign should be considered to identify a positive or negative vector? Further, the negative of
a 1 expressed in component form is another vector given by – a 1 :

So, what is the actual position? The concept of negative vector is essentially a relative concept. If
we represent a vector A as shown in the figure below, then negative to this vector – A is just
another vector, which is directed in the opposite direction to that of vector A and has equal
magnitude as that of A.

In addition, if we denote “- A” as “ B”, then “ A” is “- B”. We, thus, completely loose the
significance of a negative vector when we consider it in isolation. We can call the same vector
either “ A” or “- A”. We conclude, therefore, that a negative vector assumes meaning only in
relation with another vector.
 Figure 2.14. Vector representation in three dimensional reference
Vectors in isolation have no sense of being negative.

In one dimensional motion, however, it is possible to assign distinct negative values. In this case,
there are only two directions; one of which is in the direction of reference axis (positive) and the
other is in the opposite direction (negative). The significance of negative vector in one
dimensional motion is limited to relative orientation with respect to reference direction. In the
nutshell, sign of vector quantity in one dimensional motion represents the directional property of
vector. It has only this meaning. We can not attach any other meaning for negating a vector
quantity.

It is important to note that the sequence in “-5 i" is misleading in the sense that a vector quantity
can not have negative magnitude. The negative sign, as a matter of fact, is meant for unit vector “
i”. The correct reading sequence would be “5 x -“ i”, meaning that it has a magnitude of “5” and is
directed in “-“ i” direction i.e. opposite to reference direction. Also, since we are free to choose
our reference, the previously assigned “-5 i” can always be changed to “5 i” and vice-versa.

We summarize the discussion so far as :

There is no independent meaning of a negative vector attribute.

In general, a negative vector attribute is defined with respect to another vector attribute having
equal magnitude, but opposite direction.

In the case of one dimensional motion, the sign represents direction with respect to reference
direction.

“Increase” and “decrease” of vectors quantities

The vector consist of both magnitude and direction. There can be infinite directions of a vector.
On the other hand, increase and decrease are bi-directional and opposite concepts. Can we attach
meaning to a phrase “increase in direction” or “decrease in direction”? There is no sense in saying
that direction of the moving particle has increased or decreased. In the nutshell, we can associate
the concepts of increase and decrease with quantities which are scalar – not quantities which are
vector. Clearly, we can attach the sense of increase or decrease with the magnitudes of velocity or
acceleration, but not with velocity and acceleration.

For this reason, we may recall that velocity is defined as the time rate of “change” – not “increase
or decrease” in displacement. Similarly, acceleration is defined as time rate of change of velocity
– not “increase or decrease” in velocity. It is so because the term “change” conveys the meaning
of “change” in direction as well that of “change” as increase or decrease in the magnitude of a
vector.

However, we see that phrases like “increase or decrease in velocity” or “increase or decrease in
acceleration” are used frequently. We should be aware that these references are correct only in
very specific context of motion. If motion is unidirectional, then the vector quantities associated
with motion is treated as either positive or negative scalar according as it is measured in the
reference direction or opposite to it. Even in this situation, we can not associate concepts of
increase and decrease to vector quantities. For example, how would we interpret two particles
moving in negative x-direction with negative accelerations and respectively ?
Which of the two accelerations is greater acceleration ? Algebraically, “-10” is greater than “-20”.
But, we know that second particle is moving with higher rate of change in velocity. The second
particle is accelerating at a higher rate than first particle. Negative sign only indicates that particle
is moving in a direction opposite to a reference direction.

Clearly, the phrases like “increase or decrease in velocity” or “increase or decrease in

acceleration” are correct only when motion is "unidirectional" and in "positive" reference
direction. Only in this restricted context, we can say that acceleration and velocity are increasing
or decreasing. In order to be consistent with algebraic meaning, however, we may prefer to
associate relative measure (increase or decrease) with magnitude of the quantity and not with the
vector quantity itself.

Deceleration
Acceleration is defined strictly as the time rate of change of velocity vector. Deceleration, on the
other hand, is acceleration that causes reduction in "speed". Deceleration is not opposite of
acceleration. It is certainly not negative time rate of change of velocity. It is a very restricted term
as explained below.

We have seen that speed of a particle in motion decreases when component of acceleration is
opposite to the direction of velocity. In this situation, we can say that particle is being decelerated.
Even in this situation, we can not say that deceleration is opposite to acceleration. Here, only a
component of acceleration is opposite to velocity – not the entire acceleration. However, if
acceleration itself (not a component of it) is opposite to velocity, then deceleration is indeed
opposite to acceleration.
If we consider motion in one dimension, then the deceleration occurs when signs of velocity and
acceleration are opposite. A negative velocity and a positive acceleration mean deceleration; a
positive velocity and a negative acceleration mean deceleration; a positive velocity and a positive
acceleration mean acceleration; a negative velocity and a negative acceleration mean acceleration.

Take the case of projectile motion of a ball. We study this motion as two equivalent linear
motions; one along x-direction and another along y-direction.

Figure 2.15. Parabolic motion

The projected ball undergoes deceleration in y-direction.

For the upward flight, velocity is positive and acceleration is negative. As such the projectile is
decelerated and the speed of the ball in + y direction decreases (deceleration). For downward
flight from the maximum height, velocity and acceleration both are negative. As such the
projectile is accelerated and the speed of the ball in - y direction increases (acceleration).

In the nutshell, we summarize the discussion as :

Deceleration results in decrease in speed i.e magnitude of velocity.

In one dimensional motion, the “deceleration” is defined as the acceleration which is opposite
to the velocity.

Example 2.4. Acceleration and deceleration

Problem : The velocity of a particle along a straight line is plotted with respect to time as
shown in the figure. Find acceleration of the particle between OA and CD. What is
acceleration at t = 0.5 second and 1.5 second. What is the nature of accelerations in different
segments of motion? Also investigate acceleration at A.
 Figure 2.16. Velocity – time plot

Solution : Average acceleration between O and A is given by the slope of straight line OA :

Average acceleration between C and D is given by the slope of straight line CD :

Accelerations at t = 0.5 second and 1.5 second are obtained by determining slopes of the curve
at these time instants. In the example, the slopes at these times are equal to the slope of the
lines OA and AB.
Instantaneous acceleration at t = 0.5 s :

Instantaneous acceleration at t = 1.5 s :

We check the direction of velocity and acceleration in different segments of the motion in
order to determine deceleration. To enable comparision, we determine directions with respect
to the assumed positive direction of velocity. In OA segment, both acceleration and velocity
are positive (hence particle is accelerated). In AB segment, acceleration is negative, but
velocity is positive (hence particle is decelerated). In BC segment, both acceleration and
velocity are negative (hence particle is accelerated). In CD segment, acceleration is positive
but velocity is negative (hence particle is decelerated).
Alternatively, the speed increases in segment OA and BC (hence acceleration); decreases in
segments AB and CD (hence deceleration).
We note that it is not possible to draw an unique tangent at point A. We may draw infinite
numbers of tangent at this point. In other words, limit of average acceleration can not be
evaluated at A. Acceleration at A, therefore, is indeterminate.
Graphical interpretation of negative vector quantities describing
motion

Position vector

We may recall that position vector is drawn from the origin of reference to the position occupied
by the body on a scale taken for drawing coordinate axes. This implies that the position vector is
rooted to the origin of reference system and the position of the particle. Thus, we find that
position vector is tied at both ends of its graphical representation.

Also if position vector ‘ r’ denotes a particular position (A), then “- r” denotes another position
(A’), which is lying on the opposite side of the reference point (origin).

Figure 2.17. Position vector

Velocity vector

The velocity vector, on the other hand, is drawn on a scale from a particular position of the object
with its tail and takes the direction of the tangent to the position curve at that point. Also, if
velocity vector ‘ v’ denotes the velocity of a particle at a particular position, then “- v” denotes
another velocity vector, which is reversed in direction with respect to the velocity vector, v.
 Figure 2.18. Velocity vector

In either case (positive or negative), the velocity vectors originate from the position of the particle
and are drawn along the tangent to the motion curve at that point. It must be noted that velocity
vector, v, is not rooted to the origin of the coordinate system like position vector.

Acceleration vector

Acceleration vector is drawn from the position of the object with its tail. It is independent of the
origin (unlike position vector) and the direction of the tangent to the curve (unlike velocity
vector). Its direction is along the direction of the force or alternatively along the direction of the
vector representing change in velocities.

Figure 2.19. Acceleration vector

Further, if acceleration vector ‘ a’ denotes the acceleration of a particle at a particular position,

then “- a” denotes another acceleration vector, which is reversed in direction with respect to the
acceleration vector, a.

Summarizing the discussion held so far :

1: Position vector is rooted to a pair of points i.e. the origin of the coordinate system and the
position of the particle.

2: Velocity vector originates at the position of the particle and acts along the tangent to the curve,
showing path of the motion.

3: Acceleration vector originates at the position of the particle and acts along the direction of
force or equivalently along the direction of the change in velocity.

4: In all cases, negative vector is another vector of the same magnitude but reversed in direction
with respect to another vector. The negative vector essentially indicates a change in direction and
not the change in magnitude and hence, there may not be any sense of relative measurement
(smaller or bigger) as in the case of scalar quantities associated with negative quantities. For
example, -4° C is a smaller temperature than +4° C. Such is not the case with vector quantities. A
4 Newton force is as big as -4 Newton. Negative sign simply indicates the direction.

We must also emphasize here that we can shift these vectors laterally without changing direction
and magnitude for vector operations like vector addition and multiplication. This independence is
characteristic of vector operation and is not influenced by the fact that they are actually tied to
certain positions in the coordinate system or not. Once vector operation is completed, then we can
shift the resulting vector to the appropriate positions like the position of the particle (for velocity
and acceleration vectors) or the origin of the coordinate system (for position vector).

2.4. Accelerated motion in one dimension*

Motion in one dimension is the basic component of all motion. A general three dimensional
motion is equivalent to a system of three linear motion along three axes of a rectangular
coordinate system. Thus, study of one dimensional accelerated motion forms the building block
for studying accelerated motion in general. The basic defining diferential equations for velocity
and acceleration retain the form in terms of displacement and position, except that they consist of
displacement or position component along a particular direction. In terms of represntation,
position vector r is replaced with x i or y j or z k in accordance with the direction of motion
considered.

The defining equations of velocity and acceleration, in terms of position, for one dimensional
motion are (say in x-direction) :
and

Only possible change of direction in one dimensional motion is reversal of motion. Hence, we can
define velocity and acceleration in a particular direction, say x - direction, with equivalent scalar
system, in which positive and negative values of scalar quantities defining motion represent the
two possible direction.

The corresponding scalar form of the defining equations of velocity and acceleration for one
dimensional motion are :

and

It must be clearly understood that the scalar forms are completely equivalent to vector forms. In
the scalar form, the sign of various quantities describing motion serves to represent direction.

Example 2.5.
Problem : The displacement of a particle along x – axis is given by :

Find the velocity when acceleration is zero.

Solution : Here, displacement is :

We obtain expression for velocity by differentiating the expression of displacement with

respect to time,

Similarly, we obtain expression for acceleration by differentiating the expression of velocity

with respect to time,

Note that acceleration is a function of time "t" and is not constant. For acceleration, a = 0,

Putting this value of time in the expression of velocity, we have :

Nature of acceleration in one dimensional motion
One dimensional motion results from the action of net external force that applies along the
direction of motion. It is a requirement for motion to be in one dimension. In case, force and
velocity are at certain angle to each other, then there is sideway deflection of the object and the
resulting motion is no more in one dimension.

If velocity and force are in the same direction, then magnitude of velocity increases; If velocity
and force are in the opposite direction, then magnitude of velocity decreases.

The valid combination (i and ii)and invalid combination (iii) of velocity and acceleration for one
dimensional motion are shown in the figure.

Figure 2.20. Acceleration – time plot

The requirement of one dimensional motion characterizes the nature of acceleration involved. The
acceleration may vary in magnitude only. No sideway directional change in acceleration of the
motion is possible for a given external force. We must emphasize that there may be reversal of
motion i.e. velocity even without any directional change in acceleration. A projectile, thrown up in
vertical direction, for example, returns to ground with motion reversed at the maximum height,
but acceleration at all time during the motion is directed downwards and there is no change in the
direction of acceleration.
 Figure 2.21. Motion under gravity

In mathematical parlance, if v = A i, then a = B i, where A and B are positive or negative

numbers. For one dimensional motion, no other combination of unit vectors is possible. For
example, acceleration can not be a = B j or a = B( i + j).

We summarize the discussion as :

The velocity and force (hence acceleration) are directed along a straight line.

For a given external force, the direction of acceleration remains unchanged in one dimension.

Graphs of one dimensional motion

Graphs are signature of motion. Here, we shall discuss broad categories of motion types in terms
of acceleration and velocity.

Acceleration – time plot

Acceleration can be zero, constant or varying, depending upon the net external force and mass of
the body. It is imperative that a single motion such as the motion of a car on the road may involve
all kinds of variations in acceleration. A representation of an arbitrary real time acceleration -
time variation may look like :
 Figure 2.22. Acceleration – time plot

We can interpret this plot if we know the direction of velocity. We consider that positive direction
of velocity is same as that of acceleration. Section, A, in the figure, represents constant
acceleration. Section B represents an increasing magnitude of acceleration, whereas section C
represents a decreasing magnitude of acceleration. Nonetheless, all of these accelerations result in
the increase of speed with time as both velocity and acceleration are positive (hence in the same
direction). The section E, however, represents deceleration as velocity (positive) and acceleration
(negative) are in opposite direction. There is no acceleration during motion corresponding to
section D. This section represents uniform motion.

Area under acceleration - time plot

We know that :

Integrating both sides, we have :

Thus, areas under acceleration – time plot gives the change in velocity in a given interval.

Velocity – time plot

Here, we discuss velocity – time plot for various scenarios of motion in one dimension :
1: Acceleration is zero

If acceleration is zero, then velocity remains constant. As such the velocity time plot is a straight
line parallel to time axis.

Figure 2.23. Velocity – time plot

2: Acceleration is constant

Constant acceleration means that instantaneous acceleration at all points during motion is same.
It, therefore, implies that instantaneous acceleration at any time instant and average acceleration
in any time interval during motion are equal.

Velocity of the object under motion changes by an equal value in equal time interval. It implies
that the velocity – time plot for constant acceleration should be a straight line. Here,

Integrating both sides,

This is a linear equation in time “t” representing a straight line, where “a” is acceleration and is
equal to the slope of the straight line and "u" is the intercept on velocity axis, representing
velocity at t = 0. The plot of velocity with respect to time, therefore, is a straight line as shown in
the figure here.
 Figure 2.24. Velocity – time plot

For constant deceleration, the velocity – time plot has negative slope. Here, speed decreases with
the passage of time :

Figure 2.25. Velocity – time plot

Example 2.6.
Problem : A velocity – time plot describing motion of a particle in one dimension is shown in
the figure.
 Figure 2.26. Velocity – time plot

Determine (i) Whether the direction of velocity is reversed during motion? (ii) Does the
particle stop? (iii) Does the motion involve deceleration and (iv) Is the acceleration constant?
Solution : (i) We see that velocity in the beginning is negative and changes to positive after
some time. Hence, there is reversal of the direction of motion.
(ii) Yes. Velocity of the particle becomes zero at a particular time, when plot crosses time
axis. This observation indicates an interesting aspect of reversal of direction of motion (i.e.
velocity): A reversal of direction of a motion requires that the particle is stopped before the
direction is reversed.
(iii) Yes. Occurance of decelration is determined by comparing directions of velocity and
acceleration. In the period before the particle comes to rest, velocity is negative, wheras
acceleration is always positive with respect to the positive direction of velocity (slope of the
line is positive on velocity -time plot). Thus, velocity and acceleration are in opposite
direction for this part of motion and is decelerated. Further, it is also seen that speed of the
particle is decreasing in this period.
(iv) The plot is straight line with a constant slope. Thus, motion is under constant acceleration.

3: The magnitude of acceleration is increasing

Since slope of velocity – time curve is equal to the acceleration at that instant, it is expected that
velocity – time plot should be a curve, whose slope increases with time as shown in the figure.
 Figure 2.27. Velocity – time plot

Here,

4: The magnitude of acceleration is decreasing

The velocity – time plot should be a curve, whose slope decreases with time as shown in the figure
here :

Figure 2.28. Velocity – time plot

Here,

Example 2.7.
Problem : A person walks with a velocity given by |t – 2| along a straight line. Find the
distance and displacement for the motion in the first 4 seconds. What are the average velocity
and acceleration in this period? Discuss the nature of acceleration.
Solution : Here, velocity is equal to the modulus of a function in time. It means that velocity
is always positive. The representative values at the end of every second in the interval of 4
seconds are tabulated as below :
----------------------------
Time (s) Velocity (m/s)
----------------------------
0 2
1 1
2 0
3 1
4 2
----------------------------
An inspection of the values in the table reveals that velocity linearly decreases for the first 2
second from 2 m/s to zero. It, then, increases from zero to 2 m/s. In order to obtain distance
and displacement, we draw the plot between displacement and time as shown.

Figure 2.29. Velocity – time plot

Now, area under the plot gives displacement.

We see that velocity does not change its sign. Thus, motion is unidirectional apart from being
rectilinear. As such, distance is equal to displacement and is also 4 m.
Now, average velocity is given by :

Similarly, average acceleration during the motion is :

 Though average acceleration is zero, the instantaneous acceleration of the motion during
whole period is not constant as the velocity – time plot is not a single straight line. An
inspection of the plot reveals that velocity – time has two line segments AB and BC, each of
which separately represents constant acceleration.
Magnitude of constant acceleration (instantaneous) in the first part of the motion is equal to
the slope of the displacement – time plot AB :

Similarly, acceleration in the second part of the motion is :

Thus, the acceleration of the motion is negative for the first part of motion and positive for the
second of motion with respect to velocity on velocity-time plot. We can, therefore, conclude
that acceleration is not constant.

2.5. Constant acceleration*

The constant acceleration is a special case of accelerated motion. There are vast instances of
motions, which can be approximated to be under constant force and hence constant acceleration.
Two of the most important forces controlling motions in our daily life are force due to gravity and
friction force. Incidentally, these two forces are constant in the range of motions of bodies in
which we are interested. For example, force due to gravity is given by :

where "G" is the universal constant, "M" is the mass of earth, "m" is the mass of the body and "r"
is the distance between center of earth and the body.

The resulting acceleration due to gravity, g, is a constant in the immediate neighborhood of the
earth surface and is given by :

The only variable for a given mass is "r", which changes with the position of the body. The
distance "r", however, is equal to Earth's radius for all practical purposes as any difference arising
from the position of body on earth can be ignored. Therefore, acceleration due to gravity can
safely be considered to be constant for motions close to the surface of the earth. Significantly
acceleration due to gravity is a constant irrespective of the mass "m" of the body.

Figure 2.30. A ball kicked from a height

The ball follows a parabolic path as it approaches ground

The figure above shows the motion of a ball kicked from the top of a tower. The ball moves under
constant acceleration of gravity during its flight to the ground. The constant acceleration,
therefore, assumes significance in relation to the motion that takes place under the influence of
gravity. In the same manner, motion on a rough plane is acted upon by the force of friction in the
direction opposite to the motion. The force of friction is a constant force for the moving body and
characteristic of the surfaces in contact. As a result, the object slows down at a constant rate.

Figure 2.31. Motion influenced by friction force

The block decelerates due to friction.

Understanding constant acceleration

The constant acceleration means that the acceleration is independent of time and is equal to a
constant value. The implication of a constant acceleration is discussed here as under :
1: As acceleration is same at all instants during the motion, it follows that average acceleration is
equal to instantaneous acceleration during the motion. Mathematically,

2: When Δt = 1 second, then

This means that initial velocity , on an average, is changed by the acceleration vector after every
second.

Example 2.8. Constant acceleration

Problem : The position of a particle, in meters, moving in the coordinate space is described
by the following functions in time.

Find the velocity and acceleration at t = 2 seconds from the start of motion. Also, calculate
average acceleration in the first four seconds.
Solution : The component velocities in three directions are :

and the velocity is given by :

Thus, velocity at t = 2 seconds,

Acceleration of the particle along three axes are given as :

The resultant acceleration is given by :

which is a constant and is independent of time. The accelerations at all time instants are,
 therefore, same. We know that the average and instantaneous accelerations are equal when
acceleration is constant. Hence, a avg = 4 i . We can check the result calculating average
acceleration for the first four seconds as :

The important fall out of a constant acceleration is that its magnitude has a constant value and its
direction is fixed. A change in either of the two attributes, constituting acceleration, shall render
acceleration variable. This means that acceleration is along a straight line. But does this linear
nature of acceleration mean that the associated motion is also linear? Answer is no.

Reason is again the “disconnect” between acceleration and velocity. We know that magnitude and
direction of acceleration are solely determined by the mass of the object and net external force
applied on it. Thus, a constant acceleration only indicates that the force i.e the cause that induces
change in motion is linear. It does not impose any restriction on velocity to be linear.

Figure 2.32. Velocity and acceleration

Force and velocity are in two different directions

It is imperative that if the initial velocity of the object is not aligned with linear constant
acceleration like in the figure above, then the immediate effect of the applied force, causing
acceleration, is to change the velocity. Since acceleration is defined as the time rate of change in
velocity, the resulting velocity would be so directed and its magnitude so moderated that the
change in velocity (not the resulting velocity itself) is aligned in the direction of force.
 Figure 2.33. Change in velocity
The change in velocity has the same direction as that of acceleration.

As the resulting velocity may not be aligned with the direction of force (acceleration), the
resulting motion may not be linear either. For motion being linear, it is essential that the initial
velocity and the force applied (and the resulting acceleration) are aligned along a straight line.

Examples of motions in more than one dimension with constant acceleration abound in nature. We
have already seen that motion of a projectile in vertical plane has constant acceleration due to
gravity, having constant magnitude, g, and fixed downward direction. If we neglect air resistance,
we can assume that all non- propelled projectile motions above ground are accelerated with
constant acceleration. In the nutshell, we can say that constant acceleration is unidirectional and
linear, but the resulting velocity may not be linear. Let us apply this understanding to the motion
of a projectile, which is essentially a motion under constant acceleration due to gravity.

Figure 2.34. Parabolic motion

The velocity of the ball is moderated by acceleration.
In the figure, see qualitatively, how the initial velocity vector, v, is modified by the constant
acceleration vector, g, at the end of successive seconds. Note that combined change in both
magnitude and direction of the velocity is taking place at a constant rate and is in vertically
downward direction.

In the context of constant acceleration, we must also emphasize that both magnitude and direction
are constant. A constant acceleration in magnitude only is not sufficient. For constant
acceleration, the direction of acceleration should also be same (i.e constant). We can have a look
at a uniform circular motion in horizontal plane, which follows a horizontal circular path with a
constant speed.

Figure 2.35. Uniform circular motion

The object moves along a circular path constant speed.

Notwithstanding the constant magnitude, acceleration of uniform circular motion is a variable

acceleration in the horizontal plane, because direction of radial centripetal acceleration (shown
with red arrow) keeps changing with time. Therefore, the acceleration of the motion keeps
changing and is not independent of time as required for acceleration to be constant.

Equation of motion
The motion under constant acceleration allows us to describe accelerated motion, using simple
mathematical construct. Here, we set out to arrive at these relationships in the form of equations.
In these equations, “ u” stands for initial velocity, “ v” for final velocity, “ a” for constant
acceleration and “t” for time interval of motion under consideration. This is short of convention
followed by many text books and hence the convention has been retained here.

First equation

This relation can be established in many ways. One of the fundamental ways is to think that
velocity is changed by constant acceleration (vector) at the end of successive seconds. Following
this logic, the velocity at the end of t successive seconds are as under :

We can also derive this equation, using the defining concept of constant acceleration. We know
that :

Alternatively (using calculus), we know that :

Integrating on both sides, we have :

Second equation

The equation v = u + a t is a linear relationship. Hence, average velocity is arithmatic mean of

initial and final velocities :
 Figure 2.36. Average velocity
Average velocity is equal to mean velocity.

Third equation

This equation is derived by combining the two expressions available for the average velocity.

and

Combining two expressions of average acceleration and rearranging, we have :

Using the relation, v = u + a t and substituting for v, we have :

Alternatively, we can derive this equation using calculus. Here,

Integrating between the limits on both sides,

Now substituting v,

The expression for the displacement has two terms : one varies linearly ( ut) with the time and the
other ( ) varies with the square of time. The first term is equal to the displacement due to non-
accelerated motion i.e the displacement when the particle moves with uniform velocity, u. The
second term represents the contribution of the acceleration (change in velocity) towards
displacement.

This equation is used for determining either displacement(Δ r) or position( r 1 ). A common

simplification, used widely, is to consider beginning of motion as the origin of coordinate system
so that

In this case, both final position vector and displacement are equal. This simplification, therefore,
allows us to represent both displacement and position with a single vector variable r.

Graphical interpretation of equations of motion

The three basic equations of motion with constant acceleration, as derived above, are :

These three equations completely describe motion of a point like mass, moving with constant
acceleration. We need exactly five parameters to describe the motion under constant acceleration :
.

It can be emphasized here that we can not use these equations if the acceleration is not constant.
We should use basic differentiation or integration techniques for motion having variable
acceleration (non-uniform acceleration). These equations serve to be a ready to use equations that
avoids differentiation and integration. Further, it is evident that equations of motion are vector
equations, involving vector addition. We can evaluate a motion under constant acceleration, using
either graphical or algebraic method based on components.
Here, we interpret these vector equations, using graphical technique. For illustration purpose, we
apply these equations to a motion of an object, which is thrown at an angle θ from the horizontal.
The magnitude of acceleration is "g", which is directed vertically downward. Let acceleration
vector be represented by corresponding bold faced symbol g. Let v 1 and v 2 be the velocities at
time instants t 1 and t 2 respectively and corresponding position vectors are r 1 and r 2 .

The final velocity at time instant t 2 , is given by :

Graphically, the final velocity is obtained by modifying initial vector v 1 by the vector .

Figure 2.37. Graphical representation of first equation

Now, we discuss graphical representation of second equation of motion. The average velocity
between two time instants or two positions is given by :

The vector addition involved in the equation is graphically represented as shown in the figure.
Note that average velocity is equal to half of the vector sum v 1 + v 2 .
 Figure 2.38. Graphical representation of second equation

Third equation of motion provides for displacement in terms of two vector quantities - initial
velocity and acceleration. The displacement, s, is equal to addition of two vector terms :

Figure 2.39. Graphical representation of third equation

Equations of motion in component form

The application of equations of motion graphically is tedious. In general, we use component
representation that allows us to apply equations algebraically. We use equations of motion, using
component forms of vector quantities involved in the equations of motion. The component form
of the various vector quantities are :
Using above relations, equations of motion are :

Example 2.9. Acceleration in component form

Problem : A particle is moving with an initial velocity , having an acceleration
. Calculate its speed after 10 seconds.
Solution : The particle has acceleration of , which is a constant acceleration. Its
magnitude is making an angle with x-direction. . Time interval is
10 seconds. Thus, applying equation of motion, we have :

Speed i.e. magnitude of velocity is :

This example illustrates the basic nature of the equations of motion. If we treat them as
scalar equations, we may be led to wrong answers. For example, magnitude of initial
velocity i.e. speed is , Whereas magnitude of acceleration is
. Now, using equation of motion as scalar equation, we have :

Equivalent scalar system of equations of motion

We have discussed earlier that a vector quantity in one dimension can be conveniently expressed
in terms of an equivalent system of scalar representation. The advantage of linear motion is that
we can completely do away with vector notation with an appropriate scheme of assigning plus or
minus signs to the quantities involved. The equivalent scalar representation takes advantage of the
fact that vectors involved in linear motion has only two possible directions. The one in the
direction of chosen axis is considered positive and the other against the direction of the chosen
axis is considered negative.

At the same time, the concept of component allows us to treat a motion into an equivalent system
of the three rectilinear motions in the mutually perpendicular directions along the axes. The two
concepts, when combined together, renders it possible to treat equations of motion in scalar terms
in mutually three perpendicular directions.

Once we follow the rules of equivalent scalar representation, we can treat equations of motion as
scalar equations in the direction of an axis, say x - axis, as :

We have similar set of equations in the remaining two directions. We can obtain the composite
interpretation of the motion by combing the individual result in each direction. In order to grasp
the method, we rework the earlier example.

Example 2.10. Acceleration in scalar form

Problem : A particle is moving with an initial velocity , having an acceleration
. Calculate its speed after 10 seconds.
Solution : The motion in x – direction :

The motion in y – direction :

Therefore, the velocity is :

2.6. Constant acceleration (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Hints on solving problems

1. Though acceleration is constant and hence one – dimensional, but the resulting motion can be
one, two or three dimensional – depending on the directional relation between velocity and
acceleration.

2. Identify : what is given and what is required. Establish relative order between given and
required attribute.

3. Use differentiation method to get a higher order attribute in the following order : displacement
(position vector) → velocity → acceleration.

4. Use integration method to get a lower order attribute in the following order : acceleration →
velocity → displacement (position vector).

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the motion with
constant acceleration. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the
subject matter :

Average velocity

Differentiation and Integration method

Components of constant acceleration

Rectilinear motion with constant acceleration

Equations of motion

Average velocity

Example 2.11.
Problem : A particle moves with an initial velocity “ u” and a constant acceleration “ a”.
What is average velocity in the first “t” seconds?
 Solution : The particle is moving with constant acceleration. Since directional relation
between velocity and acceleration is not known, the motion can have any dimension. For this
reason, we shall be using vector form of equation of motion. Now, the average velocity is
given by :

The displacement for motion with constant acceleration is given as :

Thus, average velocity is :

Differentiation and Integration methods

Example 2.12.
Problem : A particle is moving with a velocity 2 i + 2 t j in m/s. Find (i) acceleration and (ii)
displacement at t = 1 s.
Solution : Since velocity is given as a function in “t”, we can find acceleration by
differentiating the function with respect to time.

Thus, acceleration is constant and is directed in y-direction. However, as velocity and

acceleration vectors are not along the same direction, the motion is in two dimensions. Since
acceleration is constant, we can employ equation of motion for constant acceleration in vector
form,

For t = 1 s

Note 1 : We should remind ourselves that we obtained displacement using equation of motion
for constant acceleration. Had the acceleration been variable, then we would have used
integration method to find displacement.
Note 2 : A constant acceleration means that neither its magnitude or direction is changing.
Therefore, we may be tempted to think that a constant acceleration is associated with one
dimensional motion. As we see in the example, this is not the case. A constant acceleration
 can be associated with two or three dimensional motion as well. It is the relative directions of
acceleration with velocity that determines the dimension of motion – not the dimension of
acceleration itself.

Example 2.13.
Problem : The coordinates of a particle (m/s) in a plane at a given time “t” is . Find (i)
path of motion (ii) velocity at time “t” and (iii) acceleration at time “t”.
Solution : Clearly, the position of the particle is a function of time and the particle moves in a
two dimensional xy - plane. Here,

In order to find the relation between “x” and “y”, we substitute “t” from the first equation in to
second as :

Hence, path of motion is parabolic. Now, the position vector is :

Differentiating with respect to time, the velocity of the particle is :

Further differentiating with respect to time, the acceleration of the particle is :

Components of acceleration

Example 2.14.
Problem : At a certain instant, the components of velocity and acceleration are given as :

What is the rate of change of speed?

Solution : Here, phrasing of question is important. We are required to find the rate of change
of speed – not the rate of change of velocity or magnitude of rate of change of velocity. Let us
have a look at the subtle differences in the meaning here :
1: The rate of change of velocity
The rate of change of velocity is equal to acceleration. For the given two dimensional motion,

2: The magnitude of rate of change of velocity

The magnitude of rate of change of velocity is equal to magnitude of acceleration. For the
given two dimensional motion,

3: The rate of change of speed

The rate of change of speed (dv/dt) is not equal to the magnitude of acceleration, which is
equal to the absolute value of the rate of change of velocity. It is so because speed is devoid of
direction, whereas acceleration consists of both magnitude and direction.
Let “v” be the instantaneous speed, which is given in terms of its component as :

We need to find rate of change of speed i.e dv/dt, using the values given in the question.
Therefore, we need to differentiate speed with respect to time,

If we ponder a bit, then we would realize that when we deal with component speed or
magnitude of component velocity then we are essentially dealing with unidirectional motion.
No change in direction is possible as components are aligned to a fixed axis. As such, equating
rate of change in speed with the magnitude of acceleration in component direction is valid.
Now, proceeding ahead,

Putting values, we have :

Note: This is an important question as it brings out differences in interpretation of familiar

terms. In order to emphasize the difference, we summarize the discussion as hereunder :
i: In general (i.e two or three dimensions),
 ii: In the case of one dimensional motion, the inequality as above disappears.

Rectilinear motion with constant acceleration

Example 2.15.
Problem : A block is released from rest on a smooth inclined plane. If S n denotes the distance
traveled by it from t = n - 1 second to t = n seconds, then find the ratio :

Figure 2.40. Motion along an incline

The block moves with a constant acceleration.

Solution : It must be noted that the description of linear motion is governed by the equations
of motion whether particle moves on a horizontal surface (one dimensional description) or on
an inclined surface (two dimensional description). Let us orient our coordinates so that the
motion can be treated as one dimensional unidirectional motion. This allows us to use
equations of motion in scalar form,

Here, u = 0, thus

Following the description of term Sn as given by the question, we can define Sn+1 as the
linear distance from t = n second to t = n + 1 seconds. Thus, substituting “n” by “n+1” in the
formulae, we have :

The required ratio is :

Equations of motion

Example 2.16.
Problem : A force of 2 N is applied on a particle of mass 1 kg, which is moving with a
velocity 4 m/s in a perpendicular direction. If the force is applied all through the motion, then
find displacement and velocity after 2 seconds.
Solution : It is a two dimensional motion, but having a constant acceleration. Notably,
velocity and accelerations are not in the same direction. In order to find the displacement at
the end of 2 seconds, we shall use algebraic method. Let the direction of initial velocity and
acceleration be along “x” and “y” coordinates (they are perpendicular to each other). Also, let
“A” be the initial position and “B” be the final position of the particle. The displacement
between A (position at time t =0) and B (position at time t = 2 s) is given as :

For time t = 2 s,

This is a vector equation involving sum of two vectors at right angles. According to question,

Since u and a perpendicular to each other, the magnitude of the vector sum ( u + a) is :

Hence, magnitude of displacement is :

Let the displacement vector makes an angle “θ” with the direction of initial velocity.

Let the direction of initial velocity and acceleration be along “x” and “y” coordinates (they are
perpendicular to each other). Then,

Using equation of motion for constant acceleration, the final velocity is :

The magnitude of velocity is :

 Let the final velocity vector makes an angle “θ” with the direction of initial velocity.

2.7. One dimensional motion with constant acceleration*

Free falling bodies under gravity represents typical case of motion in one dimension with constant
acceleration. A body projected vertically upwards is also a case of constant acceleration in one
dimension, but with the difference that body undergoes reversal of direction as well after reaching
the maximum height. Yet another set of examples of constant accelerations may include object
sliding on an incline plane, motion of an aboject impeded by rough surfaces and many other
motions under the influence of gravitational and frictional forces.

The defining differential equations of velocity and acceleration involve only one position variable
(say x). In the case of motion under constant acceleration, the differential equation defining
acceleration must evaluate to a constant value.

and

where k is a positive or negative constant.

The corresponding scalar form of the defining equations of velocity and acceleration for one
dimensional motion with constant acceleration are :

and

Example 2.17. Constant acceleration

Problem : The position “x” in meter of a particle moving in one dimension is described by the
equation :

where “t” is in second.

1. Find the time when velocity is zero.

2. Does the velocity changes its direction?
3. Locate position of the particle in the successive seconds for first 3 seconds.
4. Find the displacement of the particle in first three seconds.
5. Find the distance of the particle in first three seconds.
6. Find the displacement of the particle when the velocity becomes zero.
7. Determine, whether the particle is under constant or variable force.

Solution : Velocity is equal to the first differential of the position with respect to time, while
acceleration is equal to the second differential of the position with respect to time. The given
equation, however, expresses time, t, in terms of position, x. Hence, we need to obtain
expression of position as a function in time.

Squaring both sides, we have :

This is the desired expression to work upon. Now, taking first differential w.r.t time, we have :

1: When v = 0, we have v = 2t – 2 = 0

2. Velocity is expressed in terms of time as :

It is clear from the expression that velocity is negative for t < 1 second, while positive for t >
1. As such velocity changes its direction during motion.
3: Positions of the particle at successive seconds for first three seconds are :
 Figure 2.41. Graphical representation of position

4: Positions of the particle at t = 0 and t = 3 s are 1 m and 4 m from the origin.

Hence, displacement in first three seconds is 4 – 1 = 3 m
5: The particle moves from the start position, x = 1 m, in the negative direction for 1 second.
At t = 1, the particle comes to rest. For the time interval from 1 to 3 seconds, the particle
moves in the positive direction.
Distance in the interval t = 0 to 1 s is :

Total distance is 1 + 4 = 5 m.
6: Velocity is zero, when t = 1 s. In this period, displacement is 1 m.
7: In order to determine the nature of force on the particle, we first determine the acceleration
as :

Acceleration of the motion is constant, independent of time. Hence, force on the particle is
also constant during the motion.

Equation of motion for one dimensional motion with constant

acceleration
The equation of motions in one dimension for constant acceleration is obtained from the equations
of motion established for the general case i.e. for the three dimensional motion. In one dimension,
the equation of motion is simplified ( r is replaced by x or y or z with corresponding unit vector).
The three basic equations of motions are (say in x - direction) :
Significantly, we can treat vector equivalently as scalars with appropriate sign. Following is the
construct used for this purpose :

Sign convention

1. Assign an axis along the motion. Treat direction of axis as positive.

2. Assign the origin with the start of motion or start of observation. It is, however, a matter of
convenience and is not a requirement of the construct.

3. Use all quantities describing motion in the direction of axis as positive.

4. Use all quantities describing motion in the opposite direction of axis as negative.

Once, we follow the rules as above, we can treat equations of motion as scalar equations as :

Example 2.18. Constant acceleration

Problem : A car moving with constant acceleration covers two successive kilometers in 20 s
and 30 s respectively. Find the acceleration of the car.
Solution : Let "u" and "a" be the initial velocity and acceleration of the car. Applying third
equation of motion for first kilometer, we have :

At the end of second kilometer, total displacement is 2 kilometer (=2000 m) and total time is
20 + 30 = 50 s. Again applying third equation of motion,

Solving two equations,

Note that acceleration is negative to the positive direction (direction of velocity) and as such it
is termed “deceleration”. This interpretation is valid as we observe that the car covers second
kilometer in longer time that for the first kilometer, which means that the car has slowed
down.
 It is important to emphasize here that mere negative value of acceleration does not mean it to
be deceleration. The deciding criterion for deceleration is that acceleration should be opposite
to the direction of velocity.

Motion under gravity

We have observed that when a feather and an iron ball are released from a height, they reach earth
surface with different velocity and at different times. These objects are under the action of
different forces like gravity, friction, wind and buoyancy force. In case forces other than gravity
are absent like in vacuum, the bodies are only acted by the gravitational pull towards earth. In
such situation, acceleration due to gravity, denoted by g, is the only acceleration.

The acceleration due to gravity near the earth surface is nearly constant and equal to 9.8 m / s 2 .
Value of ‘g’ is taken as 10 m / s 2 as an approximation to facilitate ease of calculation.

When only acceleration due to gravity is considered, neglecting other forces, each of the bodies
(feather and iron ball) starting from rest is accelerated at the same rate. Velocity of each bodies
increases by 9.8 m/s at the end of every second. As such, the feather and the iron ball reach the
surface at the same time and at the same velocity.

Additional equations of motion

A close scrutiny of three equations of motion derived so far reveals that they relate specific
quantities, which define the motion. There is possibility that we may encounter problems where
inputs are not provided in the manner required by equation of motion.

For example, a problem involvoing calaculation of displacement may identify initial velocity,
final velocity and acceleration as input. Now, the equation of motion for displacement is
expressed in terms of initial velocity, time and acceleration. Evidently, there is a mis-match
between what is given and what is required. We can, no doubt, find out time from the set of given
inputs, using equation for velocity and then we can solve equation for the displacement. But what
if we develop a relation-ship which relates the quantities as given in the input set! This would
certainly help.

From first equation :

From second equation :

Eliminating ‘t’,

()

This equation relates initial velocity, final velocity, acceleration and displacement.

Also, we observe that equation for displacement calculates displacement when initial velocity,
acceleration and time are given. If final velocity - instead of initial velocity - is given, then
displacement can be obtained with slight modification.

Using v = u + at,

()

Example 2.19. Constant acceleration in one dimensional motion

Problem : A train traveling on a straight track moves with a speed of 20 m/s. Brake is applied
uniformly such that its speed is reduced to 10 m/s, while covering a distance of 200 m. With
the same rate of deceleration, how far will the train go before coming to rest.
Solution : To know the distance before train stops, we need to know the deceleration. We can
find out deceleration from the first set of data. Here, u = 20 m/s ; v = 10 m/s ; x = 200 m ; a =
? An inspection of above data reveals that none of the first three equations of motion fits the
requirement in hand, while the additional form of equation v 2 – u 2 = 2 a x serves the purpose
:

For the train to stops, we have

and,
Displacement in a particular second
The displacement in a second is obtained by subtracting two displacements in successive seconds.
We calculate displacements in n th second and (n-1) th seconds. The difference of two
displacements is the displacement in the n th second. Now, the displacements at the end of n and
(n-1) seconds as measured from origin are given by :

The displacement in the n th second, therefore, is :

()

Example 2.20.
Problem : The equation of motion for displacement in n th second is given by :

This equation is dimensionally incompatible, yet correct. Explain.

Solution : Since “n” is a number, the dimension of the terms of the equation is indicated as :

Clearly, dimensions of the terms are not same and hence equation is apparently incompatible
in terms of dimensions.
In order to resolve this apparent incompatibility, we need to show that each term of right hand
side of the equation has dimension that of displacement i.e. length. Now, we know that the
relation is derived for a displacement for time equal to “1” second. As multiplication of “1” or
" 1 2 " with any term is not visible, the apparent discrepancy has appeared in otherwise correct
equation. We can, therefore, re-write the equation with explicit time as :

Now, the dimensions of the first and second terms on the right side are :
 Thus, we see that the equation is implicitly correct in terms of dimensions.

Exercise 1.

If a particle, moving in straight line, covers distances “x”, “y” and “z” in p th , q th and r th seconds
respectively, then prove that :

This is a motion with constant acceleration in one dimension. Let the particle moves with a
constant acceleration, “a”. Now, the distances in particular seconds as given in the question are :

Subtracting, second from first equation,

Similarly,

Adding three equations,

Average acceleration
Average acceleration is ratio of change in velocity and time. This is an useful concept where
acceleration is not constant throughout the motion. There may be motion, which has constant but
different values of acceleration in different segments of motion. Our job is to find an equivalent
constant acceleration, which may be used to determine attributes for the whole of motion. Clearly,
the single value equivalent acceleration should be such that it yields same value of displacement
and velocity for the entire motion. This is the underlying principle for determining equivalent or
average acceleration for the motion.

Example 2.21.
Problem : A particle starting with velocity “u” covers two equal distances in a straight line
with accelerations a 1 and a 2 . What is the equivalent acceleration for the complete motion?
Solution : The equivalent acceleration for the complete motion should yield same value for
the attributes of the motion at the end of the journey. For example, the final velocity at the end
of the journey with the equivalent acceleration should be same as the one calculated with
individual accelerations.
Here initial velocity is "u". The velocity at the end of half of the distance (say “x”) is :

Clearly, v 1 is the initial velocity for the second leg of motion,

Adding above two equations, we have :

This is the square of velocity at the end of journey. Now, let “a” be the equivalent
acceleration, then applying equation of motion for the whole distance (2x),

Comparing equations,

Interpretation of equations of motion

One dimensional motion felicitates simplified paradigm for interpreting equations of motion.
Description of motion in one dimension involves mostly the issue of “magnitude” and only one
aspect of direction. The only possible issue of direction here is that the body undergoing motion in
one dimension may reverse its direction during the course of motion. This means that the body
may either keep moving in the direction of initial velocity or may start moving in the opposite
direction of the initial velocity at certain point of time during the motion. This depends on the
relative direction of initial velocity and acceleration. Thus, there are two paradigms :

1. Constant force is applied in the direction of initial velocity.

2. Constant force is applied in the opposite direction of initial velocity.

Irrespective of the above possibilities, one fundamental attribute of motion in one dimension is
that all parameters defining motion i.e initial velocity, final velocity and acceleration act along a
straight line.

Constant acceleration (force) is applied in the direction of velocity

The magnitude of velocity increases by the magnitude of acceleration at the end of every second
(unit time interval). In this case, final velocity at any time instant is greater than velocity at an
earlier instant. The motion is not only in one dimension i.e. linear , but also unidirectional. Take
the example of a ball released (initial velocity is zero) at a certain height ‘h’ from the surface. The
velocity of the ball increases by the magnitude of ‘g’ at the end of every second. If the body has
traveled for 3 seconds, then the velocity after 3 seconds is 3g (v= 0 + 3 x g = 3g m/s).

Figure 2.42. Attributes of motion

Attributes of motion as the ball falls under gravity

In this case, all parameters defining motion i.e initial velocity, final velocity and acceleration not
only act along a straight line, but also in the same direction. As a consequence, displacement is
always increasing during the motion like distance. This fact results in one of the interesting aspect
of the motion that magnitude of displacement is equal to distance. For this reason, average speed
is also equal to the magnitude of average velocity.

and

Constant acceleration (force) is applied in the opposite direction of velocity

The magnitude of velocity decreases by the magnitude of acceleration at the end of every second
(unit time interval). In this case, final velocity at any time instant is either less than velocity at an
earlier instant or has reversed its direction. The motion is in one dimension i.e. linear, but may be
unidirectional or bidirectional. Take the example of a ball thrown (initial velocity is ,say, 30 m/s)
vertically from the surface. The velocity of the ball decreases by the magnitude of ‘g’ at the end of
every second. If the body has traveled for 3 seconds, then the velocity after 3 seconds is 30 - 3g =
0 (assume g = 10 ).

Figure 2.43. Attributes of motion

Attributes of motion as the ball moves up against gravity

During upward motion, velocity and acceleration due to gravity are in opposite direction. As a
result, velocity decreases till it achieves the terminal velocity of zero at the end of 3rd second.
Note that displacement during the motion is increasing till the ball reaches the maximum height.

At the maximum height, the velocity of the ball is zero and is under the action of force due to
gravity as always during the motion. As such, the ball begins moving in downward direction with
the acceleration due to gravity. The directions of velocity and acceleration, in this part of motion,
are same. Note that displacement with respect to point of projection is decreasing.

In the overall analysis of motion when initial velocity is against acceleration, parameters defining
motion i.e initial velocity, final velocity and acceleration act along a straight line, but in different
directions. As a consequence, displacement may either be increasing or decreasing during the
motion. This means that magnitude of displacement may not be equal to distance. For example,
consider the motion of ball from the point of projection, A, to maximum height, B, to point, C, at
the end of 4 seconds. The displacement is 40 m, while distance is 45 + 5 = 50 m as shown in the
figure below.
 Figure 2.44. Attributes of motion

For this reason, average speed is not always equal to the magnitude of average velocity.

and

Exercises
Exercise 2.

Two cyclists start off a race with initial velocities 2 m/s and 4 m/s respectively. Their linear
accelerations are 2 and 1 m / s 2 respectively. If they reach the finish line simultaneously, then
what is the length of the track?

This is a case of one dimensional motion with constant acceleration. Since both cyclists cross the
finish line simultaneously, they cover same displacement in equal times. Hence,

Putting values as given in the question, we have :

Neglecting zero value,

The linear distance covered by the cyclist is obtained by evaluating the equation of displacement
of any of the cyclists as :

Exercise 3.

Two cars are flagged off from the starting point. They move with accelerations a 1 and
a 2 respectively. The car “A” takes time “t” less than car “B” to reach the end point and passes the
end point with a difference of speed, “v”, with respect to car “B”. Find the ratio v/t.

Both cars start from rest. They move with different accelerations and hence take different times to
reach equal distance, say t 1 and t 2 for cars A and B respectively. Their final speeds at the end
points are also different, say v 1 and v 2 for cars A and B respectively. According to the question,
the difference of time is “t”, whereas difference of speeds is “v”.

As car A is faster, it takes lesser time. Here, t 2 > t 1 . The difference of time, “t”, is :

From equation of motion,

Similarly,

Hence,

Car A is faster. Hence, v 1 > v 2 . The difference of time, “v”, is :

From equation of motion,

Similarly,

Hence,

The required ratio, therefore, is :

Exercise 4.

Two particles start to move from same position. One moves with constant linear velocity, “v”;
whereas the other, starting from rest, moves with constant acceleration, “a”. Before the second
catches up with the first, what is maximum separation between two?.

One of the particles begins with a constant velocity, “v” and continues to move with that velocity.
The second particle starts with zero velocity and continues to move with a constant acceleration,
“a”. At a given instant, “t”, the first covers a linear distance,

In this period, the second particle travels a linear distance given by :

First particle starts with certain velocity as against second one, which is at rest. It means that the
first particle will be ahead of second particle in the beginning. The separation between two
particles is :

For the separation to be maximum, its first time derivative should be equal to zero and second
time derivative should be negative. Now, first and second time derivatives are :
For maximum separation,

The separation at this time instant,

2.8. Graphs of motion with constant acceleration*

Graphical analysis of motion with constant acceleration in one dimension is based on the equation
defining position and displacement, which is a quadratic function. Nature of motion under
constant acceleration and hence its graph is characterized by the relative orientation of initial
velocity and acceleration. The relative orientation of these parameters controls the nature of
motion under constant acceleration. If initial velocity and acceleration are in the same direction,
then particle is accelerated such that speed of the particle keeps increasing with time. However, if
velocity and acceleration are directed opposite to each other, then particle comes to rest
momentarily. As a result, the motion is divided in two segments - one with deceleration in which
particle moves with decreasing speed and second with acceleration in which particle moves with
increasing speed.

We study various scenarios of motion of constant acceleration by analyzing equation of position,

which is quadratic expression in time. The position of particle is given by :

Clearly, the equation for position of the particle is a quadratic expression in time, “t”. A diagram
showing a generalized depiction of motion represented by quadratic expression is shown here :

Figure 2.45. Motion under constant acceleration

Motion under constant acceleration
In case initial position of the particle coincides with origin of reference, then initial position
x0 = 0 and in that case x denotes position as well as displacement :

Nature of graphs
The nature of quadratic polynomial is determined by two controlling factors (i) nature of
coefficient of squared term, t2 and (ii) nature of discriminant of the quadratic equation, which is
formed by equating quadratic expression to zero.

Nature of coefficient of squared term

The coefficient of squared term is “a/2”. Thus, its nature is completely described by the nature of
“a” i.e. acceleration. If “a” is positive, then graph is a parabola opening up. On the other hand, if
“a” is negative, then graph is a parabola opening down. These two possibilities are shown in the
picture.

Figure 2.46. Motion under constant acceleration

Motion under constant acceleration

It may be interesting to know that sign of acceleration is actually a matter of choice. A positive
acceleration, for example, is negative acceleration if we reverse the reference direction. Does it
mean that mere selection of reference direction will change the nature of motion? As expected, it
is not so. The parabola comprises two symmetric sections about a line passing through the
minimum or maximum point (C as shown in the figure). One section represents a motion in which
speed of the particle is decreasing as velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions and
second section represents a motion in which speed of the particle is increasing as velocity and
acceleration are in the same direction. In other words, one section represents deceleration,
whereas other section represents acceleration. The two sections are simply exchanged in two
graphs. As such, a particular motion of acceleration is described by different sections of two
graphs when we change the sign of acceleration. That is all. The nature of motion remains same.
Only the section describing motion is exchanged.

Nature of discriminant

Comparing with general quadratic equation A x2 + B x + C = 0 , we see that determinant of the

corresponding quadratic equation is given by :

⇒ D = u2 − 2 a x 0

The important aspect of discriminant is that it comprises of three variable parameters. However,
simplifying aspect of the discriminant is that all parameters are rendered constant by the “initial”
setting of motion. Initial position, initial velocity and acceleration are all set up by the initial
conditions of motion.

The points on the graph intersecting t-axis gives the time instants when particle is at the origin i.e.
x=0. The curve of the graph intersects t-axis when corresponding quadratic equation (quadratic
expression equated to zero) has real roots. For this, discriminant of the corresponding quadratic
equation is non-negative (either zero or positive). It means :

D = u2 − 2 a x0 ≥ 0 ⇒ 2 a x0 ≤ u2

Note that squared term u2 is always positive irrespective of sign of initial velocity. Thus, this
condition is always fulfilled if the signs of acceleration and initial position are opposite. However,
if two parameters have same sign, then above inequality should be satisfied for the curve to
intersect t-axis. In earlier graphs, we have seen that parabola intersects t-axis at two points
corresponding two real roots of corresponding quadratic equation. However, if discriminant is
negative, then parabola does not intersect t-axis. Such possibilities are shown in the figure :

Figure 2.47. Motion under constant acceleration

 Motion under constant acceleration

Clearly, motion of particle is limited by the minimum or maximum positions. It is given by :

It may be noted that motion of particle may be restricted to some other reference points as well.
Depending on combination of initial velocity and acceleration, a particle may not reach a
particular point.

Reading of graph
Our consideration, here, considers only positive values of time. It means that we are discussing
motion since the start of observation at t=0 and subsequently as the time passes by.
Mathematically, the time parameter, “t” is a non-negative number. It can be either zero or
positive, but not negative. In the following paragraphs, we describe critical segments or points of
a typical position – time graph as shown in the figure above :

Figure 2.48. Motion under constant acceleration

Motion under constant acceleration

Point A : This is initial position at t = 0. The position corresponding to this time is denoted as x0 .
This point is the beginning of graph, which lies on x-axis. The tangent to the curve at this point is
the direction of initial velocity, “u”. Note that initial position and origin of reference may be
different. Further, this point is revisited by the particle as it reaches E. Thus, A and E denotes the
same start position - though represented separately on the graph.

Curve AC : The tangent to the curve part AB has negative slope. Velocity is directed in negative
x-direction. The slope to the curve keeps decreasing in magnitude as we move from A to C. It
means that speed of the particle keeps decreasing in this segment. In other words, particle is
decelerated during motion in this segment.

Points B, D : The curve intersects t-axis. The particle is at the origin of the reference, O, chosen
for the motion. The time corresponding to these points (B and D) are real roots of the quadratic
equation, which is obtained by equating quadratic expression to zero.

Point C : The slope of tangent to the curve at this point is zero. It means that the speed of the
particle has reduced to zero. The particle at this point is at rest. The slopes of the tangent to curve
about this point changes sign. It means that velocity is oppositely directed about this point. The
point B, therefore, is a point, where reversal of direction of motion occurs. Note that particle can
reverse its direction only once during its motion under constant acceleration.

Point E : The particle reaches start point E (i.e. A) again in its motion after reversal of motion at
C.

Point F : This is the end point of motion.

The graph of a motion under constant acceleration is bounded by set of parameters defining a
motion. In a particular case, we may be considering only a segment of the curve starting from
point A and ending at point F – not necessarily covering the whole of graph as shown in the figure.
The point F may lie anywhere on the graph. Further, nature of curve will be determined by values
and signs of various parameters like initial position, initial velocity and acceleration. Here, we
have divided our study in two categories based on the sign of acceleration : (i) acceleration is
positive and (ii) acceleration is negative.

Acceleration is positive (in the reference direction)

The graph of quadratic equation is a parabola opening upwards as coefficient of squared term t2 is
positive i.e. a > 0. The minimum value of expression i.e. x is :

The various possibilities of initial positions of the particle with time are discussed here :

Case 1: Initial position and origin of reference are different. Initial position is positive. Initial
velocity is negative i.e. it is directed in negative reference direction. The velocity and acceleration
are oppositely directed.
 Figure 2.49. Motion under constant acceleration
Motion under constant acceleration

Initially particle is decelerated as the speed of the particle keeps on decreasing till it becomes zero
at point C. This is indicated by the diminishing slope (magnitude) of the tangents to the curve.
Subsequently, particle is accelerated so long force causing acceleration is applied on the particle.

The segment DF with origin at D is typical graph of free fall of particle under gravity, considering
DF as the height of fall and downward direction as positive direction. Only differing aspect is that
particle has initial velocity. Nevertheless, the nature of curve of free fall is similar. Note that
speed of the particle keeps increasing till it hits the ground.

Example 2.22.
Problem : Given
Find the position when particle reverses its motion.
Solution : Acceleration is negative. The position-time graph is a parabola opening up.
Therefore, the particle changes its direction of motion at its minimum position, which is given
as :

Alternatively,
At the point of reversal, velocity is zero. Using v=u+at, :
⇒ 0 = – 15 + 10 t
Position of particle in 1.5 s is :
 Figure 2.50. Motion diagram
Motion diagram

Exercise 5.

Given :

Find the time instants when the particle is at origin of reference and initial position. Also find the
time when velocity is zero.

The position of the particle with respect to origin of reference is given by :

In order to determine time instants when the particle is at origin of reference, we put x=0,

⇒ t2 − 3 t + 2 = 0 ⇒ t2 − t − 2 t + 2 = 0 ⇒ t ( t − 1 ) − 2 ( t − 1 ) = 0

In order to determine time instant when particle is at initial position, we put x=10,

⇒ 5 t2 – 15 t = 0

The particle is at the initial position twice, including start of motion. Now, at the point of reveral
of direction, speed of the particle is zero. Putting v = 0 and using v=u+at,

⇒ 0 = – 15 + 10 t

Figure 2.50. Motion diagram

 Motion diagram

Case 2: Initial position and origin of reference are different. Initial position is positive. Initial
velocity is positive i.e. it is directed in reference direction. The velocity and acceleration are in
same direction.

Figure 2.51. Motion under constant acceleration

Motion under constant acceleration

The particle is accelerated so long force causing acceleration is applied on the particle. The
segement AF with origin at D is typical graph of free fall of particle under gravity, considering AF
as the height of fall and downward direction as positive direction. Only differing aspect is that
particle has initial velocity. Neverthless, the nature of curve of free fall is similar. Note that speed
of the particle keeps increasing till it hits the ground.

Exercise 6.

Given

Find the time instants when the particle is at origin of reference and initial position. Also find the
time when velocity is zero.

The position of the particle with respect to origin of reference is given by :

In order to determine time instants when the particle is at origin of reference, we put x=0,

⇒ t2 + 3 t + 2 = 0 ⇒ t2 + t + 2 t + 2 = 0
We neglect both these negative values and deduce that the particle never reaches point of origin.
In order to determine time instant when particle is at initial position, we put x=10,

⇒ 5 t2 + 15 t = 0

We neglect negative value. The particle is at the initial position only at the start of motion. Now,
at the point of reveral of direction, speed of the particle is zero. Putting v = 0 and using v=u+at,

⇒ 0 = 15 + 10 t

The particle never changes its direction.

Figure 2.51. Motion diagram

Motion diagram

Case 3: Initial position and origin of reference are same. Initial velocity is negative i.e. it is
directed in negative reference direction. The velocity and acceleration are oppositely directed.

Figure 2.52. Motion under constant acceleration

Motion under constant acceleration

Initially particle is decelerated as the speed of the particle keeps on decreasing till it becomes zero
at point C. This is indicated by the diminishing slope (magnitude) of the tangents to the curve.
Subsequently, particle is accelerated so long force causing accleration is applied on the particle.
Exercise 7.

Given

Find the time instants when the particle is at origin of reference. Also find the time when velocity
is zero.

The position of the particle with respect to origin of reference is given by :

In order to determine time instants when the particle is at origin of reference, we put x=0,

⇒ t2 – 3 t = 0

The particle is at the origin of reference twice, including start of motion. Now, at the point of
reversal of direction, speed of the particle is zero. Putting v = 0 and using v=u+at,

⇒ 0 = – 15 + 10 t

Figure 2.52. Motion diagram

Motion diagram

Case 4: Initial position and origin of reference are same. Initial velocity is positive i.e. it is
directed in reference direction. The velocity and acceleration are in same direction.
 Figure 2.53. Motion under constant acceleration
Motion under constant acceleration

The particle is accelerated so long force causing acceleration is applied on the particle.

The segement OF is typical graph of free fall of particle under gravity, considering OF as the
height of fall and downward direction as positive direction. Only differing aspect is that particle
has initial velocity. Neverthless, the nature of curve of free fall is similar. Note that speed of the
particle keeps increasing till it hits the ground.

Exercise 8.

Given

Find the time instants when the particle is at origin of reference. Also find the time when velocity
is zero.

The position of the particle with respect to origin of reference is given by :

In order to determine time instants when the particle is at origin of reference, we put x=0,

⇒ t2 + 3 t = 0

Neglecting negative value of time,

⇒t=0

The particle is at the origin of reference only at the start of motion. Now, at the point of reversal
of direction, speed of the particle is zero. Putting v = 0 and using v=u+at,
⇒ 0 = 15 + 10 t

We neglect negative value and deduce that particle never ceases to move and as such there is no
reversal of motion.

Figure 2.53. Motion diagram

Motion diagram

Acceleration is negative (opposite to the reference direction)

In this case, the graph of quadratic equation is a parabola opening downwards as coefficient of
squared term t2 is negative i.e. a > 0. The maximum value of expression i.e. x is :

The analysis for this case is similar to the first case. We shall, therefore, not describe this case
here.

Exercise 9.

Given

Find the time instants when the particle is at origin of reference and initial position. Also find the
time when velocity is zero.

The position of the particle with respect to origin of reference is given by :

In order to determine time instants when the particle is at origin of reference, we put x=0,

⇒ – t2 + 3 t + 2 = 0
We neglect negative value of time. The particle reaches origin of reference only once at t = 2 s. In
order to determine time instant when particle is at initial position, we put x=10,

⇒ – t2 + 3 t = 0

The particle is at the initial position twice, including start point. Now, at the point of reversal of
direction, speed of the particle is zero. Putting v = 0 and using v=u+at,

⇒ 0 = 15 – 10 t

We neglect negative value and deduce that particle never ceases to move and as such there is no
reversal of motion.

Figure 2.53. Motion diagram

Motion diagram

Example

Example 2.23.
Problem : A particle’s velocity in “m/s” is given by a function in time “t” as :

If the particle is at x = 0 at t = 0, find the time (s) when the particle is 60 m away from the
initial position.
Solution : The velocity is given as a function in time “t”. Thus, we can know its acceleration
by differentiating with respect to time :

Alternatively, we can see that expression of velocity has the form v = u + at. Evidently, the
motion has a constant acceleration of -10 m / s 2 . Also, note that origin of reference and initial
position are same. Applying equation of motion for position as :
According to question, we have to find the time when particle is 60 m away from the initial
position. Since it is one dimensional motion, the particle can be 60 m away either in the
positive direction of the reference or opposite to it. Considering that it is 60 m away in the
positive reference direction, we have :

Figure 2.54. Motion diagram

Motion diagram

Re-arranging,

We observe here that the particle is ultimately moving in the direction opposite to reference
direction. As such it will again be 60 away from the initial position in the negative reference
direction. For considering that the particle is 60 m away in the negative reference direction,

Neglecting negative value of time,

Note : We can also solve the quadratic equation for zero displacement to find the time for the
particle to return to initial position. This time is found to be 8 seconds. We note here that
particle takes 2 seconds to reach the linear distance of 60 m in the positive direction for the
first time, whereas it takes only 9.29 – 8 = 1.29 second to reach 60 m from the initial position
in the negative direction.
The particle is decelerated while moving in positive direction as velocity is positive, but
acceleration is negative. On the other hand, both velocity and acceleration are negative while
going away from the initial position in the negative direction and as such particle is
accelerated. Therefore, the particle takes lesser time to travel same linear distance in the
negative direction than in the positive direction from initial position..
Hence, the particle is 60 m away from the initial position at t = 2 s, 6 s and 9.29 s.
t (s) 0 2 4 6 8 9.29
x (m) 0 60 80 60 0 -60
v (m/s) 40 20 0 -20 -40 -52.9
 Figure 2.55. Motion diagram
Motion diagram

Example 2.24.
Problem : A particle moves along x-axis with a velocity 9 m/s and acceleration -2 m / s 2 .
Find the distance covered in 5 th second.
Solution : The displacement in 5 th second is :

The displacement in the 5 th second is zero. A zero displacement, however, does not mean that
distance covered is zero. We can see here that particle is decelerated at the rate of -2
m / s 2 and as such there is reversal of direction when v = 0.

This means that particle reverses its motion at t = 4.5 s i.e in the period when we are required
to find distance. The particle, here, travels in the positive direction from t = 4 s to 4.5 s and
then travels in the negative direction from t = 4.5 s to 5 s. In order to find the distance in
5 th second, we need to find displacement in each of these time intervals and then sum their
magnitude to find the required distance.

Figure 2.56. Motion along a straight line

The partilcle reverses its direction in 5th second .

The displacement for the period t = 0 s to 4 s is :

The displacement for the period t = 0 s to 4.5 s is :

 The displacement for the period t = 4 s to 4.5 s is :

Since particle is moving with constant acceleration in one dimension, it travels same distance
on its return for the same period. It means that it travels 0.25 m in the period from t = 4.5 s to
t = 5 s.

Thus, total distance covered between t = 4 s to t = 5s i.e. in the 5 th second is :

2.9. Vertical motion under gravity*

Vertical motion under gravity is a specific case of one dimensional motion with constant
acceleration. Here, acceleration is always directed in vertically downward direction and its
magnitude is "g".

As the force due to gravity may be opposite to the direction of motion, there exists the possibility
that the body under force of gravity reverses its direction. It is, therefore, important to understand
that the quantities involved in the equations of motion may evaluate to positive or negative values
with the exception of time (t). We must appropriately assign sign to various inputs that goes into
the equation and correctly interpret the result with reference to the assumed positive direction.
Further, some of them evaluate to two values one for one direction and another of reversed
direction.

As pointed out earlier in the course, we must also realize that a change in reference direction may
actually change the sign of the attributes, but their physical interpretation remains same. What it
means that an attribute such as velocity, for example, can be either 5 m/s or -5 m/s, conveying the
same velocity. The interpretation must be done with respect to the assigned positive reference
direction.

Velocity
Let us analyze the equation "v = u + at" for the vertical motion under gravity with the help of an
example. We consider a ball thrown upwards from ground with an initial speed of 30 m/s. In the
frame of reference with upward direction as positive,
 Figure 2.57. Vertical motion under gravity
The ball reaches maximum height when its velocity becomes zero

Putting this value in the equation, we have :

v = 30 – 10 t

The important aspect of this equation is that velocity evaluates to both positive and negative
values; positive for upward motion and negative for downward motion. The final velocity (v) is
positive for t < 3 seconds, zero for t = 3 seconds and negative for t > 3 seconds. The total time
taken for the complete up and down journey is 3 (for upward motion) + 3 (for downward motion)
= 6 seconds.

The velocities of the ball at successive seconds are :

----------------------------------
Time (t) Final velocity (v)
in seconds in m/s
----------------------------------
0.0 30
1.0 20
2.0 10
3.0 0
4.0 -10
5.0 -20
6.0 -30
----------------------------------

The corresponding velocity – time plot looks like as shown in the figure.
 Figure 2.58. Velocity – time plot

We notice following important characteristics of the motion :

1: The velocity at the maximum height is zero (v=0).

2: The time taken by the ball to reach maximum height is obtained as :

3: The ball completely regains its speed when it returns to ground, but the motion is directed in
the opposite direction i.e.

4: The time taken for the complete round trip is :

The time taken for the complete journey is twice the time taken to reach the maximum height. It
means that the ball takes equal time in upward and downward journey. Thus, the total motion can
be considered to be divided in two parts of equal duration.

5: The velocity of the ball is positive in the first half of motion; Zero at the maximum height;
negative in the second of the motion.

6: The velocity is decreasing all through the motion from a positive value to less positive value in
the first half and from a less negative value to more negative value in the second half of the
motion. This renders acceleration to be always negative (directed in -y direction), which is
actually the case.
7: The velocity (positive) and acceleration (negative) in the first part are opposite in direction and
the resulting speed is decreasing. On the other hand, the velocity (negative) and acceleration
(negative) in the second part are in the same direction and the resulting speed is increasing.

Displacement and distance

Let us analyze the equation for the vertical motion under gravity with the help of
earlier example. If we choose initial position as the origin, then and
, where x denotes position and displacement as well. In the frame of reference with upward
direction as positive,

Putting these values in the equation, we have :

The important aspect of this equation is that it is a quadratic equation in time “t”. This equation
yields two values of time “t” for every position and displacement. This outcome is in complete
agreement with the actual motion as the ball reaches a given position twice (during upward and
downward motion). Only exception is point at the maximum height, which is reached only once.
We have seen earlier that ball reaches maximum height at t = 3 s. Therefore, maximum height,H,
is given as :

The displacement values for the motion at successive seconds are :

-------------------------------------------------------------
Time (t) ut 5txt Displacement
in seconds or position (x)
in meters
-------------------------------------------------------------
0.0 0 0 0
1.0 30 5 25
2.0 60 20 40
3.0 90 45 45
4.0 120 80 40
5.0 150 125 25
6.0 180 180 0
-------------------------------------------------------------

The corresponding displacement – time plot looks like as shown in the figure.
 Figure 2.59. Displacement – time plot

We notice following important characteristics of the motion :

1: The ball retraces every position during motion except the point at maximum height.

2: The net displacement when ball return to initial position is zero. Thus, the total time of journey
(T) is obtained using displacement, x = 0,

Here, we neglect T = 0, which corresponds to initial position.

3: The “x” in equation denotes displacement and not distance. Hence, it is not possible
to use this equation directly to obtain distance, when motion is not unidirectional.

Let us answer the question with respect to the motion of the ball under consideration : what is the
distance traveled in first 4 seconds? Obviously, the ball travels 30 m in the upward direction to
reach maximum height in 3 seconds and then it travels 5 m in the 4 th second in downward
direction. Hence, the total distance traveled is 45 + 5 = 50 m in 4 s. This means that we need to
apply the equation of motion in two parts : one for the upward motion and the second for the
downward motion. Thus, we find displacement for each segment of the motion and then we can
add their magnitude to obtain distance.

The distance values for the motion at successive seconds are :

------------------------------------------------------------
Time (t) ut 5t*t Displacement Distance
in seconds or position in meters
(x) in meters
------------------------------------------------------------
0.0 0 0 0 0
1.0 30 5 25 25
2.0 60 20 40 40
3.0 90 45 45 45
4.0 120 80 40 50
5.0 150 125 25 65
6.0 180 180 0 90
------------------------------------------------------------

Figure 2.60. Distance – time plot

Example 2.25. Constant acceleration

Problem : A balloon starts rising from the ground with an acceleration of 1.25 m/s. After 8
second, a stone is released from the balloon. Starting from the release of stone, find the
displacement and distance traveled by the stone on reaching the ground. Also, find the time
taken to reach the ground (take g = 10 m / s 2 ).
Solution : This question raises few important issues. First the rise of balloon is at a constant
acceleration of 1.25 m / s 2 . This acceleration is the “measured” acceleration, which is net of
the downward acceleration due to gravity. This means that the balloon rises with this net
vertical acceleration of 1.25 m / s 2 in the upward direction.
 Figure 2.61. Motion under gravity

Here, u = 0; a = 1.25 m / s 2 ; t = 8 s. Let the balloon rises to a height “h” during this time,
then (considering origin on ground and upward direction as positive) the displacement of the
balloon after 8 seconds is :

Now, we know that, the body released from moving body acquires the velocity but not the
acceleration of the container body under motion. The velocity of the balloon at the instant of
separation is equal to the velocity of the balloon at that instant.

Thus, this is the initial velocity of the stone and is directed upward as that of the velocity of
balloon. Once released, the stone is acted upon by the force of gravity alone. The role of the
acceleration of the balloon is over. Now, the acceleration for the motion of stone is equal to
the acceleration due to gravity, g.
The path of motion of the stone is depicted in the figure. Stone rises due to its initial upward
velocity to a certain height above 40 m where it was released till its velocity is zero. From this
highest vertical point, the stone falls freely under gravity and hits the ground.
1: In order to describe motion of the stone once it is released, we realize that it would be
easier for us if we shift the origin to the point where stone is released. Considering origin at
the point of release and upward direction as positive as shown in the figure, the displacement
during the motion of stone is :
y = OB = - 40 m
 Figure 2.62. Motion under gravity

2: Distance, on the other hand, is equal to :

s = OA + AO + OB = 2 OA + OB
In order to obtain, OA, we consider this part of rectilinear motion (origin at the point of
release and upward direction as positive as shown in the figure).
Here, u = 10 m/s; a = -10 m / s 2 and v = 0. Applying equation of motion, we have :

Hence, OA = 5 m, and distance is :

s = 2 OA + OB = 2 x 5 + 40 = 50 m
3: The time of the journey of stone after its release from the balloon is obtained using
equation of motion (origin at the point of release and upward direction as positive as shown in
the figure).
Here, u = 12 m/s; a = -10 m / s 2 and y = - 40 m.

This is a quadratic equation in “t”. Its solution is :

As negative value of time is not acceptable, time to reach the ground is 4s.

It is important to realize that we are at liberty to switch origin or direction of reference

after making suitable change in the sign of attributes.
Position
We use the equation normally in the context of displacement, even though the
equation is also designed to determine initial ( x 1 ) or final position ( x 2 ). In certain situations,
however, using this equation to determine position rather than displacement provides more
elegant adaptability to the situation.

Let us consider a typical problem highlighting this aspect of the equation of motion.

Example 2.26.
Problem : A ball is thrown vertically from the ground at a velocity 30 m/s, when another ball
is dropped along the same line, simultaneously from the top of tower 120 m in height. Find the
time (i) when the two balls meet and (ii) where do they meet.
Solution : This question puts the position as the central concept. In addition to equal time of
travel for each of the balls, rhe coordinate positions of the two balls are also same at the time
they meet. Let this position be “y”. Considering upward direction as the positive reference
direction, we have :

Figure 2.63. Vertical motion under gravity

The balls have same coordinate value when they meet.

For ball thrown from the ground :

 ()

For ball dropped from the top of the tower :

()

Now, deducting equation (2) from (1), we have :

Putting this value in equation – 1, we have :

One interesting aspect of this simultaneous motion of two balls is that the ball dropped from
the tower meets the ball thrown from the ground, when the ball thrown from the ground is
actually returning from after attaining the maximum height in 3 seconds. For maximum height
of the ball thrown from the ground,

Figure 2.64. Vertical motion under gravity

When returning from the maximum height, the ball thrown up from the ground is hit by the ball dropped from towers.

This means that this ball has actually traveled for 1 second (4 – 3 = 1 s) in the downward
direction, when it is hit by the ball dropped from the tower!

Exercises
Exercise 10.

A ball is thrown up in vertical direction with an initial speed of 40 m/s. Find acceleration of the
ball at the highest point.

The velocity of the ball at the highest point is zero. The only force on the ball is due to gravity.
The accleration of ball all through out its motion is acceleration due to gravity “g”, which is
directed downwards. The acceleration of the ball is constant and is not dependent on the state of
motion - whether it is moving or is stationary.

Exercise 11.

A ball is released from a height of 45 m. Find the magnitude of average velocity during its motion
till it reaches the ground.

The average velocity is ratio of displacement and time. Here, displacement is given. We need to
find the time of travel. For the motion of ball, we consider the point of release as origin and
upward direction as positive.

Neglecting negative time, t = 3 s. Magnitude of average velocity is :

Exercise 12.

A ball is released from an elevator moving upward with an acceleration . What is the
acceleration of the ball after it is released from the elevator ?

On separation, ball acquires the velocity of elevator – not its acceleration. Once it is released, the
only force acting on it is that due to gravity. Hence, acceleration of the ball is same as that due to
gravity.

Exercise 13.

A ball is released from an elevator moving upward with an acceleration . What is the
acceleration of the ball with respect to elevator after it is released from the elevator ?
On separation, ball acquires the velocity of elevator – not its acceleration. Once it is released, the
only force acting on it is that due to gravity. Hence, acceleration of the ball is same as that due to
gravity. The relative acceleration of the ball (considering downward direction as positive) :

a rel = a ball – a elevator

Exercise 14.

A balloon ascends vertically with a constant speed for 5 second, when a pebble falls from it
reaching the ground in 5 s. Find the speed of balloon.

The velocity of balloon is constant and is a measured value. Let the ball moves up with a velocity
u. At the time of release, the pebble acquires velocity of balloon. For the motion of pebble, we
consider the point of release as origin and upward direction as positive. Here,

Using equation for displacement :

Exercise 15.

A balloon ascends vertically with a constant speed of 10 m/s. At a certain height, a pebble falls
from it reaching the ground in 5 s. Find the height of ballon when pebble is released from the
balloon.

The velocity of balloon is constant. Let the ball moves up with a velocity u. At the time of release,
the pebble acquires velocity of balloon. For the motion of pebble, we consider the point of release
as origin and upward direction as positive. Here,

Using equation for displacement :

⇒ y = 50 − 5 X 25

Height of ballon when pebble is released from it,

Exercise 16.

A ball is released from a top. Another ball is dropped from a point 15 m below the top, when the
first ball reaches a point 5 m below the top. Both balls reach the ground simultaneously.
Determine the height of the top.

We compare motion of two balls under gravity, when second ball is dropped. At that moment, two
balls are 10 m apart. The first ball moves with certain velocity, whereas first ball starts with zero
velocity.

Let us consider downward direction as positive. The velocity of the first ball when it reaches 10 m
below the top is :

v2 = u2 + 2 a x ⇒ v2 = 0 + 2 X 10 X 5

Let the balls take time “t” to reach the gorund. First ball travels 10 m more than second ball. Let 1
and 2 denote first and second ball, then,

10 t = 10

In this time, second ball travels a distance given by :

But, second ball is 15 m below the top. Hence, height of the top is 15 + 5 = 20 m.

Exercise 17.

One ball is dropped from the top at a height 60 m, when another ball is projected up in the same
line of motion. Two balls hit each other 20 m below the top. Compare the speeds of the ball when
they strike.

For the motion of first ball dropped from the top, let downward direction be positive :

v1 = u + a t ⇒ v1 = a t = 10 t

For the ball dropped from the top,

⇒ 20 = 5 t2

Neglecting negative value, t = 2s. Hence, velocity of the ball dropped from the top is :
For the motion of second ball projected from the bottom, let upward direction be positive :

v2 = u + at ⇒ v2 = u – 10 X 2 = u – 20

Clearly, we need to know u. For upward motion,

⇒ 40 = 2 u – 20 = 30 m / s

Thus,

See module titled “ Vertical motion under gravity (application) for more questions.

2.10. Vertical motion under gravity (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the accelerated
motion under gravity. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the
subject matter :

Motion plots

Equal displacement

Equal time
 Displacement in a particular second

Twice in a position

Collision in air

Motion plots

Example 2.27.
Problem : A ball is dropped from a height of 80 m. If the ball looses half its speed after each
strike with the horizontal floor, draw (i) speed – time and (ii) velocity – time plots for two
strikes with the floor. Consider vertical downward direction as positive and g = 10 m / s 2 .
Solution : In order to draw the plot, we need to know the values of speed and velocity against
time. However, the ball moves under gravity with a constant acceleration 10 m / s 2 . As such,
the speed and velocity between strikes are uniformly increasing or decreasing at constant rate.
It means that we need to know end values, when the ball strikes the floor or when it reaches
the maximum height.
In the beginning when the ball is released, the initial speed and velocity both are equal to zero.
Its velocity, at the time first strike, is obtained from the equation of motion as :

Corresponding speed is :

The time to reach the floor is :

According to question, the ball moves up with half the speed. Hence, its speed after first strike
is :

The corresponding upward velocity after first strike is :

 Figure 2.65. Speed – time plot
The ball dropped from a height looses half its height on each strike with the horizontal surface.

Figure 2.66. Velocity – time plot

The ball dropped from a height looses half its height on each strike with the horizontal surface.

It reaches a maximum height, when its speed and velocity both are equal to zero. The time to
reach maximum height is :

After reaching the maximum height, the ball returns towards floor and hits it with the same
speed with which it was projected up,

Corresponding speed is :

The time to reach the floor is :

Again, the ball moves up with half the speed with which ball strikes the floor. Hence, its speed
after second strike is :
The corresponding upward velocity after first strike is :

It reaches a maximum height, when its speed and velocity both are equal to zero. The time to
reach maximum height is :

Example 2.28.
Problem : A ball is dropped vertically from a height “h” above the ground. It hits the ground
and bounces up vertically to a height “h/3”. Neglecting subsequent motion and air resistance,
plot its velocity “v” with the height qualitatively.
Solution : We can proceed to plot first by fixing the origin of coordinate system. Let this be
the ground. Let us also assume that vertical upward direction is the positive y-direction of the
coordinate system. The ball remains above ground during the motion. Hence, height (y) is
always positive. Since we are required to plot velocity .vs. height (displacement), we can use
the equation of motion that relates these two quantities :

During the downward motion, u = 0, a = -g and displacement (y) is positive. Hence,

This is a quadratic equation. As such the plot is a parabola as motion progresses i.e. as y
decreases till it becomes equal to zero (see plot below y-axis).
Similarly, during the upward motion, the ball has certain velocity so that it reaches 1/3 rd of
the height. It means that ball has a velocity less than that with which it strikes the ground.
However, this velocity of rebound is in the upwards direction i.e positive direction of the
coordinate system. In the nutshell, we should start drawing upward motion with a smaller
positive velocity. The equation of motion, now, is :

Again, the nature of the plot is a parabola the relation being a quadratic equation. The plot
progresses till displacement becomes equal to y/3 (see plot above y-axis). The two plots
should look like as given here :
 Figure 2.67. Velocity – displacement plot
The nature of plot is parabola.

Equal displacement

Example 2.29.
Problem : A particle is released from a height of “3h”. Find the ratios of time taken to fall
through equal heights “h”.
Solution : Let t 1 , t 2 and t 3 be the time taken to fall through successive heights “h”. Then, the
vertical linear distances traveled are :

In order to reduce this proportion into the one as required in the question, we carry out a
general reduction of the similar type. In the end, we shall apply the result to the above
proportion. Now, a general reduction of the proportion of this type is carried out as below. Let
:

From the first two ratios,

 Similarly, from the last two ratios,

Now, combining the reduced ratios, we have :

In the nutshell, we conclude that if

Then,

Applying this result as obtained to the question in hand,

We have :

Equal time

Example 2.30.
Problem : Balls are successively dropped one after another at an equal interval from a tower.
At the instant, 9 th ball is released, the first ball hits the ground. Which of the ball in series is
at ¾ of the height of the tower?
Solution : Let “t” be the equal time interval. The first ball hits the ground when 9 th ball is
dropped. It means that the first ball has fallen for a total time (9-1)t = 8t. Let n th ball is at
3/4th of the height of tower. Then,
For the first ball,

For the nth ball,

Combining two equations, we have :

Displacement in a particular second

Example 2.31.
Problem : A ball is dropped vertically from a tower. If the vertical distance covered in the last
second is equal to the distance covered in first 3 seconds, then find the height of the tower.
Consider g = 10 m / s 2 .
Solution : Let us consider that the ball covers the height y n in n th second. Then, the distance
covered in the n th second is given as :

On the other hand, the distance covered in first 3 seconds is :

According to question,

Therefre, the height of the tower is :

Twice in a position

Example 2.32.
Problem : A ball, thrown vertically upward from the ground, crosses a point “A” in time “
t 1 ”. If the ball continues to move up and then return to the ground in additional time “ t 2 ”,
then find the height of “A” from the ground. .
Solution : Let the upward direction be the positive reference direction. The displacement
equation for vertical projection from the ground to the point “A”, is :

In this equation, the only variable that we do not know is initial velocity. In order to determine
initial velocity, we consider the complete upward motion till the ball reaches the maximum
height. We know that the ball takes half of the total time to reach maximum height. It means
that time for upward motion till maximum height is :
As we know the time of flight, final velocity and acceleration, we can know initial velocity :

Substituting this value, the height of point “A” is :

Example 2.33.
Problem : A ball, thrown vertically upward from the ground, crosses a point “A” at a height
80 meters from the ground. If the ball returns to the same position after 6 second, then find the
velocity of projection. (Consider g = 10 ).
Solution : Since two time instants for the same position is given, it is indicative that we may
use the displacement equation as it may turn out to be quadratic equation in time “t”. The
displacement, “y”, is (considering upward direction as positive y-direction) :

We can express time “t”, using quadratic formulae,

Similarly,

According to question,

Squaring both sides we have,

Collision in air

Example 2.34.
Problem : A ball “A” is dropped from a height, “h”, when another ball, “B” is thrown upward
in the same vertical line from the ground. At the instant the balls collide in the air, the speed
of “A” is twice that of “B”. Find the height at which the balls collide.
Solution : Let the velocity of projection of “B” be “u” and let the collision occurs at a fraction
“a” of the height “h” from the ground. We should pause and make mental note of this new
approach to express an intermediate height in terms of fraction of total height (take the help of
figure).

Figure 2.68. Collision in the mid air

The balls collide as they move in same vertical line.

Adhering to the conventional approach, we could have denoted the height at which collision
takes place. For example, we could have considered collision at a vertical displacement y from
the ground. Then displacements of two balls would have been :
“y” and “h – y”
Obviously, the second expression of displacement is polynomial of two terms because of
minus sign involved. On the other hand, the displacements of two balls in terms of fraction,
are :
“ha” and “(1-a)h”
The advantage of the second approach (using fraction) is that displacements are stated in
terms of the product of two quantities. The variable “h” appearing in each of the terms cancel
out if they appear on ether side of the equation and we ultimately get equation in one variable
i.e. “a”. In the nutshell, the approach using fraction reduces variables in the resulting equation.
This point will be highlighted at the appropriate point in the solution to appreciate why we
should use fraction?
Now proceeding with the question, the vertical displacement of “B” is ah and that of “A” is (1-
a)h. We observe here that each of the balls takes the same time to cover respective
displacements. Using equation of constant acceleration in one dimension (considering
downward vertical direction positive),
For ball “A”,

For ball “B”,

The value of “t” obtained from the equation of ball “A” is :

Substituting in the equation of ball “B”, we have :

Now, according to the condition given in the question,

Using equations of motion for constant acceleration, we have :

Recall our discussion on the use of fraction. We can write down the corresponding steps for
conventional method to express displacements side by side and find that the conventional
approach will lead us to an equation as :

Evidently, this is an equation in two variables and hence can not be solved. It is this precise
limitation of conventional approach that we switched to fraction approach to get an equation
in one variable,
 Neglecting, a =0,

The height from the ground at which collision takes place is :

2.11. Non-uniform acceleration*

Non-uniform acceleration constitutes the most general description of motion. It refers to variation
in the rate of change in velocity. Simply put, it means that acceleration changes during motion.
This variation can be expressed either in terms of position (x) or time (t). We understand that if
we can describe non-uniform acceleration in one dimension, we can easily extend the analysis to
two or three dimensions using composition of motions in component directions. For this reason,
we shall confine ourselves to the consideration of non-uniform i.e. variable acceleration in one
dimension.

In this module, we shall describe non-uniform acceleration using expressions of velocity or

acceleration in terms of either of time, “t”, or position, “x”. We shall also consider description of
non-uniform acceleration by expressing acceleration in terms of velocity. As a matter of fact,
there can be various possibilities. Besides, non-uniform acceleration may involve interpretation
acceleration - time or velocity - time graphs.

Accordingly, analysis of non-uniform acceleration motion is carried out in two ways :

Using calculus

Using graphs

Analysis using calculus is generic and accurate, but is limited to the availability of expression of
velocity and acceleration. It is not always possible to obtain an expression of motional attributes
in terms of “x” or “t”. On the other hand, graphical method lacks accuracy, but this method can be
used with precision if the graphs are composed of regular shapes.
Using calculus involves differentiation and integration. The integration allows us to evaluate
expression of acceleration for velocity and evaluate expression of velocity for displacement.
Similarly, differentiation allows us to evaluate expression of position for velocity and evaluate
expression of velocity for acceleration. We have already worked with expression of position in
time. We shall work here with other expressions. Clearly, we need to know a bit about
differentiation and integration before we proceed to analyze non-uniform motion.

Important calculus results

Integration is anti-differentiation i.e. an inverse process. We can compare differentiation and
integration of basic algebraic, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions to understand
the inverse relation between processes. In the next section, we list few important differentiation
and integration results for reference.

Differentiation

Integration

Velocity and acceleration is expressed in terms of time “t

Let the expression of acceleration in x is given as function a(t). Now, acceleration is related to
velocity as :

We obtain expression for velocity by rearranging and integrating :

⇒đv=a(t)đt⇒Δv=∫a(t)đt

This relation yields an expression of velocity in "t" after using initial conditions of motion. We
obtain expression for position/ displacement by using defining equation, rearranging and
integrating :

⇒đx=v(t)đt⇒Δx=∫v(t)đt

This relation yields an expression of position in "t" after using initial conditions of motion.
Example 2.35.
Problem : The acceleration of a particle along x-axis varies with time as :
a=t–1
Velocity and position both are zero at t= 0. Find displacement of the particle in the interval
from t=1 to t = 3 s. Consider all measurements in SI unit.
Solution : Using integration result obtained earlier for expression of acceleration :
Δ v = v2 – v1 = ∫ a ( t ) đ t
Here, v1 = 0 . Let v2 = v , then :

Note that we have integrated RHS between time 0 ans t seconds in order to get an expression
of velocity in “t”.

Using integration result obtained earlier for expression of velocity :

Integrating between t=1 and t=3, we have :

Example 2.36.
Problem : If the velocity of particle moving along a straight line is proportional to power
of time, then how do its displacement and acceleration vary with time?
Solution : Here, we need to find a higher order attribute (acceleration) and a lower order
attribute displacement. We can find high order attribute by differentiation, whereas we can
find lower order attribute by integration.

Let,

where k is a constant. The acceleration of the particle is :

 Hence,

For lower order attribute “displacement”, we integrate the function :

Velocity and acceleration is expressed in terms of time “x”

Let the expression of acceleration in x given as function a(x). Now, the defining equation of
instantaneous acceleration is:

In order to incorporate differentiation with position, “x”, we rearrange the equation as :

We obtain expression for velocity by rearranging and integrating :

∫vdv=∫a(x)dx

This relation yields an expression of velocity in x. We obtain expression for position/

displacement by using defining equation, rearranging and integrating :

This relation yields an expression of position in t.

Example 2.37.
Problem : The acceleration of a particle along x-axis varies with position as :
a=9x
Velocity is zero at t = 0 and x=2m. Find speed at x=4. Consider all measurements in SI unit.
Solution : Using integration,

∫vđv=∫a(x)đx ⇒ v2 = 9 x2 − 36 = 9 ( x2 − 4 )
 We neglect negative sign as particle is moving in x-direction with positive acceleration. At x
=4 m,

Acceleration in terms of velocity

Let acceleration is expressed as function of velocity as :

a=a(v)

Obtaining expression of velocity in time, “t”

The acceleration is defined as :

Arranging terms with same variable on one side of the equation, we have :

Integrating, we have :

Evaluation of this relation results an expression of velocity in t. Clearly, we can proceed as before
to obtain expression of position in t.

Obtaining expression of velocity in time, “x”

In order to incorporate differentiation with position, “x”, we rearrange the defining equation of
acceleration as :

Arranging terms with same variable on one side of the equation, we have :

Integrating, we have :

Evaluation of this relation results an expression of velocity in x. Clearly, we can proceed as before
to obtain expression of position in t.

Example 2.38.
Problem : The motion of a body in one dimension is given by the equation dv(t)/dt = 6.0 -3 v
(t), where v(t) is the velocity in m/s and “t” in seconds. If the body was at rest at t = 0, then
find the expression of velocity.
Solution : Here, acceleration is given as a function in velocity as independent variable. We
are required to find expression of velocity in time. Using integration result obtained earlier for
expression of time :

Substituting expression of acceleration and integrating between t=0 and t=t, we have :

Graphical method
We analyze graphs of motion in parts keeping in mind regular geometric shapes involved in the
graphical representation. Here, we shall work with two examples. One depicts variation of
velocity with respect to time. Other depicts variation of acceleration with respect to time.

Velocity .vs. time

Example 2.39.
Problem : A particle moving in a straight line is subjected to accelerations as given in the
figure below :
 Figure 2.69. Acceleration – time plot
Acceleration – time plot

If v = 0 and t = 0, then draw velocity – time plot for the same time interval.
Solution : In the time interval between t = 0 and t = 2 s, acceleration is constant and is equal
to 2 m / s 2 . Hence, applying equation of motion for final velocity, we have :

But, u = 0 and a = 2 m / s 2 .

The velocity at the end of 2 seconds is 4 m/s. Since acceleration is constant, the velocity –
time plot for the interval is a straight line. On the other hand, the acceleration is zero in the
time interval between t = 2 and t = 4 s. Hence, velocity remains constant in this time interval.
For time interval t = 4 and 6 s, acceleration is - 4 m / s 2 .
From the plot it is clear that the velocity at t = 4 s is equal to the velocity at t = 2 s, which is
given by :

Figure 2.70. Velocity – time plot

Corresponding velocity – time plot.
Putting this value as initial velocity in the equation of velocity, we have :

We should, however, be careful in drawing velocity plot for t = 4 s to t = 6 s. We should

relaize that the equation above is valid in the time interval considered. The time t = 4 s from
the beginning corresponds to t = 0 s and t = 6 s corresponds to t = 2 s for this equation.
Velocity at t = 5 s is obtained by putting t = 1 s in the equation,

Velocity at t = 6 s is obtained by putting t = 2 s in the equation,

Acceleration .vs. time

Example 2.40.
Problem : A particle starting from rest and undergoes a rectilinear motion with acceleration
“a”. The variation of “a” with time “t” is shown in the figure. Find the maximum velocity
attained by the particle during the motion.

Figure 2.71. Acceleration – time plot

The area under plot gives change in velocity.

Solution : We see here that the particle begins from rest and is continuously accelerated in
one direction (acceleration is always positive through out the motion) at a diminishing rate.
Note that though acceleration is decreasing, but remains positive for the motion. It means that
the particle attains maximum velocity at the end of motion i.e. at t = 12 s.
The area under the plot on acceleration – time graph gives change in velocity. Since the plot
start at t = 0 i.e. the beginning of the motion, the areas under the plot gives the velocity at the
end of motion,
Exercises
First identify : what is given and what is required. Establish relative order between given and
required attribute.

Use differentiation method to get a higher order attribute in the following order : displacement
(position vector) → velocity → acceleration.

Use integration method to get a lower order attribute in the following order : acceleration →
velocity → displacement (position vector).

Since we are considering accelerated motion in one dimension, graphical representation of

motion is valid. The interpretation of plot in terms of slope of the curve gives higher order
attribute, whereas interpretation of plot in terms of area under the plot gives lower order
attribute.

Exercise 18.

A particle of mass m moves on the x-axis. It starts from rest t = 0 from the point x = 0, and comes
to rest at t = 1 at the point x = 1. No other information is available about its motion at
intermediate time (0 < t < 1). Prove that magnitude of instantaneous acceleration during the
motion can not be less than 4 m / s 2 .

In between the starting and end point, the particle may undergo any combination of acceleration
and deceleration. According to question, we are required to know the minimum value of
acceleration for any combination possible.

Let us check the magnitude of acceleration for the simplest combination and then we evaluate
other complex possible scenarios. Now, the simplest scenario would be that the particle first
accelerates and then decelerates for equal time and at the same rate to complete the motion.

Figure 2.71. Velocity – time plot

Velocity – time plot
In order to assess the acceleration for a linear motion , we would make use of the fact that area
under v-t plot gives the displacement (= 1 m). Hence,

Thus, the maximum velocity during motion under this condition is 2 m/s. On the other hand, the
acceleration for this motion is equal to the slope of the line,

Now let us complicate the situation, in which particle accelerates for shorter period and
decelerates gently for a longer period (see figure below). This situation would result velocity
being equal to 2 m/s and acceleration greater than 4 m / s 2 .

It is so because time period is fixed (1 s) and hence base of the triangle is fixed. Also as
displacement in given time is 1 m. It means that area under the triangle is also fixed (1 m). As
area is half of the product of base and height, it follows that the height of the triangle should
remain same i.e 2 m/s. For this reason the graphical representations of possible variation of
acceleration and deceleration may look like as shown in the figure here.

Figure 2.71. Velocity – time plot

Area under velocity – time plot gives displacement , whereas slope of the plot gives the acceleration.

Clearly, the slope of OA’ is greater than 4 m / s 2 .

We may argue that why to have a single combination of acceleration and deceleration? What if
the particle undergoes two cycles of acceleration and deceleration? It is obvious that such
consideration will again lead to similar analysis for symmetric and non-symmetric acceleration,
which would be bounded by the value of time and area of the triangle.

Thus we conclude that the minimum value of acceleration is 4 m / s 2 .

Exercise 19.
A particle accelerates at constant rate “a” from rest at and then decelerates at constant rate “b” to
come to rest. If the total time elapsed is “t” during this motion, then find (i) maximum velocity
achieved and (ii) total displacement during the motion.

Figure 2.71. Velocity – time plot

Area under velocity – time plot gives displacement , whereas slope of the plot gives the acceleration.

The particle initially accelerates at a constant rate. It means that its velocity increases with time.
The particle, therefore, gains maximum velocity say, v max , before it begins to decelerate. Let
t 1 and t 2 be the time intervals, for which particle is in acceleration and deceleration respectively.
Then,

From the triangle OAC, the magnitude of acceleration is equal to the slope of straight line OA.
Hence,

Similarly from the triangle CAB, the magnitude of acceleration is equal to the slope of straight
line AB. Hence,

Substituting values of time, we have :

In order to find the displacement, we shall use the fact that area under velocity – time plot is equal
to displacement. Hence,
Putting the value of maximum velocity, we have :

Exercise 20.

The velocity – time plot of the motion of a particle along x - axis is as shown in the figure. If x =
0 at t= 0, then (i) analyze acceleration of particle during the motion (ii) draw corresponding
displacement – time plot (showing nature of the plot) and (iii) find total displacement.

Figure 2.71. Velocity – time plot

Slope of the plot gives acceleration; area under plot gives displacement.

Graphically, slope of the plot yields acceleration and area under the plot yields displacement.

Since the plot involves regular geometric shapes, we shall find areas of these geometric shapes
individually and then add them up to get various points for displacement – time plot.

The displacement between times 0 and 1 s is :

The velocity between 0 and 1 s is increasing at constant rate. The acceleration is constant and its
magnitude is equal to the slope, which is . Since acceleration is in the direction of
motion, the particle is accelerated. The resulting displacement – time curve is a parabola with an
increasing slope.

The displacement between times 1 and 2 s is :

The velocity between 1 and 2 s is constant and as such acceleration is zero. The resulting
displacement – time curve for this time interval is a straight line having slope equal to that of the
magnitude of velocity.

The displacement at the end of 2 s is 5 + 10 = 15 m

Now, the displacement between times 2 and 4 s is :

Figure 2.71. Displacement – time plot

Corresponding displacement – time plot of the given velocity- - time plot.

The velocity between 2 and 4 s is increasing at constant rate. The acceleration, therefore, is
constant and its magnitude is equal to the slope of the plot, . Since acceleration is in
the direction of motion, the particle is accelerated and the resulting displacement – time curve is a
parabola with increasing slope.

The displacement at the end of 4 s is 5 + 10 + 25 = 40 m

Now, the displacement between times 4 and 5 s is :

The velocity between 2 and 4 s is decreasing at constant rate, but always remains positive. As
such, the acceleration is constant, but negative and its magnitude is equal to the slope, which is
. Since acceleration is in the opposite direction of motion, the particle is decelerated.
The resulting displacement – time curve is an inverted parabola with decreasing slope.
The final displacement at the end of 5 s is 5 + 10 + 25 + 15 = 55 m

Characteristics of motion : One dimensional, Unidirectional, variable acceleration in one

dimension (magnitude)

Exercise 21.

The motion of a body in one dimension is given by the equation dv(t)/dt = 6.0 -3 v (t), where v(t)
is the velocity in m/s and “t” in seconds. If the body was at rest at t = 0, then find the terminal
speed.

In order to answer this question, we need to know the meaning of terminal speed. The terminal
speed is the speed when the body begins to move with constant speed. Now, the first time derivate
of velocity gives the acceleration of the body :

For terminal motion, a = 0. Hence,

Exercise 22.

The motion of a body in one dimension is given by the equation dv(t)/dt = 6.0 -3 v (t), where v(t)
is the velocity in m/s and “t” in seconds. If the body was at rest at t = 0, then find the magnitude
of the initial acceleration and also find the velocity, when the acceleration is half the initial value.

We have to find the acceleration at t = 0 from the equation given as :

Generally, we would have been required to know the velocity function so that we can evaluate the
function for time t = 0. In this instant case, though the function of velocity is not known, but we
know the value of velocity at time t = 0. Thus, we can know acceleration at t =0 by just
substituting the value for velocity function at that time instant as :

Now when the acceleration is half the initial acceleration,

Hence,

Glossary

Definition: Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
Definition: Acceleration
Acceleration of a point body is equal to the second derivative of position vector with respect to
time.
Definition: Instantaneous acceleration
Instantaneous acceleration is equal to the first derivative of velocity with respect to time.

Solutions
 Chapter 3. Relative motion

3.1. Relative velocity in one dimension*

The measurements, describing motion, are subject to the state of motion of the frame of reference
with respect to which measurements are made. Our day to day perception of motion is generally
earth’s view – a view common to all bodies at rest with respect to earth. However, we encounter
occasions when there is perceptible change to our earth’s view. One such occasion is traveling on
the city trains. We find that it takes lot longer to overtake another train on a parallel track. Also,
we see two people talking while driving separate cars in the parallel lane, as if they were
stationary to each other!. In terms of kinematics, as a matter of fact, they are actually stationary to
each other - even though each of them are in motion with respect to ground.

In this module, we set ourselves to study motion from a perspective other than that of earth. Only
condition we subject ourselves is that two references or two observers making the measurements
of motion of an object, are moving at constant velocity (We shall learn afterward that two such
reference systems moving with constant velocity is known as inertial frames, where Newton’s
laws of motion are valid.).

The observers themselves are not accelerated. There is, however, no restriction on the motion of
the object itself, which the observers are going to observe from different reference systems. The
motion of the object can very well be accelerated. Further, we shall study relative motion for two
categories of motion : (i) one dimension (in this module) and (ii) two dimensions (in another
module). We shall skip three dimensional motion – though two dimensional study can easily be
extended to three dimensional motion as well.

Relative motion in one dimension

We start here with relative motion in one dimension. It means that the individual motions of the
object and observers are along a straight line with only two possible directions of motion.

Position of the point object

We consider two observers “A” and “B”. The observer “A” is at rest with earth, whereas observer
“B” moves with a velocity v B A with respect to the observer “A”. The two observers watch the
motion of the point like object “C”. The motions of “B” and “C” are along the same straight line.
 It helps to have a convention about writing subscripted symbol such as v B A . The first
subscript indicates the entity possessing the attribute (here velocity) and second subscript
indicates the entity with respect to which measurement is made. A velocity like v B A shall,
therefore, mean velocity of “B” with respect to “A”.

The position of the object “C” as measured by the two observers “A” and “B” are x C A and x C B as
shown in the figure. The observers are represented by their respective frame of reference in the
figure.

Figure 3.1. Position

Here,

Velocity of the point object

We can obtain velocity of the object by differentiating its position with respect to time. As the
measurements of position in two references are different, it is expected that velocities in two
references are different, because one observer is at rest, whereas other observer is moving with
constant velocity.

and
Now, we can obtain relation between these two velocities, using the relation
x C A = x B A + x C B and differentiating the terms of the equation with respect to time :

Figure 3.2. Relative velocity

The meaning of the subscripted velocities are :

v C A : velocity of object "C" with respect to "A"

v C B : velocity of object "C" with respect to "B"

v B A : velocity of object "B" with respect to "A"

Example 3.1.
Problem : Two cars, standing a distance apart, start moving towards each other with speeds 1
m/s and 2 m/s along a straight road. What is the speed with which they approach each other ?
Solution : Let us consider that "A" denotes Earth, "B" denotes first car and "C" denotes second
car. The equation of relative velocity for this case is :

Here, we need to fix a reference direction to assign sign to the velocities as they are moving
opposite to each other and should have opposite signs. Let us consider that the direction of the
velocity of B is in the reference direction, then
 Figure 3.3. Relative velocity

Now :

This means that the car "C" is approaching "B" with a speed of -3 m/s along the straight road.
Equivalently, it means that the car "B" is approaching "C" with a speed of 3 m/s along the
straight road. We, therefore, say that the two cars approach each other with a relative speed of
3 m/s.

Acceleration of the point object

If the object being observed is accelerated, then its acceleration is obtained by the time derivative
of velocity. Differentiating equation of relative velocity, we have :

The meaning of the subscripted accelerations are :

a C A : acceleration of object "C" with respect to "A"

a C B : acceleration of object "C" with respect to "B"

a B A : acceleration of object "B" with respect to "A"

But we have restricted ourselves to reference systems which are moving at constant velocity. This
means that relative velocity of "B" with respect to "A" is a constant. In other words, the
acceleration of "B" with respect to "A" is zero i.e. a B A = 0 . Hence,
The observers moving at constant velocity, therefore, measure same acceleration of the object. As
a matter of fact, this result is characteristics of inertial frame of reference. The reference frames,
which measure same acceleration of an object, are inertial frames of reference.

Interpretation of the equation of relative velocity

The important aspect of relative velocity in one dimension is that velocity has only two possible
directions. We need not use vector notation to write or evaluate equation of relative velocities in
one dimension. The velocity, therefore, can be treated as signed scalar variable; plus sign
indicating velocity in the reference direction and minus sign indicating velocity in opposite to the
reference direction.

Equation with reference to earth

The equation of relative velocities refers velocities in relation to different reference system.

We note that two of the velocities are referred to A. In case, “A” denotes Earth’s reference, then
we can conveniently drop the reference. A velocity without reference to any frame shall then mean
Earth’s frame of reference.

This is an important relation. This is the working relation for relative motion in one dimension.
We shall be using this form of equation most of the time, while working with problems in relative
motion. This equation can be used effectively to determine relative velocity of two moving
objects with uniform velocities (C and B), when their velocities in Earth’s reference are known.
Let us work out an exercise, using new notation and see the ease of working.

Example 3.2.
Problem : Two cars, initially 100 m distant apart, start moving towards each other with
speeds 1 m/s and 2 m/s along a straight road. When would they meet ?
Solution : The relative velocity of two cars (say 1 and 2) is :

Let us consider that the direction v 1 is the positive reference direction.

Here, v 1 = 1 m/s and v 2 = -2 m/s. Thus, relative velocity of two cars (of 2 w.r.t 1) is :
 This means that car "2" is approaching car "1" with a speed of -3 m/s along the straight road.
Similarly, car "1" is approaching car "2" with a speed of 3 m/s along the straight road.
Therefore, we can say that two cars are approaching at a speed of 3 m/s. Now, let the two cars
meet after time “t” :

Order of subscript

There is slight possibility of misunderstanding or confusion as a result of the order of subscript in

the equation. However, if we observe the subscript in the equation, it is easy to formulate a rule as
far as writing subscript in the equation for relative motion is concerned. For any two subscripts
say “A” and “B”, the relative velocity of “A” (first subscript) with respect to “B” (second
subscript) is equal to velocity of “A” (first subscript) subtracted by the velocity of “B” (second
subscript) :

and the relative velocity of B (first subscript) with respect to A (second subscript) is equal to
velocity of B (first subscript) subtracted by the velocity of A (second subscript):

Evaluating relative velocity by making reference object stationary

An inspection of the equation of relative velocity points to an interesting feature of the equation.
We need to emphasize that the equation of relative velocity is essentially a vector equation. In one
dimensional motion, we have taken the liberty to write them as scalar equation :

Now, the equation comprises of two vector quantities ( v B and – v A ) on the right hand side of the
equation. The vector “ – v A ” is actually the negative vector i.e. a vector equal in magnitude, but
opposite in direction to “ v A ”. Thus, we can evaluate relative velocity as following :

1. Apply velocity of the reference object (say object "A") to both objects and render the reference
object at rest.

2. The resultant velocity of the other object ("B") is equal to relative velocity of "B" with respect
to "A".

This concept of rendering the reference object stationary is explained in the figure below. In order
to determine relative velocity of car "B" with reference to car "A", we apply velocity vector of car
"A" to both cars. The relative velocity of car "B" with respect to car "A" is equal to the resultant
velocity of car "B".

Figure 3.4. Relative velocity

This technique is a very useful tool for consideration of relative motion in two dimensions.

Direction of relative velocities

For a pair of two moving objects moving uniformly, there are two values of relative velocity
corresponding to two reference frames. The values differ only in sign – not in magnitude. This is
clear from the example here.

Example 3.3.
Problem : Two cars start moving away from each other with speeds 1 m/s and 2 m/s along a
straight road. What are relative velocities ? Discuss the significance of their sign.
Solution : Let the cars be denoted by subscripts “1” and “2”. Let us also consider that the
direction v 2 is the positive reference direction, then relative velocities are :

Figure 3.5. Relative velocity

 The sign attached to relative velocity indicates the direction of relative velocity with respect
to reference direction. The directions of relative velocity are different, depending on the
reference object.
However, two relative velocities with different directions mean same physical situation. Let
us read the negative value first. It means that car 1 moves away from car 2 at a speed of 3 m/s
in the direction opposite to that of car 2. This is exactly the physical situation. Now for
positive value of relative velocity, the value reads as car 2 moves from car 1 in the direction
of its own velocity. This also is exactly the physical situation. There is no contradiction as far
as physical interpretation is concerned. Importantly, the magnitude of approach – whatever be
the sign of relative velocity – is same.

Figure 3.6. Relative velocity

Relative velocity .vs. difference in velocities

It is very important to understand that relative velocity refers to two moving bodies – not a single
body. Also that relative velocity is a different concept than the concept of "difference of two
velocities", which may pertain to the same or different objects. The difference in velocities
represents difference of “final” velocity and “initial” velocity and is independent of any order of
subscript. In the case of relative velocity, the order of subscripts are important. The expression for
two concepts viz relative velocity and difference in velocities may look similar, but they are
different concepts.

Relative acceleration

We had restricted out discussion up to this point for objects, which moved with constant velocity.
The question, now, is whether we can extend the concept of relative velocity to acceleration as
well. The answer is yes. We can attach similar meaning to most of the quantities - scalar and
vector both. It all depends on attaching physical meaning to the relative concept with respect to a
particular quantity. For example, we measure potential energy (a scalar quantity) with respect to
an assumed datum.

Extending concept of relative velocity to acceleration is done with the restriction that
measurements of individual accelerations are made from the same reference.

If two objects are moving with different accelerations in one dimension, then the relative
acceleration is equal to the net acceleration following the same working relation as that for
relative velocity. For example, let us consider than an object designated as "1" moves with
acceleration " a 1 " and the other object designated as "2" moves with acceleration " a 2 " along a
straight line. Then, relative acceleration of "1" with respect to "2" is given by :

Similarly,relative acceleration of "2" with respect to "1" is given by :

Worked out problems

Example 3.4. Relative motion

Problem :Two trains are running on parallel straight tracks in the same direction. The train,
moving with the speed of 30 m/s overtakes the train ahead, which is moving with the speed of
20 m/s. If the train lengths are 200 m each, then find the time elapsed and the ground distance
covered by the trains during overtake.
Solution : First train, moving with the speed of 30 m/s overtakes the second train, moving
with the speed of 20 m/s. The relative speed with which first train overtakes the second train,

The figure here shows the initial situation, when faster train begins to overtake and the final
situation, when faster train goes past the slower train. The total distance to be covered is equal
to the sum of each length of the trains (L1 + L2) i.e. 200 + 200 = 400 m. Thus, time taken to
overtake is :
 Figure 3.7. The total relative distance
The total relative distance to cover during overtake is equal to the sum of lengths of each train.

In this time interval, the two trains cover the ground distance given by:

Exercise 1.

In the question given in the example, if the trains travel in the opposite direction, then find the
time elapsed and the ground distance covered by the trains during the period in which they cross
each other.

The total distance to be covered is equal to the sum of each length of the trains i.e. 200 + 200 =
400 m. Thus, time taken to overtake is :

Now, in this time interval, the two trains cover the ground distance given by:

In this case, we find that the sum of the lengths of the trains is equal to the ground distance
covered by the trains, while crossing each other.

Check your understanding

Check the module titled Relative velocity in one dimension (Check your understanding) to test
your understanding of the topics covered in this module.

3.2. Relative velocity in one dimension(application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Hints on solving problems

1. Foremost thing in solving problems of relative motion is about visualizing measurement. If we
say a body "A" has relative velocity "v" with respect to another moving body "B", then we
simply mean that we are making measurement from the moving frame (reference) of "B".

2. The concept of relative velocity applies to two objects. It is always intuitive to designate one
of the objects as moving and other as reference object.

3. It is helpful in solving problem to make reference object stationary by applying negative of its
velocity to both objects. The resultant velocity of the moving object is equal to the relative
velocity of the moving object with respect to reference object. If we interpret relative velocity
in this manner, it gives easy visualization as we are accustomed to observing motion from
stationary state.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the relative velocity
in one dimension.

Example 3.5.
Problem : A jet cruising at a speed of 1000 km/hr ejects hot air in the opposite direction. If
the speed of hot air with respect to Jet is 800 km/hr, then find its speed with respect to ground.
Solution : Let the direction of Jet be x – direction. Also, let us denote jet with “A” and hot air
with “B”. Here,
Now,

The speed of the hot air with respect to ground is 200 km/hr.

Example 3.6.
Problem : If two bodies, at constant speeds, move towards each other, then the linear distance
between them decreases at 6 km/hr. If the bodies move in the same direction with same
speeds, then the linear distance between them increases at 2 km/hr. Find the speeds of two
bodies (in km/hr).
Solution : Let the speeds of the bodies are “u” and “v” respectively. When they move towards
each other, the relative velocity between them is :

When they are moving in the same direction, the relative velocity between them is :

Solving two linear equations, we have :

u = 4 km/hr
v = 2 km/hr

Example 3.7.
Problem : Two cars A and B move along parallel paths from a common point in a given
direction. If “u” and “v” be their speeds (u > v), then find the separation between them after
time “t”.
Solution : The relative velocity of the cars is :

The separation between the cars is :

Example 3.8.
Problem : Two trains of length 100 m each, running on parallel track, take 20 seconds to
overtake and 10 seconds to cross each other. Find their speeds (in m/s).
Solution : The distance traveled in the two cases is 100 + 100 = 200m.
Let their speeds be “u” and “v”. Now, relative velocity for the overtake is :

The relative velocity to cross each other is :

Solving two linear equations, we have :

u = 15 m/s and v = 5 m/s.

Example 3.9.
Problem : Two cars are moving in the same direction at the same speed,”u”. The cars
maintain a linear distance "x" between them. An another car (third car) coming from opposite
direction meets the two cars at an interval of “t”, then find the speed of the third car.
Solution : Let “u” be the speed of either of the two cars and “v” be the speed of the third car.
The relative velocity of third car with respect to either of the two cars is :

The distance between the two cars remains same as they are moving at equal speeds in the
same direction. The events of meeting two cars separated by a distance “x” is described in the
context of relative velocity. We say equivalently that the third car is moving with relative
velocity "u+v", whereas the first two cars are stationary. Thus, distance covered by the third
car with relative velocity is given by :

Example 3.10.
Problem : Two cars, initially at a separation of 12 m, start simultaneously. First car “A”,
starting from rest, moves with an acceleration 2 m / s 2 , whereas the car “B”, which is ahead,
moves with a constant velocity 1 m/s along the same direction. Find the time when car “A”
overtakes car “B”.
Solution : We shall attempt this question, using concept of relative velocity. First we need to
understand what does the event “overtaking” mean? Simply said, it is the event when both cars
are at the same position at a particular time instant. Subsequently, the car coming from behind
moves ahead.
Now relative velocity has an appropriate interpretation suiting to this situation. The relative
velocity of “A” with respect to “B” means that the car “B” is stationary, while car “A” moves
with relative velocity. Thus, problem reduces to a simple motion of a single body moving with
a certain velocity (relative velocity) and covering a certain linear distance (here sepeartion of
12 m) with certain acceleration. Note that car “B” has no acceleration.
Relative velocity of “A” with respect to “B”, i.e. v AB , at the start of motion is :

Relative acceleration of “A” with respect to “B”, i.e. aAB is :

Applying equation of motion for a single body (remember the second body is rendered
stationary),

Neglecting negative value,

Note : We can solve this problem without using the concept of relative velocity as well. The
car “A” moves 12 m more than the distance covered by “B” at the time of overtake. If car “B”
moves by “x” meters, then car “A” travels “x+12” meters. It means that :

Putting values,

This is the same equation as obtained earlier. Hence,

Evidently, it appears to be much easier when we do not use the concept of relative velocity.
This is the case with most situations in one dimensional motion of two bodies. It is easier not
to use concept of relative velocity in one dimensional motion to the extent possible. We shall
learn subsequently, however, that the concept of relative velocity has an edge in analyzing two
dimensional motion, involving two bodies.
 3.3. Relative velocity in two dimensions*

The concept of relative motion in two or three dimensions is exactly same as discussed for the
case of one dimension. The motion of an object is observed in two reference systems as before –
the earth and a reference system, which moves with constant velocity with respect to earth. The
only difference here is that the motion of the reference system and the object ,being observed, can
take place in two dimensions. The condition that observations be carried out in inertial frames is
still a requirement to the scope of our study of relative motion in two dimensions.

As a matter of fact, theoretical development of the equation of relative velocity is so much alike
with one dimensional case that the treatment in this module may appear repetition of the text of
earlier module. However, application of relative velocity concept in two dimensions is different in
content and details, requiring a separate module to study the topic.

Relative motion in two dimensions

The important aspect of relative motion in two dimensions is that we can not denote vector
attributes of motion like position, velocity and acceleration as signed scalars as in the case of one
dimension. These attributes can now have any direction in two dimensional plane (say “xy” plane)
and as such they should be denoted with either vector notations or component scalars with unit
vectors.

Position of the point object

We consider two observers A and B. The observer “A” is at rest with respect to earth, whereas
observer “B” moves with a constant velocity with respect to the observer on earth i.e. “A”. The
two observers watch the motion of the point like object “C”. The motions of “B” and “C” are as
shown along dotted curves in the figure below. Note that the path of observer "B" is a straight line
as it is moving with constant velocity. However, there is no such restriction on the motion of
object C, which can be accelerated as well.

The position of the object “C” as measured by the two observers “A” and “B” are r C A and r C B .
The observers are represented by their respective frame of reference in the figure.
 Figure 3.8. Positions
The observers are represented by their respective frame of reference.

Here,

Velocity of the point object

We can obtain velocity of the object by differentiating its position with respect to time. As the
measurements of position in two references are different, it is expected that velocities in two
references are different,

and

The velocities of the moving object “C” ( v C A and v C B ) as measured in two reference systems
are shown in the figure. Since the figure is drawn from the perspective of “A” i.e. the observer on
the ground, the velocity v C A of the object "C" with respect to "A" is tangent to the curved path.
 Figure 3.9. Velocity
The observers measure different velocities.

Now, we can obtain relation between these two velocities, using the relation
r C A = r B A + r C B and differentiating the terms of the equation with respect to time as :

The meaning of the subscripted velocities are :

v C A : velocity of object "C" with respect to "A"

v C B : velocity of object "C" with respect to "B"

v B A : velocity of object "B" with respect to "A"

Example 3.11.
Problem : A boy is riding a cycle with a speed of 5√3 m/s towards east along a straight line.
It starts raining with a speed of 15 m/s in the vertical direction. What is the direction of
rainfall as seen by the boy.
Solution : Let us denote Earth, boy and rain with symbols A, B and C respectively. The
question here provides the velocity of B and C with respect to A (Earth).

We need to determine the direction of rain (C) with respect to boy (B) i.e. v C B .
 We now draw the vector diagram to evaluate the terms on the right side of the equation. Here,
we need to evaluate “ v C A – v B A ”, which is equivalent to “ ”. We apply
parallelogram theorem to obtain vctor sum as reprsesented in the figure.

Figure 3.10. Relative velocity

For the boy (B), the rain appears to fall, making an angle “θ” with the vertical (-y direction).

Acceleration of the point object

If the object being observed is accelerated, then its acceleration is obtained by the time derivative
of velocity. Differentiating equation of relative velocity, we have :

The meaning of the subscripted accelerations are :

a C A : acceleration of object "C" with respect to "A"

a C B : acceleration of object "C" with respect to "B"

a B A : acceleration of object "B" with respect to "A"

But we have restricted ourselves to reference systems which are moving at constant velocity. This
means that relative velocity of "B" with respect to "A" is a constant. In other words, the
acceleration of "B" with respect to "A" is zero i.e. a B A = 0 . Hence,

The observers moving at constant velocities, therefore, measure same acceleration of the object
(C).

Interpretation of the equation of relative velocity

The interpretation of the equation of relative motion in two dimensional motion is slightly tricky.
The trick is entirely about the ability to analyze vector quantities as against scalar quantities.
There are few alternatives at our disposal about the way we handle the vector equation.

In broad terms, we can either use graphical techniques or vector algebraic techniques. In graphical
method, we can analyze the equation with graphical representation along with analytical tools like
Pythagoras or Parallelogram theorem of vector addition as the case may be. Alternatively, we can
use vector algebra based on components of vectors.

Our approach shall largely be determined by the nature of inputs available for interpreting the
equation.

Equation with reference to earth

The equation of relative velocities refers velocities in relation to different reference system.

We note that two of the velocities are referred to A. In case, “A” denotes Earth’s reference, then
we can conveniently drop the reference. A velocity without reference to any frame shall then mean
Earth’s frame of reference.

This is an important relation. As a matter of fact, we shall require this form of equation most of
the time, while working with problems in relative motion. This equation can be used effectively to
determine relative velocity of two moving objects with uniform velocity (C and B), when their
velocities in Earth’s reference are known.

Note : As in the case of one dimensional case, we can have a working methodology to find the
relative velocity in two dimensions. In brief, we drop the reference to ground all together. We
simply draw two velocities as given v A , v B . Then, we reverse the direction of reference velocity
v B and find the resultant relative velocity, v A B = v A – v B , applying parallelogram theorem or
using algebraic method involving unit vectors.
In general, for any two objects “A” and “B”, moving with constant velocities,

Example 3.12.
Problem : A person is driving a car towards east at a speed of 80 km/hr. A train appears to
move towards north with a velocity of 80√3 km/hr to the person driving the car. Find the
speed of the train as measured with respect to earth.
Solution : Let us first identify the car and train as “A” and “B”. Here, we are provided with
the speed of car (“A”) with respect to Earth i.e. " v A " and speed of train (“B”) with respect to
“A” i.e v BA .

Figure 3.11. Relative velocity

We are required to find the speed of train (“B”) with respect to Earth i.e. v B , . From equation
of relative motion, we have :

To evaluate the right hand side of the equation, we draw vectors “ v B A ” and “ v A ” and use
parallelogram law to find the actual speed of the train.
 Figure 3.12. Relative velocity

Evaluation of equation using analytical technique

We have already used analytical method to evaluate vector equation of relative velocity.
Analytical method makes use of Pythagoras or Parallelogram theorem to determine velocities.

Analytical method, however, is not limited to making use of Pythagoras or Parallelogram

theorem. Depending on situation, we may use simple trigonometric relation as well to evaluate
equation of relative motion in two dimensions. Let us work out an exercise to emphasize
application of such geometric (trigonometric) analytical technique.

Example 3.13.
Problem : A person, standing on the road, holds his umbrella to his back at an angle 30° with
the vertical to protect himself from rain. He starts running at a speed of 10 m/s along a
straight line. He finds that he now has to hold his umbrella vertically to protect himself from
the rain. Find the speed of raindrops as measured with respect to (i) ground and (ii) the
moving person.
Solution : Let us first examine the inputs available in this problem. To do this let us first
identify different entities with symbols. Let A and B denote the person and the rain
respectively. The initial condition of the person gives the information about the direction of
rain with respect to ground - notably not the speed with which rain falls. It means that we
know the direction of velocity v B . The subsequent condition, when person starts moving, tells
us the velocity of the person “A” with respect to ground i.e v A . Also, it is given that the
direction of relative velocity of rain “B” with respect to the moving person “A” is vertical i.e.
we know the direction of relative velocity v B A .
 We draw three vectors involved in the problem as shown in the figure. OP represents v A ; OQ
represents v B ; OR represents v B A .

Figure 3.13. Relative velocity

In ΔOCB,

and

Equation in component form

So far we have used analytical method to evaluate vector equation of relative velocity. It is
evident that vector equation also renders to component form – particularly when inputs are given
in component form along with unit vectors.

Here, we shall highlight one very important aspect of component analysis, which helps us to
analyze complex problems. The underlying concept is that consideration of motion in mutually
perpendicular direction is independent of each other. This aspect of independence is emphasized
in analyzing projectile motion, where motions in vertical and horizontal directions are found to be
independent of each other (it is an experimental fact).

We work out the exercise to illustrate the application of the technique, involving component
analysis.
Example 3.14.
Problem : Three particles A,B and C situated at the vertices of an equilateral triangle starts
moving simultaneously at a constant speed “v” in the direction of adjacent particle, which
falls ahead in the anti-clockwise direction. If “a” be the side of the triangle, then find the time
when they meet.
Solution : Here, particle “A” follows “B”, “B” follows “C” and “C” follows “A”. The
direction of motion of each particle keeps changing as motion of each particle is always
directed towards other particle. The situation after a time “t” is shown in the figure with a
possible outline of path followed by the particles before they meet.

Figure 3.14. Relative velocity

This problem appears to be complex as the path of motion is difficult to be defined. But, it has
a simple solution in component analysis. Let us consider the pair “A” and “B”. The initial
component of velocities in the direction of line joining the initial position of the two particles
is “v” and “vcosθ” as shown in the figure here :

Figure 3.15. Relative velocity

 The component velocities are directed towards eachother. Now, considering the linear (one
dimensional) motion in the direction of AB, the relative velocity of “A” with respect to “B” is
:

In equilateral triangle, θ = 60°,

The time taken to cover the displacement “a” i..e. the side of the triangle,

Check your understanding

Check the module titled Relative velocity in two dimensions (application) to test your
understanding of the topics covered in this module.

3.4. Relative velocity in two dimensions (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Hints on solving problems

1. Solution of problems involving relative motion in two dimensions involves evaluation of
vector equation. The evaluation or analysis of vector equation is not limited to the use of
pythogoras theorem, but significantly makes use of goemtric consideration like evaluating
trigonometirc ratios.

2. Generally, we attempt graphical solution. This is so because graphical solution is intuitive and
indicative of actual physical phenomenon. However, most of the problem can equally be
handled with the help of algebraic vector analysis, involving unit vectors.
Representative problems and their solutions
We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the relative velocity
in two dimensions. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the
subject matter :

Velocity of an individual object

Relative velocity

Closest approach

Velocity of an individual object

Example 3.15.
Problem : A man, moving at 3 km/hr along a straight line, finds that the rain drops are falling
at 4 km/hr in vertical direction. Find the angle with which rain drop hits the ground.
Solution : Let the man be moving in x-direction. Let us also denote man with “A” and rain
drop with “B”. Here, we need to know the direction of rain drop with respect to ground i.e. the
direction of v B .
Here,

Using equation, v BA = v B – v A ,

In order to evaluate the right hand side of the equation, we construct the vector diagram as
shown in the figure.
 Figure 3.16. Relative motion in two dimensions

From inspection of given data and using appropriate trigonometric function in ΔOBR, we have
:

Example 3.16.
Problem : A person, moving at a speed of 1 m/s, finds rain drops falling (from back) at 2 m/s
at an angle 30° with the vertical. Find the speed of raindrop (m/s) with which it hits the
ground.
Solution : Let the person be moving in x-direction. Let us also denote man with “A” and rain
drop with “B”. Here we need to know the speed of the rain drops with respect to ground i.e.
v B.
Here,

Using equation, v BA = v B – v A ,

In order to evaluate the right hand side of the equation, we construct the vector diagram as
shown in the figure.
 Figure 3.17. Relative motion in two dimensions

From parallelogram theorem,

Example 3.17.
Problem : A boy moves with a velocity 0.5 i – j in m/s. He receives rains at a velocity 0.5 i –
2 j in m/s. Find the speed at which rain drops meet the ground.
Solution : Let the person be moving along OA. Let us also denote man with “A” and rain drop
with “B”. Here we need to know the speed at which rain drops fall on the ground ( v B ).
Here,

Using equation, v BA = v B – v A ,
 Figure 3.18. Relative motion in two dimensions

Relative velocity

Example 3.18.
Problem : Rain drop appears to fall in vertical direction to a person, who is walking at a
velocity 3 m/s in a given direction. When the person doubles his velocity in the same
direction, the rain drop appears to come to make an angle 45° from the vertical. Find the speed
of the rain drop.
Solution : This is a slightly tricky question. Readers may like to visualize the problem and
solve on their own before going through the solution given here.
Let us draw the situations under two cases. Here, only the directions of relative velocities in
two conditions are given. The figure on left represents initial situation. Here, the vector OP
represents velocity of the person ( vA ); OR represents relative velocity of rain drop with
respect to person ( vBA ); OS represents velocity of rain drop.
The figure on right represents situation when person starts moving with double velocity. Here,
the vector OT represents velocity of the person ( vA1 ); OW represents relative velocity of rain
drop with respect to person ( vBA1 ). We should note that velocity of rain ( vB ) drop remains
same and as such, it is represented by OS represents as before.
 (b) Raindrop appears to fall at angle of 45°.

(a) Raindrop appears to fall vertically.

Figure 3.19. Relative velocity

According to question, we are required to know the speed of raindrop. It means that we need to
know the angle “θ” and the side OS, which is the magnitude of velocity of raindrop. It is
intuitive from the situation that it would help if consider the vector diagram and carry out
geometric analysis to find these quantities. For this, we substitute the vector notations with
known magnitudes as shown here.

Figure 3.20. Relative velocity

Values of different segments are shown.

We note here that

Clearly, triangles ORS and ORW are congruent triangles as two sides and one enclosed angle
are equal.
WR=RS=4m/s
OR=OR
∠ O R W = ∠ O R S = 900
Hence,
∠ W O R = ∠ S O R = 450
In triangle ORS,

Example 3.19.
Problem : Rain drop appears to fall in vertical direction to a person, who is wlaking at a
velocity 3 m/s in a given direction. When the person doubles his velocity in the same
direction, the rain drop appears to come to make an angle 45° from the vertical. Find the speed
of the rain drop, using unit vectors.
Solution : It is the same question as earlier one, but is required to be solved using unit
vectors. The solution of the problem in terms of unit vectors gives us an insight into the
working of algebraic analysis and also let us appreciate the power and elegance of using unit
vectors to find solution of the problem, which otherwise appears to be difficult.
Let the velocity of raindrop be :

where “a” and “b” are constants. Note here that we have considered vertically downward
direction as positive.

(a) Raindrop appears to fall vertically. (b) Raindrop appears to fall at angle of 45°.

Figure 3.21. Relative velocity

 According to question,

The relative velocity of raindrop with respect to person is :

However, it is given that the raindrop appears to fall in vertical direction. It means that
relative velocity has no component in x-direction. Hence,
a−4=0

and

In the second case,

It is given that the raindrop appears to fall in the direction, making an angle 45° with the
vertical.

Note that tangent of the angle is measured from positive x – direction (90° + 45° = 135°) of
the coordinate system.
b=4
Thus, velocity of the raindrop is :

The speed of raindrop is :

Closest approach

Example 3.20.
Problem : The car “B” is ahead of car “A” by 10 km on a straight road at a given time. At this
instant, car “B” turns left on a road, which makes right angle to the original direction. If both
cars are moving at a speed of 40 km/hr, then find the closest approach between the cars and
the time taken to reach closest approach.
 Figure 3.22. Motion of two cars
Motion of two cars in perpendicular directions

Solution : Closest approach means that the linear distance between the cars is mimimum.
There are two ways to handle this question. We can proceed in the conventional manner,
considering individual velocity as observed from ground reference. We use calculus to find
the closest approach. Alternatively, we can use the concept of relative velocity and determine
the closest approach. Here, we shall first use the relative velocity technique. By solving in two
ways, we shall reinforce the conceptual meaning of relative velocity and see that its
interpretation in terms of a stationary reference is a valid conception.
The car “A” moves with certain relative velocity with respect to “B”, which is given by :

Since they are moving with same speed and at right angle to each other, relative velocity is as
shown in the figure. Using pythagoras theorem, the magnitude of relative velocity is :

Figure 3.23. Relative velocity

Relative velocity is obtained as sum of vectors.
Its direction with respect to original direction is :

θ = 450
As we have discussed, relative velocity can be conceptually interpreted as if car “B” is
stationary and car “A” is moving with a velocity making an angle 45°. Since
perpendicular drawn from the position of “B” (which is stationary) to the path of motion of
“A” is the shortest linear distance and hence the closest approach. Therefore, closets approach
by trigonometry of Δ ABC,

Figure 3.24. Relative velocity

Closest approach

We should understand here that car “A” is moving in the direction as shown from the
perspective of car “B”.
The time taken by car “A” to travel km with a velocity of m/s along the direction is :

Now, let us now attempt to analyze motion from the ground’s perpective. The figure here
shows the positions of the car and linear distance between them at a displacement of 1 km.
The linear distance first decreases and then increases. At a given time, the linear distance
between the cars is :
 Figure 3.25. Motion of two cars
Closest approach

For minimum distance, first time derivative is equal to zero. Hence,

⇒ – 10 + x + y = 0
⇒ x + y = 10
Since cars are moving with same speed, x = y. Hence,

The closest approach, therefore, is :

3.5. Analysing motion in a medium*

The motion of an object body in a medium is composed of two motions : (i) motion of the object
and (ii) motion of the medium. The resulting motion as observed by an observer in the reference
frame is the resultant of two motions. The basic equation that governs the context of study is the
equation of relative motion in two dimensions :
 ()

As discussed in the previous module, the motion of the body can alternatively be considered as the
resultant of two motions. This concept of resultant motion is essentially an equivalent way of
stating the concept of relative motion. Rearranging the equation, we have :

vA = vAB + vB ()

Both these equations are a vector equations, which can be broadly dealt in two ways (i)
analytically (using graphics) and (ii) algebraically (using unit vectors). The use of a particular
method depends on the inputs available and the context of motion.

Concept of independence of motion

Analysis of the motion of a body in a medium, specifically, makes use of independence of
motions in two perpendicular directions. On a rectilinear coordinate system, the same principle
can be stated in terms of component velocities. For example, let us consider the motion of a boat
in a river, which tries to reach a point on the opposite bank of the river. The boat sails in the
direction perpendicular to the direction of stream. Had the water been still, the boat would have
reached the point exactly across the river with a velocity ( vy ). But, water body is not still. It has a
velocity in x-direction. The boat, therefore, drifts in the direction of the motion of the water
stream ( vx ).

Figure 3.26. Motion of a Boat

Motions in two mutually perpendicular directions are independent of each other.

The important aspect of this motion is that the drift (x) depends on the component of velocity in
x-direction. This drift (x) is independent of the component of velocity in y-direction. Why?
Simply because, it is an experimental fact, which is fundamental to natural phenomena. We shall
expand on this aspect while studying projectile motion also, where motions in vertical and
horizontal directions are independent of each other.
In the case of boat, the displacements in the mutually perpendicular coordinate directions are :

x = vx t ()

y = vy t ()

Motion of boat in a stream

In this section, we shall consider a general situation of sailing of a boat in a moving stream of
water. In order to keep our context simplified, we consider that stream is unidirectional in x-
direction and the width of stream, “d”, is constant.

Let the velocities of boat (A) and stream (B) be “ v A “ and “ v B “ respectively with respect to
ground. The velocity of boat (A) with respect to stream (B), therefore, is :

vAB = vA − vB

⇒ vA = vAB + vB

Figure 3.27. Resultant velocity

The boat moves with the resultant velocity.

These velocities are drawn as shown in the figure. This is clear from the figure that boat sails in
the direction, making an angle “θ” with y-direction, but reaches destination in different direction.
The boat obviously is carried along in the stream in x-direction. The displacement in x-direction
(x = QR) from the directly opposite position to actual position on the other side of the stream is
called the drift of the boat.

Resultant velocity
The magnitude of resultant velocity is obtained, using parallelogram theorem,

()

where “α” is the angle between v B and v AB vectors. The angle “β” formed by the resultant
velocity with x-direction is given as :

()

Time to cross the stream

The boat covers a linear distance equal to the width of stream “d” in time “t” in y-direction
Applying the concept of independence of motions in perpendicular direction, we can say that boat
covers a linear distance “OQ = d” with a speed equal to the component of resultant velocity in y-
direction.

Now, resultant velocity is composed of (i) velocity of boat with respect to stream and (ii) velocity
of stream. We observe here that velocity of stream is perpendicular to y – direction. As such, it
does not have any component in y – direction. We, therefore, conclude that the component of
resultant velocity is equal to the component of the velocity of boat with respect to stream in y -
direction,. Note the two equal components shown in the figure. They are geometrically equal as
they are altitudes of same parallelogram. Hence,

Figure 3.28. Components of velocity

Components of velocity of boat w.r.t stream and velocity of stream in y-direction are equal.

vAy = vABy = vAB cos θ

where “θ” is the angle that relative velocity of boat w.r.t stream makes with the vertical.
()
We can use either of the two expressions to calculate time to cross the river, depending on the
inputs available.

Drift of the boat

The displacement of the boat in x-direction is independent of motion in perpendicular direction.

Hence, displacement in x-direction is achieved with the component of resultant velocity in x-
direction,

x = ( vAx ) t = ( v B − vABx ) t = ( v B − vAB sin θ ) t

Substituting for time “t”, we have :

()

Special cases

Shortest interval of time to cross the stream

The time to cross the river is given by :

Clearly, time is minimum for greatest value of denominator. The denominator is maximum for θ
= 0°. For this value,
()

This means that the boat needs to sail in the perpendicular direction to the stream to reach the
opposite side in minimum time. The drift of the boat for this condition is :
()

Example 3.21.
Problem : A boat, which has a speed of 10 m/s in still water, points directly across the river of
width 100 m. If the stream flows with the velocity 7.5 m/s in a linear direction, then how far
downstream does the boat touch on the opposite bank.
Solution : Let the direction of stream be in x-direction and the direction across stream is y-
direction. We further denote boat with “A” and stream with “B”. Now, from the question, we
have :
 Figure 3.29. Resultant velocity
The boat moves at an angle with vertical.

The motions in two mutually perpendicular directions are independent of each other. In order
to determine time (t), we consider motion in y – direction,

The displacement in x-direction is :

Putting this value, we have :

The velocity of the boat w.r.t stream and the stream velocity are perpendicular to each other in
this situation of shortest time as shown here in the figure. Magnitude of resultant velocity in this
condition, therefore, is given as :
 Figure 3.30. Resultant velocity
The boat moves at an angle with y-direction.

()

The angle that the resultant makes with y-direction (perpendicular to stream direction) is :

Time to cross the river, in terms of linear distance covered during the motion, is :
()

Direction to reach opposite point of the stream

If the boat is required to reach a point directly opposite, then it should sail upstream. In this case,
the resultant velocity of the boat should be directed in y –direction. The drift of the boat is zero
here. Hence,

⇒ vB − vAB sin θ = 0

()

Thus. the boat should sail upstream at an angle given by above expression to reach a point exactly
opposite to the point of sailing.

The velocity to reach opposite point of the stream

The angle at which boat sails to reach the opposite point is :

This expression points to a certain limitation with respect to velocities of boat and stream. If
velocity of boat in still water is equal to the velocity of stream, then

⇒ θ = 900

It means that boat has to sail in the direction opposite to the stream to reach opposite point. This is
an impossibility from the point of physical reality. Hence, we can say that velocity of boat in still
water should be greater than the velocity of stream ( vAB > vB ) in order to reach a point opposite
to the point of sailing.

In any case, if vAB < vB , then the boat can not reach the opposite point as sine function can not be
greater than 1.

Shortest path

The magnitude of linear distance covered by the boat is given by :

()

It is evident from the equation that linear distance depends on the drift of the boat, “x”. Thus,
shortest path corresponds to shortest drift. Now, there are two situations depending on the relative
magnitudes of velocities of boat and stream.

We should be aware that though the perpendicular distance to stream (width of the river) is the
shortest path, but boat may not be capable to follow this shortest path in the first place.

1: vAB > vB

We have seen that when stream velocity ( vB ) is less than the velocity of boat in still water, the
boat is capable to reach the opposite point across the stream. For this condition, drift (x) is zero
and represents the minimum value. Accordingly, the shortest path is :

smin = d ()

The boat needs to sail upstream at the specified angle. In this case, the resultant velocity is
directed across the river in perpendicular direction and its magnitude is given by :
 Figure 3.31. Resultant velocity
The boat moves perpendicular to stream.

()

The time taken to cross the river is :

()

2: vAB < vB

In this case, the boat is carried away from the opposite point in the direction of stream. Now, the
drift “x” is given as :

For minimum value of “x”, first time derivative of “x” is equal to zero,
()

We need to find minimum drift and corresponding minimum length of path, subject to this
condition.

Motion of an object in a medium

We have discussed the motion in the specific reference of boat in water stream. However, the
consideration is general and is applicable to the motion of a body in a medium. For example, the
discussion and analysis can be extended to the motion of an aircraft, whose velocity is modified
by the motion of the wind.
Example 3.22.
Problem : An aircraft flies with a wind velocity of 200√2 km/hr blowing from south. If the
relative velocity of aircraft with respect to wind is 1000 km/hr, then find the direction in
which aircraft should fly such that it reaches a destination in north – east direction.
Solution : The figure here shows the velocities. OP denotes the velocity of the aircraft in the
still air or equivalently it represents the relative velocity of aircraft with respect to air in
motion; PQ denotes the velocity of the wind and OQ denotes the resultant velocity of the
aircraft. It is clear that the aircraft should fly in the direction OP so that it is ultimately led to
follow the north-east direction.
We should understand here that one of the velocities is resultant velocity of the remaining two
velocities. It follows then that three velocity vectors are represented by the sides of a closed
triangle.

Figure 3.32. Motion of an aircraft

The aircraft flies such a way that it keeps a north – east course.

We can get the direction of OP, if we can find the angle “θ”. The easiest technique to
determine the angle between vectors composing a triangle is to apply sine law,

Putting values, we have :

θ = sin – 1 ( 0.2 )
Hence the aircraft should steer in the direction, making an angle with east as given by :
θ ′ = 450 − sin − 1 ( 0.2 )
 3.6. Resultant motion (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the resultant
velocity. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the subject
matter :

Velocity of the object

Time to cross the stream

Multiple references

Minimum time, distance and speed

Velocity of the object

Example 3.23.
Problem : A person can swim at 1 m/s in still water. He swims to cross a river of width 200 m
to a point exactly opposite to his/her initial position. If the water stream in river flows at 2 m/s
in a linear direction, then find the time taken (in seconds) to reach the opposite point.
Solution : Let the direction of stream be x-direction and the direction across stream be y-
direction. Let us also denote person with “A” and water stream with “B”.
To reach the point across, the person has to swim upstream at an angle such that the velocity
of the person with respect to ground( v A ) is across the direction of water stream. The
situation is shown in the figure.
 Figure 3.33. Relative velocity

Here,

From the ΔOAB,

It is clear from the denominator of the expression that for finite time, OB > AB. From the
values as given in the question, OB < AB and the denominator becomes square root of
negative number. The result is interpreted to mean that the physical event associated with the
expression is not possible.The swimmer, therefore, can not reach the point, which is exactly
opposite to his position. The speed of the swimmer should be greater than that of the stream to
reach the point lying exactly opposite.
Note that we had explained the same situation in the module on the subject with the help of
the value of "sinθ", which can not be greater than 1. We have taken a different approach here
to illustrate the same limitation of the swimmer's ability to cross the water stream, showing
that the interpretation is consistent and correct.

Example 3.24.
Problem : The direction of water stream in a river is along x – direction of the coordinate
system attached to the ground. A swimmer swims across the river with a velocity (
0.8 i + 1.4 j ) m/s, as seen from the ground. If the river is 70 m wide, how long (in seconds)
does he take to reach the river bank on the other side ?
Solution : We recognize here that the given velocity represents the resultant velocity ( v A ) of
the swimmer (A). The time to reach the river bank on the other side is a function of
component velocity in y-direction.

Figure 3.34. Relative velocity

Here,

Example 3.25.
Problem : A person can swim at a speed “u” in still water. He points across the direction of
water stream to cross a river. The water stream flows with a speed “v” in a linear direction.
Find the direction in which he actually swims with respect to the direction of stream.
Solution : Let the direction of stream be x-direction and the direction across stream be y-
direction. Let us also denote person with "A" and water stream with “B”.
Here,

Using equation, v AB = v A – v B ,

From the figure,

 Figure 3.35. Relative velocity

The direction in which he actually swims with respect to the direction of stream is

Time to cross the river

Example 3.26.
Problem : A person can swim at a speed 1 m/s in still water. He swims perpendicular to the
direction of water stream, flowing at the speed 2 m/s. If the linear distance covered during the
motion is 300 m, then find the time taken to cross the river.
Solution : Let the direction of stream be x-direction and the direction across stream be y-
direction. Let us also denote ground person with "A" and water stream with “B”. This is
clearly the situation corresponding to the least time for crossing the river.
Here,

We note here that the perpendicular linear distance i.e. the width of river is not given. Instead,
the linear distance covered during the motion is given. Hence, we need to find the resultant
speed in the direction of motion to find time. Using equation for the resultant velocity,

From the figure, we have :

 Figure 3.36. Relative velocity

Example 3.27.
Problem : A person can swim at a speed of √3 m/s in still water. He swims at an angle of
120° from the stream direction while crossing a river. The water stream flows with a speed of
1 m/s. If the river width is 300 m, how long (in seconds) does he take to reach the river bank
on the other side ?
Solution : Let the direction of stream be x-direction and the direction across stream be y-
direction. Here, we need to know the component of the resultant velocity in the direction
perpendicular to the stream.

Figure 3.37. Relative velocity

 This approach, however, would be tedious. We shall use the fact that the component of " v A "
in any one of the two mutually perpendicular directions is equal to the sum of the components
of v A B and v B in that direction.

Thus, time taken to cross the river is :

Multiple references

Example 3.28.
Problem : A boat, capable of sailing at 2 m/s, moves upstream in a river. The water stream
flows at 1 m/s. A person walks from the front end to the rear end of the boat at a speed of 1
m/s along the linear direction. What is the speed of the person (m/s) with respect to ground ?
Solution : Let the direction of stream be x-direction and the direction across stream be y-
direction. We further denote boat with “A”, stream with “B”, and person with “C”.
We shall work out this problem in two parts. In the first part, we shall find out the velocity of
boat (A) with respect to ground and then we shall find out the velocity of person (C) with
respect to ground.
Here,
 Figure 3.38. Relative velocity

The velocity of boat with respect to ground is equal to the resultant velocity of the boat as
given by :

For the motion of person and boat, the velocity of the person with respect to ground is equal to
the resultant velocity of (i) velocity of the person (C) with respect to boat (A) and (ii) velocity
of the boat (A) with respect to ground. We note here that relative velocity of person with
respect to boat is given and that we have already determined the velocity of boat (A) with
respect to ground in the earlier step. Hence,

Figure 3.39. Relative velocity

Minimum time, distance and speed

Example 3.29.
Problem : A boy swims to reach a point “Q” on the opposite bank, such that line joining
initial and final position makes an angle of 45 with the direction perpendicular to the stream
of water. If the velocity of water stream is “u”, then find the minimum speed with which the
boy should swim to reach his target.
 Figure 3.40. Crossing a river
The boy swims to reach point “Q”.

Solution : Let “A” and “B” denote the boy and the stream respectively. Here, we are required
to know the minimum speed of boy, vAB (say “v”) such that he reaches point “Q”. Now, he can
adjust his speed with the direction he swims. Let the boy swims at an angle “θ” with a speed
“v”.

Figure 3.41. Crossing a river

The boy swims to reach point “Q”.

Looking at the figure, it can be seen that we can make use of the given angle by taking
trigonometric ratio such as tangent, which will involve speed of boy in still water (v) and the
speed of water stream (u). This expression may then be used to get an expression for the
minimum speed as required.
The slope of resultant velocity, v A , is :

⇒ vAx = vAx
Now, the components of velocity in “x” and “y” directions are :
vAx = u – v sin θ
vAy = v cos θ
Putting in the equation we have :
u – v sin θ = v cos θ
Solving for “v”, we have :

The velocity is minimum for a maximum value of denominator. The denominator is

maximum for a particular value of the angle, θ; for which :

⇒ cos θ – sin θ = 0
⇒ tan θ = 1
⇒ θ = 450
It means that the boy swims with minimum speed if he swims in the direction making an
angle of 45 with y-direction. His speed with this angle is :

Example 3.30.
Problem : A boat crosses a river in minimum time, taking 10 minutes during which time the
it drifts by 120 m in the direction of stream. On the other hand, boat takes 12.5 minutes while
moving across the river. Find (i) width of the river (ii) velocity of boat in still water and (iii)
speed of the stream.
Solution : There are three pieces of information about "minimum time", "drift" and "time
along shortest path". Individually each of these values translate into three separate equations,
which can be solved to find the required values.
The boat takes minimum time, when it sails in the direction perpendicular to the stream
(current). The time to cross the river is given by dividing width with component of resultant
velocity ( vAy ). The boat, in this case, sails in the perpendicular direction. Hence, the
component of resultant velocity is equal to the velocity of boat in still water ( v AB ). The time
to cross the river in this case is :
 Figure 3.42. Crossing a river
The swims towards “P”.

d = 10 vAB
The drift in this time is given by :
x = vB tmin
Putting values,

Now we need to use the information on shortest path. It is given that the boat moves across
stream in 12.5 minutes. For this boat has to sail upstream at certain angle. The resultant speed
is given by :

Figure 3.43. Crossing a river

The swims towards “P”.
 and the time taken is :

Substituting for “d” and “ v B ” and squaring on both sides, we have :

( v2AB − 122 ) 12.52 = d2 = 102 v2AB

v2AB ( 12.52 − 102 ) = 122 x 12.52

and

Solutions
 Chapter 4. Accelerated motion in two dimensions

4.1. Projectile motion

Projectile motion*
Projectile motion is a special case of two dimensional motion with constant acceleration. Here,
force due to gravity moderates linear motion of an object thrown at certain angle to the vertical
direction. The resulting acceleration is a constant, which is always directed in vertically
downward direction.

The projectile motion emphasizes one important aspect of constant acceleration that even constant
acceleration, which is essentially unidirectional, is capable to produce two dimensional motion.
The basic reason is that force and initial velocity of the object are not along the same direction.
The linear motion of the projected object is continuously worked upon by the gravity, which
results in the change of both magnitude and direction of the velocity. A change in direction of the
velocity ensures that motion is not one dimensional.

The change in magnitude and direction of the velocity is beautifully managed so that time rate of
change in velocity is always directed in vertically downward direction i.e. in the direction of
gravity. This aspect is shown qualitatively for the motion in the figure below as velocity change
successively at the end of every second from v 1 to v 2 to v 3 and so on….. by exactly a vector,
whose magnitude is equal to acceleration due to gravity “g”.

Figure 4.1. Projectile motion

Velocity of the projectile changes by acceleration vector in unit time.
 Force(s) in projectile motion

Flight of base ball, golf ball etc. are examples of projectile motion. In these cases, the projectile is
projected with certain force at certain angle to vertical direction. The force that initiates motion is
a contact force. Once the motion of the ball is initiated, the role of contact force is over. It does
not subsequently affect or change the velocity of the ball as the contact is lost.

In order to emphasize, we restate three important facts about projectile motion. First, we need to
apply force at the time of projection. This force as applied by hand or by any other mechanical
device, accelerates projectile briefly till it is in contact with "thrower". The moment the projectile
is physically disconnected with the throwing device, it moves with a velocity, which it gained
during brief contact period. The role of force responsible for imparting motion is over. Second,
motion of projectile is maintained if there is no net external force (Newton's laws of motion). This
would be the case for projection in force free space. The projectile is initiated into the motion with
certain initial velocity, say u. Had there been no other force(s), then the ball would have moved
along the dotted straight line (as shown in figure below) and might have been lost in to the space.

Figure 4.2. Projectile motion

Path of a projectile projected at an angle with horizontal direction.

Third, the projectile, once out in the space, is acted upon by the force due to gravity and air
resistance. We, however, neglect the effect of air resistance for the time being and confine our
study of the motion which is affected by force due to gravity acting downwards. The motion or
velocity of projectile is then moderated i.e. accelerated (here, acceleration means change of speed
or change of direction or both) by gravity. This is the only force. Hence, acceleration due to
gravity is the only acceleration involved in the motion. This downward acceleration is a constant
and is the acceleration in any projectile motion near Earth, which is not propelled or dragged.

Analysis of projectile motion

There is a very useful aspect of two dimensional motion that can be used with great effect. Two
dimensional motion can be resolved in to two linear motions in two mutually perpendicular
directions : (i) one along horizontal direction and (ii) the other along vertical direction. The linear
motion in each direction can, then, be analyzed with the help of equivalent scalar system, in which
signs of the attributes of the motion represent direction.

We can analyze the projectile motion with the help of equations of motion. As the motion occurs
in two dimensions, we need to use vector equations and interpret them either graphically or
algebraically as per the vector rules. We know that algebraic methods consisting of component
vectors render vectors analysis in relatively simpler way. Still, vector algebra requires certain
level of skills to manipulate vector components in two directions.

In the nutshell, the study of projectile motion is equivalent to two independent linear motions.
This paradigm simplifies the analysis of projectile motion a great deal. Moreover, this equivalent
construct is not merely a mathematical construct, but is a physically verifiable fact. The motions
in vertical and horizontal directions are indeed independent of each other.

To illustrate this, let us consider the flight of two identical balls, which are initiated in motion at
the same time. One ball is dropped vertically and another is projected in horizontal direction with
some finite velocity from the same height. It is found that both balls reach the ground at the same
time and also their elevations above the ground are same at all times during the motion.

Figure 4.3. Projectile motion

Comparing vertical and projectile motion

The fact that two balls reach the ground simultaneously and that their elevations from the ground
during the motion at all times are same, point to the important aspect of the motion that vertical
motion in either of the two motions are identical. This implies that the horizontal motion of the
second ball does not interfere with its vertical motion. By extension, we can also say that the
vertical motion of the second ball does not interfere with its horizontal motion.

Projectile motion and equations of motion

Here, we describe the projectile motion with the help of a two dimensional rectangular coordinate
system such that (This not not a requirement. One can choose reference coordinate system to one's
convenience):

Origin of the coordinate system coincides with point of projection.

The x – axis represents horizontal direction.

The y – axis represents vertical direction.

Initial velocity

Let us consider that the projectile is thrown with a velocity “u” at an angle θ from the horizontal
direction as shown in the figure. The component of initial velocity in the two directions are :

()

Figure 4.4. Projectile motion

Component projection velocities in x and y directions

Equations of motion in vertical direction

Motion in vertical direction is moderated by the constant force due to gravity. This motion,
therefore, is described by one dimensional equations of motion for constant acceleration.

Velocity

The velocity in the vertical direction is given by :

()
An inspection of equation - 2 reveals that this equation can be used to determine velocity in
vertical direction at a given time “t” or to determine time of flight “t”, if final vertical velocity is
given. This assumes importance as we shall see that final vertical velocity at the maximum height
becomes zero.

Figure 4.5. Projectile motion

Vertical component of velocity during motion

The equation for velocity further reveals that the magnitude of velocity is reduced by an amount
“gt” after a time interval of “t” during upward motion. The projectile is decelerated in this part of
motion (velocity and acceleration are in opposite direction). The reduction in the magnitude of
velocity with time means that it becomes zero corresponding to a particular value of “t”. The
vertical elevation corresponding to the position, when projectile stops, is maximum height that
projectile attains. For this situation ( v y = 0), the time of flight “t” is obtained as :

()

Immediately thereafter, projectile is accelerated in vertically downward direction with increasing

speed. In order to appreciate variation of speed and velocity during projectile motion, we calculate
the values of a projectile for successive seconds, which is projected with an initial velocity of 60
m/s making an angle of 30 0 with the horizontal. Here, vertical component of velocity is 60 sin
30 0 " i.e. 30 m/s.

--------------------------------------------------------
Time gt Velocity Magnitude of velocity
(s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
--------------------------------------------------------
0 0 30 30
1 10 20 20
2 20 10 10
3 30 0 0
4 40 -10 10
5 50 -20 20
6 60 -30 30
--------------------------------------------------------

Above table substantiate the observations made earlier. The magnitude of vertical velocity of the
projectile first decreases during upward flight; becomes zero at maximum height; and, thereafter,
picks up at the same rate during downward flight.

It is also seen from the data that each of the magnitude of vertical velocity during upward motion
is regained during downward motion. In terms of velocity, for every vertical velocity there is a
corresponding vertical velocity of equal magnitude, but opposite in direction.

The velocity – time plot of the motion is a straight line with negative slope. The negative slope
here indicates that acceleration i.e acceleration due to gravity is directed in the opposite direction
to that of positive y- direction.

Figure 4.6. Velocity – time plot

The velocity – time plot for constant acceleration in vertical direction

From the plot, we see that velocity is positive and acceleration is negative for upward journey,
indicating deceleration i.e. decrease in speed.

The time to reach maximum height in this case is :

The data in the table confirms this. Further, we know that vertical motion is independent of
horizontal motion and time of flight for vertical motion is equal for upward and downward
journey. This means that total time of flight is 2t i.e. 2x3 = 6 seconds. We must, however, be
careful to emphasize that this result holds if the point of projection and point of return to the
surface are on same horizontal level.

Figure 4.7. Projectile motion

Initial and final velocities are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

There is yet another interesting feature that can be drawn from the data set. The magnitude of
vertical velocity of the projectile (30 m/s) at the time it hits the surface on return is equal to that
at the time of the start of the motion. In terms of velocity, the final vertical velocity at the time of
return is inverted initial velocity.

Displacement

The displacement in vertical direction is given by :

()

Figure 4.8. Projectile motion

Vertical displacement at a given time
This equation gives vertical position or displacement at a given time. It is important to realize that
we have simplified the equation by selecting origin to coincide by the point of
projection so that,

Thus, “y” with this simplification represents position or displacement.

The equation for position or displacement is a quadratic equation in time “t”. It means that
solution of this equation yields two values of time for every value of vertical position or
displacement. This interpretation is in fine agreement with the motion as projectile retraces all
vertical displacement as shown in the figure.

Figure 4.9. Projectile motion

All vertical displacement is achieved twice by the projectile except the point of maximum height.

Time of flight

The time taken to complete the journey from the point of projection to the point of return is the
time of the flight for the projectile. In case initial and final points of the journey are on the same
horizontal level, then the net displacement in vertical direction is zero i.e. y = 0. This condition
allows us to determine the total time of flight “T” as :

T = 0 corresponds to the time of projection. Hence neglecting the first value, the time of flight is :
()
We see that total time of flight is twice the time projectile takes to reach the maximum height. It
means that projectile takes equal times in "up" and "down" motion. In other words, time of ascent
equals time of descent.

Example 4.1.
Problem : A ball is thrown upwards with a speed of 10 m/s making an angle 30° with
horizontal and returning to ground on same horizontal level. Find (i) time of flight and (ii) and
time to reach the maximum height
Solution : Here, component of initial velocity in vertical direction is :

(i) The time of flight, T, is :

(ii) Time to reach the maximum height is half of the total flight when starting and end points
of the projectile motion are at same horizontal level. Hence, the time to reach the maximum
height is 0.5 s.

Equations of motion in horizontal direction

The force due to gravity has no component in horizontal direction. Since gravity is the only force
acting on the projectile, this means that the motion in horizontal direction is not accelerated.
Therefore, the motion in horizontal direction is an uniform motion. This implies that the
component of velocity in x-direction is constant. As such, the position or displacement in x-
direction at a given time “t” is :

()

Figure 4.10. Projectile motion

 Horizontal displacement at a given time

This equation gives the value of horizontal position or displacement at any given instant.

Displacement of projectile

The displacement of projectile is obtained by vector addition of displacements in x and y

direction. The magnitude of displacement of the projectile from the origin at any given instant is :
()

Figure 4.11. Displacement in projectile motion

The angle that displacement vector subtends on x-axis is :

()

Velocity of projectile

The velocity of projectile is obtained by vector addition of velocities in x and y direction. Since
component velocities are mutually perpendicular to each other, we can find magnitude of velocity
of the projectile at any given instant, applying Pythagoras theorem :
()
 Figure 4.12. Velocity of a projectile

The angle that the resultant velocity subtends on x-axis is :

()

Example 4.2.
Problem : A ball is projected upwards with a velocity of 60 m/s at an angle 60° to the vertical.
Find the velocity of the projectile after 1 second.
Solution : In order to find velocity of the projectile, we need to know the velocity in vertical
and horizontal direction. Now, initial velocities in the two directions are (Note that the angle
of projection is given in relation to vertical direction.):

Now, velocity in horizontal direction is constant as there is no component of acceleration in

this direction. Hence, velocity after "1" second is :

On the other hand, the velocity in vertical direction is obtained, using equation of motion as :

The resultant velocity, v, is given by :

Equation of the path of projectile

Equation of projectile path is a relationship between “x” and “y”. The x and y – coordinates are
given by equations,

Eliminating “t” from two equations, we have :

()

For a given initial velocity and angle of projection, the equation reduces to the form of
y = A x + B x 2 , where A and B are constants. The equation of “y” in “x” is the equation of
parabola. Hence, path of the projectile motion is a parabola. Also, putting expressions for initial
velocity components u x = u cos θ and u y = u sin θ , we have :

()

Some other forms of the equation of projectile are :

()

()

Exercises

Exercise 1.

A projectile with initial velocity 2 i + j is thrown in air (neglect air resistance). The velocity of
the projectile before striking the ground is (consider g = 10 ):

(a) i + 2 j (b) 2 i – j (c) i – 2 j (d) 2 i – 2 j

The vertical component of velocity of the projectile on return to the ground is equal in magnitude
to the vertical component of velocity of projection, but opposite in direction. On the other hand,
horizontal component of velocity remains unaltered. Hence, we can obtain velocity on the return
to the ground by simply changing the sign of vertical component in the component expression of
velocity of projection.
 Figure 4.12. Projectile motion
Components of velocities

v=2i-j

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Exercise 2.

Which of the following quantities remain unaltered during projectile motion :

(a) vertical component of velocity and vertical component of acceleration

(b) horizontal component of velocity and horizontal component of acceleration

(c) vertical component of velocity and horizontal component of acceleration

(d) horizontal component of velocity and vertical component of acceleration

The horizontal component of acceleration is zero. As such, horizontal component of velocity is

constant. On the other hand, vertical component of acceleration is “g”, which is a constant.
Clearly, vertical component of velocity is not constant.

Hence, options (b) and (d) are correct.

Exercise 3.

Motion of a projectile is described in a coordinate system, where horizontal and vertical directions
of the projectile correspond to x and y axes. At a given instant, the velocity of the projectile is 2 i
+ 3 j m/s. Then, we can conclude that :
(a) the projectile has just started its motion

(b) the projectile is about to hit the ground

(c) the projectile is descending from the maximum height

(d) the projectile is ascending to the maximum height

Here, the vertical component of the velocity (3 m/s) is positive. Therefore, projectile is moving in
positive y-direction. It means that the projectile is still ascending to reach the maximum height
(the vertical component of velocity at maximum height is zero). It is though possible that the
given velocity is initial velocity of projection. However, the same can not be concluded.

Hence, option (d) is correct.

Exercise 4.

A projectile, thrown at angle " θ " with an initial velocity "u", returns to the same horizontal
ground level. If "x" and "y" coordinates are in horizontal and vertical directions, the equation of
projectile in x and y coordinates has the form :

The equation of projectile is given as :

This is a quadratic equation in x. The correct choice is (b).

Exercise 5.

Select correct observation(s) about the "xy" - plot of the projectile motion from the following :
 Figure 4.12. Projectile motion
Projectile motion

(a) it covers greater horizontal distance during the middle part of the motion.

(b) it covers greater vertical distance during the middle part of the motion.

(c) it covers lesser horizontal distance near the ground.

(d) it covers greater vertical distance near the ground.

There is no component of acceleration in horizontal direction. The motion in this direction is a

uniform motion and, therefore, covers equal horizontal distance in all parts of motion. It means
that options (a) and (c) are incorrect.

In the vertical direction, projectile covers maximum distance when vertical component of velocity
is greater. Now, projectile has greater vertical component of velocity near ground at the time of
projection and at the time of return. As such, it covers maximum distance near the ground.

The correct choice is (d).

Exercise 6.

A projectile is projected with an initial speed "u", making an angle " θ " to the horizontal direction
along x-axis. Determine the average velocity of the projectile for the complete motion till it
returns to the same horizontal plane.

Average velocity is defined as the ratio of displacement and time. Since we treat projectile motion
as two dimensional motion, we can find average velocity in two mutually perpendicualr directions
and then find the resultant average velocity. Projectile motion, however, is a unique case of
uniform acceleration and we can find components of average velcity by averaging initial and final
values.

If v1 and v2 be the initial and final velocities, then the average velocity for linear motion under
constant acceleration is defined as :

Employing this relation in x-direction and making use of the fact that motion in horizontal
direction is uniform motion, we have :

Similarly, applying the relation of average velocity in y-direction and making use of the fact that
component of velocity in vertical direction reverses its direction on return, we have :

Hence, the resultant average velocity is :

⇒ vavg = vavgx = u cos θ

Exercise 7.

A projectile is projected with an initial speed "u", making an angle " θ " to the horizontal direction
along x-axis. Determine change in speed of the projectile for the complete motion till it returns to
the same horizontal plane.

Both initial and final speeds are equal. Hence, there is no change in speed during the motion of
projectile.

Exercise 8.

A projectile is projected with an initial speed "u", making an angle " θ " to the horizontal direction
along x-axis. Determine the change in velocity of the projectile for the complete motion till it
returns to the same horizontal plane.

Initial velocity is :
 Figure 4.12. Projectile motion
Components of velocities

Final velocity is :

Change in velocity is given by :

where j is unit vector in y-direction.

Exercise 9.

A projectile is projected at 60° to the horizontal with a speed of 10 m/s. After some time, it forms
an angle 30° with the horizontal. Determine the speed (m/s) at this instant.

We shall make use of the fact that horizontal component of projectile velocity does not change
with time. Therefore, we can equate horizontal components of velocities at the time of projection
and at the given instants and find out the speed at the later instant as required. Then,

ux = vx ⇒ u cos 600 = v cos 300

Exercise 10.

The horizontal and vertical components of a projectile at a given instant after projection are vx and
vy respectively at a position specified as x (horizontal),y (vertical). Then,
(a) The "x - t" plot is a straight line passing through origin.

(b) The "y - t" plot is a straight line passing through origin.

(c) The " vx – t " plot is a straight line passing through origin.

(d) The " vy – t " plot is a straight line.

The displacement in x-direction is given as :

x = vx t

Since vx is a constant, the "x-t" plot is a straight line passing through origin. Hence, option (a) is
correct.

The displacement in y-direction is :

This is an equation of parabola. The option (b), therefore, is incorrect.

The motion in horizontal direction is uniform motion. This means that component of velocity in
x-direction is a constant. Therefore, " vx – t ” plot should be a straight line parallel to time axis. It
does not pass through origin. Hence, option (c) is incorrect.

The motion in vertical direction has acceleration due to gravity in downward direction. The
component of velocity in y-direction is :

vy = uy − g t

This is an equation of straight line having slope of "-g" and intercept " uy ". The " vy – t ” plot,
therefore, is a straight line. Hence, option (d) is correct.

Projectile motion (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.
 Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the projectile
motion. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the subject matter
:

Direction of motion on return

Maximum height

Equation of projectile motion

Change in angles during motion

Kinetic energy of a projectile

Change in the direction of velocity vector

Direction of motion on return

Example 4.3.
Problem : A projectile is thrown with a speed of 15 m/s making an angle 60° with horizontal.
Find the acute angle, "α", that it makes with the vertical at the time of its return on the ground
(consider g = 10 ).
Solution : The vertical component of velocity of the projectile at the return on the ground is
equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction. On the other hand, horizontal component of
velocity remains unaltered. The figure, here, shows the acute angle that the velocity vector
makes with vertical.

Figure 4.13. Projectile motion

The trajectory is symmetric about the vertical line passing through point of maximum height.
From the figure, the acute angle with vertical is :

Maximum height

Example 4.4.
Problem : Motion of a projectile is described in a coordinate system, where horizontal and
vertical directions of the projectile correspond to x and y axes. The velocity of the projectile is
12 i + 20 j m/s at an elevation of 15 m from the point of projection. Find the maximum height
attained by the projectile (consider g = 10 ).
Solution : Here, the vertical component of the velocity (20 m/s) is positive. It means that it is
directed in positive y-direction and that the projectile is still ascending to reach the maximum
height. The time to reach the maximum height is obtained using equation of motion in vertical
direction :
vy = uy – g t
⇒ 0 = 20 – 10 t ⇒ t = 2 s
Now, the particle shall rise to a vertical displacement given by :

The maximum height, as measured from the ground, is :

Equation of projectile motion

Example 4.5.
Problem : The equation of a projectile is given as :

Then, find the speed of the projection.

Solution : The general equation of projectile is :

On the other hand, the given equation is :

Comparing two equations, we have :

Also,

Change in angles during motion

Example 4.6.
Problem : A projectile is projected at an angle 60° from the horizontal with a speed of (
) m/s. The time (in seconds) after which the inclination of the projectile with horizontal
becomes 45° is :
Solution : Let "u" and "v" be the speed at the two specified angles. The initial components of
velocities in horizontal and vertical directions are :

Figure 4.14. Projectile motion

Similarly, the components of velocities, when projectile makes an angle 45 with horizontal, in
horizontal and vertical directions are :
But, we know that horizontal component of velocity remains unaltered during motion. Hence,

Here, we know initial and final velocities in vertical direction. We can apply v = u +at in
vertical direction to know the time as required :

Substituting value of "v" in the equation, we have :

Kinetic energy of a projectile

Example 4.7.
Problem : A projectile is thrown with an angle θ from the horizontal with a kinetic energy of
K Joule. Find the kinetic energy of the projectile (in Joule), when it reaches maximum height.
Solution : At the time of projection, the kinetic energy is given by :

At the maximum height, vertical component of the velocity is zero. On the other hand,
horizontal component of the velocity of the particle does not change. Thus, the speed of the
particle, at the maximum height, is equal to the magnitude of the horizontal component of
velocity. Hence, speed of the projectile at maximum height is :

The kinetic energy at the maximum height, therefore, is :

Substituting value of "u" from the expression of initial kinetic energy is :

 Change in the direction of velocity vector

Example 4.8.
Problem : A projectile with a speed of “u” is thrown at an angle of “θ” with the horizontal.
Find the speed (in m/s) of the projectile, when it is perpendicular to the direction of
projection.
Solution : We need to visualize the direction of the projectile, when its direction is
perpendicular to the direction of projection. Further, we may look to determine the direction
of velocity in that situation.
The figure, here, shows the direction of velocity for the condition, when the direction of
projectile is perpendicular to the direction of projection. From ΔOAB,

Figure 4.15. Projectile motion

Thus, the acute angle between projectile and horizontal direction is 90- θ for the given
condition. Now, in order to determine the speed, we use the fact that horizontal component of
velocity does not change.

Features of projectile motion*

The span of projectile motion in the vertical plane is determined by two factors, namely the speed
of projection and angle of projection with respect to horizontal. These two factors together
determine (i) how long does the projectile remain in air (time of flight, T) (ii) how far does the
projectile go in the horizontal direction (range of projectile, R) and (iii) how high does the
projectile reach (maximum height, H).

Further, the trajectory of the projectile is symmetric about a vertical line passing through the point
of maximum height if point of projection and point of return fall on the same horizontal surface.

Time of flight, T

We have already determined the time of flight, which is given by :

()

This equation was derived in the earlier module Projectile motion with the assumption that both
point of projection and point of return of the projectile lie on same horizontal level. It may be also
be recalled that the equation of motion in vertical direction was evaluated for the condition that
net displacement during the entire motion is zero. Hence, if the points are not on the same level,
then above equation will not be valid and must be determined by equation of motion for the
individual case with appropriate values.

From the above equation, we see that time of flight depends on initial speed and the angle of
projection (θ). We must realize here that the range of θ is 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90°. For this range, sinθ is an
increasing function. As such, we can say that a projection closer to vertical direction stays longer
in the air for a given initial velocity. As a matter of fact, a vertical projectile for which θ = 90°
and sinθ = 1, stays in the air for the maximum period.

Exercise 11.

If the points of projection and return are on same level and air resistance is neglected, which of
the following quantities will enable determination of the total time of flight (T) :

(a) horizontal component of projection velocity

(b) projection speed and angle of projection

(c) vertical component of projection velocity

(d) speed at the highest point

The total time of flight is given by :

We can see that the total time of flight can be determined if vertical component of the velocity (
uy ) is given. Hence option (c) is correct. The vertical component of the velocity ( uy ) , in turn, is
determined by the projection speed (u) and angle of projection ( θ ). Hence option (b) is correct.

Now speed at the highest point is equal to the horizontal component of projection velocity (u cos
θ ). We can not, however, determine vertical component (u sin θ ) from this value, unless either
"u" or " θ " is also given.

Hence, options (b) and (c) are correct.

Note: We have noticed that time of flight is derived considering vertical motion. Horizontal part
of the motion is not considered. Thus, the time of flight (t) at any point during the projectile
motion is dependent on vertical component of velocity or vertical part of the motion and is
independent of horizontal part of the motion.

Maximum height reached by the projectile, H

The vertical component velocity of the projectile reduces to zero as motion decelerates while
going up against the force due to gravity. The point corresponding to this situation, when vertical
component of velocity is zero, v y = 0 , is the maximum height that a projectile can reach. The
projectile is accelerated downward under gravity immediately thereafter. Now, considering
upward motion in y-direction,

Figure 4.16. Projectile motion

Maximum height attained by projectile

Now, using equation for displacement in the vertical direction, we can find out the vertical
displacement i.e. the height as :

Putting expression of component velocity ( u y = u sin θ ), we have :

()

We can also obtain this expression, using relation . Just like the case of the time of
flight, we see that maximum height reached by the projectile depends on both initial speed and the
angle of projection (θ). Greater the initial velocity and greater the angle of projection from
horizontal direction, greater is the height attained by the projectile.

It is important to realize here that there is no role of the horizontal component of initial velocity
as far as maximum height is concerned. It is logical also. The height attained by the projectile is
purely a vertical displacement; and as motions in the two mutually perpendicular directions are
independent of each other, it follows that the maximum height attained by the projectile is
completely determined by the vertical component of the projection velocity.

Exercise 12.

The maximum height that a projectile, thrown with an initial speed " v0 ", can reach :

The question only specifies speed of projection - not the angle of projection. Now, projectile rises
to greatest maximum height for a given speed, when it is thrown vertically. In this case, vertical
component of velocity is equal to the speed of projection itself. Further, the speed of the projectile
is zero at the maximum height. Using equation of motion, we have :

0 = v2 0 − 2 g H

The assumption for the maximum height as outlined above can also be verified from the general
formula of maximum height of projectile as given here :
The numerator of the above is maximum when the angle is 90°.

We should note that the formula of maximum height for a projectile projected at certain angle
represents the maximum height of the projectile for the given angle of projection and spped. The
question here, however, refers to maximum height for any angle of projection at given speed of
projection. As such, we should consider an angle of projection for which projectile reaches the
greatest height. This point should be kept in mind.

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Range of projectile, R

The horizontal range is the displacement in horizontal direction. There is no acceleration involved
in this direction. Motion is an uniform motion. It follows that horizontal range is transversed with
the horizontal component of the projection velocity for the time of flight (T). Now,

Figure 4.17. Projectile motion

The range of a projectile

where “T” is the time of flight. Putting expression for the time of flight,

()

Horizontal range, like time of flight and maximum height, is greater for greater projection speed.
For projection above ground surface, the range of the angle of projection with respect to
horizontal direction, θ, is 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° and the corresponding range of 2θ is 0° ≤ 2θ ≤ 180°. The
“sin 2θ”, as appearing in the numerator for the expression of the horizontal range, is an increasing
function for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 45° and a decreasing function for 45° ≤ θ ≤ 90° . For θ = 45°, sin 2θ = sin
90° = 1 (maximum).

In the nutshell, the range,R, increases with increasing angle of projection for 0° ≤ θ < 45°; the
range,R, is maximum when θ = 45°; the range,R, decreases with increasing angle of projection for
45° < θ ≤ 90°.

The maximum horizontal range for a given projection velocity is obtained for θ = 45° as :

There is an interesting aspect of “sin 2θ” function that its value repeats for component angle i.e
(90° – θ). For, any value of θ,

Figure 4.18. Horizontal range

Horizontal range is same for a pair of projection angle.

It means that the range of the projectile with a given initial velocity is same for a pair of
projection angles θ and 90° – θ. For example, if the range of the projectile with a given initial
velocity is 30 m for an angle of projection, θ = 15°, then the range for angle of projection, θ = 90°
- 15° = 75° is also 30m.

Equation of projectile motion and range of projectile

Equation of projectile motion renders to few additional forms in terms of characteristic features of
projectile motion. One such relation incorporates range of projectile (R) in the expression. The
equation of projectile motion is :

The range of projectile is :

Solving for u2 ,

Substituting in the equation of motion, we have :

It is a relatively simplified form of equation of projectile motion. Further, we note that a new
variable “R” is introduced in place of “u”.

Exercise 13.

If points of projection and return are on same level and air resistance is neglected, which of the
following quantities will enable determination of the range of the projectile (R) :

(a) horizontal component of projection velocity

(b) projection speed and angle of projection

(c) vertical component of projection velocity

(d) speed at the highest point

The horizontal range is determined using formulae,

Hence, horizontal range of the projectile can be determined when projection speed and angle of
projection are given. The inputs required in this equation can not be made available with other
given quantities.

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Note : Horizontal range (R) unlike time of flight (T) and maximum height (H), depends on both
vertical and horizontal motion. This aspect is actually concealed in the term "sin2 θ ". The
formula of horizontal range (R) consists of both "u sin θ " (for vertical motion) and "u cos θ " (for
horizontal motion) as shown here :

Exercise 14.

A projectile is thrown with a velocity . Then, the range of the projectile (R) is :

We shall not use the standard formulae as it would be difficult to evaluate angle of projection
from the given data. Now, the range of the projectile (R) is given by :

R = ux T

Here,

We need to know the total time of flight, T. For motion in vertical direction, the vertical
displacement is zero. This consideration gives the time of flight as :

Hence, range of the flight is :

⇒ R = ux T = 6 X 4 = 24

Hence, option (c) is correct.

Impact of air resistance

We have so far neglected the effect of air resistance. It is imperative that if air resistance is
significant then the features of a projectile motion like time of flight, maximum height and range
are modified. As a matter of fact, this is the case in reality. The resulting motion is generally
adversely affected as far as time of flight, maximum height and the range of the projectile are
concerned.

Air resistance is equivalent to friction force for solid (projectile) and fluid (air) interface. Like
friction, air resistance is self adjusting in certain ways. It adjusts to the relative speed of the
projectile. Generally, greater the speed greater is air resistance. Air resistance also adjusts to the
direction of motion such that its direction is opposite to the direction of relative velocity of two
entities. In the nutshell, air resistance opposes motion and is equivalent to introducing a variable
acceleration (resistance varies with the velocity in question) in the direction opposite to that of
velocity.

For simplicity, if we consider that resistance is constant, then the vertical component of
acceleration ( a y ) due to resistance acts in downward direction during upward motion and adds to
the acceleration due to gravity. On the other hand, vertical component of air resistance acts in
upward direction during downward motion and negates to the acceleration due to gravity. Whereas
the horizontal component of acceleration due to air resistance ( a x )changes the otherwise uniform
motion in horizontal direction to a decelerated motion.

Figure 4.19. Projectile motion with air resistance

Acceleration due to air resistance

With air resistance, the net or resultant acceleration in y direction depends on the direction of
motion. During upward motion, the net or resultant vertical acceleration is " – g – a y ". Evidently,
greater vertical acceleration acting downward reduces speed of the particle at a greater rate. This,
in turn, reduces maximum height. During downward motion, the net or resultant vertical
acceleration is " – g + a y ". Evidently, lesser vertical acceleration acting downward increases
speed of the particle at a slower rate. Clearly, accelerations of the projectile are not equal in
upward and downward motions. As a result, projection velocity and the velocity of return are not
equal.

On the other hand, the acceleration in x direction is " – a x ". Clearly, the introduction of
horizontal acceleration opposite to velocity reduces the range of the projectile (R).

Situations involving projectile motion

There are classic situations relating to the projectile motion, which needs to be handled with
appropriate analysis. We have quite a few ways to deal with a particular situation. It is actually the
nature of problem that would determine a specific approach from the following :

1. We may approach a situation analyzing as two mutually perpendicular linear motions. This is
the basic approach.

2. In certain cases, the equations obtained for the specific attributes of the projectile motion such
as range or maximum height can be applied directly.

3. In some cases, we would be required to apply the equation of path, which involves
displacements in two directions (x and y) simultaneously in one equation.

4. We always have the option to use composite vector form of equations for two dimensional
motion, where unit vectors are involved.

Besides, we may require combination of approached as listed above. In this section, we shall study
these classic situations involving projectile motion.

Clearing posts of equal height

A projectile can clear posts of equal height, as projectile retraces vertical displacement attained
during upward flight while going down. We can approach such situation in two alternative ways.
The equation of motion for displacement yields two values for time for a given vertical
displacement (height) : one corresponds to the time for upward flight and other for the downward
flight as shown in the figure below. Corresponding to these two time values, we determine two
values of horizontal displacement (x).

Figure 4.20. Projectile motion

The projectile retraces vertical displacement.

Alternatively, we may use equation of trajectory of the projectile. The y coordinate has a quadratic
equation in "x". it again gives two values of "x" for every value of "y".

Example 4.9.
Problem : A projectile is thrown with a velocity of m/s and at an angle 45° with the
horizontal. The projectile just clears two posts of height 30 m each. Find (i) the position of
throw on the ground from the posts and (ii) separation between the posts.
Solution : Here, we first use the equation of displacement for the given height in the vertical
direction to find the values of time when projectile reaches the specified height. The equation
of displacement in vertical direction (y) under constant acceleration is a quadratic equation in
time (t). Its solution yields two values for time. Once two time instants are known, we apply
the equation of motion for uniform motion in horizontal direction to determine the horizontal
distances as required. Here,

Horizontal motion (refer the figure) :

Thus, projectile needs to be thrown from a position 50 m from the pole. Now,

Hence, separation, d, is :

Alternatively
Equation of vertical displacement (y) is a quadratic equation in horizontal displacement (x).
Solution of equation yields two values of "x" corresponding to two positions having same
elevation. Now, equation of projectile is given by :

Putting values,
Hitting a specified target

An archer aims a bull’s eye; a person throws a pebble to strike an object placed at height and so
on. The motion involved in these situations is a projectile motion – not a straight line motion. The
motion of the projectile (arrow or pebble) has an arched trajectory due to gravity. We need to aim
higher than line of sight to the object in order to negotiate the loss of height during flight.

Figure 4.21. Projectile motion

The projectile hits the wall at a given point.

Hitting a specified target refers to a target whose coordinates (x,y) are known. There are two
different settings of the situation. In one case, the angle of projection is fixed. We employ
equation of the projectile to determine the speed of projectile. In the second case, speed of the
projectile is given and we need to find the angle(s) of projection. The example here illustrates the
first case.

Example 4.10.
Problem : A projectile, thrown at an angle 45° from the horizontal, strikes a building 30 m
away at a point 15 above the ground. Find the velocity of projection.
Solution : As explained, the equation of projectile path suits the description of motion best.
Here,
x = 30 m, y = 15 m and θ = 45°. Now,
As pointed out earlier, we may need to determine the angle(s) for a given speed such that
projectile hits a specified target having known coordinates. This presents two possible angles with
which projectile can be thrown to hit the target. This aspect is clear from the figure shown here :

Figure 4.22. Projectile motion

Projectile motion

Clearly, we need to use appropriate form of equation of motion which yields two values of angle
of projection. This form is :

This equation, when simplified, form a quadratic equation in "tanθ". This in turn yields two values
of angle of projection. Smaller of the angles gives the projection for least time of flight.

Example 4.11.
Problem : A person standing 50 m from a vertical pole wants to hit the target kept on top of
the pole with a ball. If the height of the pole is 13 m and his projection speed is 10√g m/s,
then what should be the angle of projection of the ball so that it strikes the target in minimum
time?
Solution : Equation of projectile having square of “tan θ” is :
 Putting values,

⇒ 25 tan2 θ – 100 tan θ + 51 = 0

Taking the smaller angle of projection to hit the target,

Determining attributes of projectile trajectory

A projectile trajectory under gravity is completely determined by the initial speed and the angle of
projection or simply by the initial velocity (direction is implied). For the given velocity,
maximum height and the range are unique – notably independent of the mass of the projectile.

Thus, a projectile motion involving attributes such as maximum height and range is better
addressed in terms of the equations obtained for the specific attributes of the projectile motion.

Example 4.12.
Problem : Determine the angle of projection for which maximum height is equal to the range
of the projectile.
Solution : We equate the expressions of maximum height and range (H = R) as :

Exercises

Exercise 15.

Which of the following is/ are independent of the angle of projection of a projectile :

(a) time of flight

(b) maximum height reached

(c) acceleration of projectile

(d) horizontal component of velocity

The time of flight is determined by considering vertical motion. It means that time of flight is
dependent on speed and the angle of projection.

Maximum height is also determined, considering vertical motion. As such, maximum height also
depends on the angle of projection.

Horizontal component, being component of velocity, depends on the angle of projection.

uy = u cos θ

It is only the acceleration of projectile, which is equal to acceleration due to gravity and is,
therefore, independent of the angle of projection. Hence, option (c) is correct.

Exercise 16.

Two particles are projected with same initial speeds at 30° and 60° with the horizontal. Then

(a) their maximum heights will be equal

(b) their ranges will be equal

(c) their time of flights will be equal

(d) their ranges will be different

The maximum heights, ranges and time of lights are compared, using respective formula as :

(i)Maximum Height
Thus, the maximum heights attained by two projectiles are unequal.

(ii) Range :

Thus, the ranges of two projectiles are equal.

(iii) Time of flight

Thus, the times of flight of two projectiles are unequal.

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Exercise 17.

The velocity of a projectile during its flight at an elevation of 8 m from the ground is 3 i - 5 j in
the coordinate system, where x and y directions represent horizontal and vertical directions
respectively. The maximum height attained (H) by the particle is :

We note that vertical component is negative, meaning that projectile is moving towards the
ground. The vertical component of velocity 8 m above the ground is

The vertical displacement (y) from the maximum height to the point 8 m above the ground as
shown in the figure can be obtained, using equation of motion.
 Figure 4.22. Projectile motion
Projectile motion

v 2 y = u2 y + 2 a y

Considering the point under consideration as origin and upward direction as positive direction.

⇒ ( – 5 )2 = 0 + 2 X – 10 X h

Thus, the maximum height, H, attained by the projectile is :

Hence, option (c) is correct.

Exercise 18.

A projectile is thrown with a given speed so as to cover maximum range (R). If "H" be the
maximum height attained during the throw, then the range "R" is equal to :

The projectile covers maximum range when angle of projection is equal to 45°. The maximum
range "R" is given by :

On the other hand, the maximum height attained by the projectile for angle of projection, 45°, is :

Comparing expressions of range and maximum height, we have :

⇒R=4H

Hence, option (a) is correct.

Exercise 19.

The speed of a projectile at maximum height is half its speed of projection, "u". The horizontal
range of the projectile is :

The horizontal range of the projectile is given as :

In order to evaluate this expression, we need to know the angle of projection. Now, the initial part
of the question says that the speed of a projectile at maximum height is half its speed of
projection, "u". However, we know that speed of the projectile at the maximum height is equal to
the horizontal component of projection velocity,

⇒ θ = 300

The required range is :

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Exercise 20.

Let " T1 ” and “ T2 ” be the times of flights of a projectile for projections at two complimentary
angles for which horizontal range is "R". The product of times of flight, " T1 T2 ”, is equal to :

Here, we are required to find the product of times of flight. Let " θ " and " 900 − θ " be two angles
of projections. The times of flight are given as :
and

Hence,

But,

Combining two equations,

Hence, option (c) is correct.

Exercise 21.

A projectile is projected with a speed "u" at an angle " θ " from the horizontal. The magnitude of
average velocity between projection and the time, when projectile reaches the maximum height.

The magnitude of average velocity is given as :

Now the displacement here is OA as shown in the figure. From right angle triangle OAC,
 Figure 4.22. Projectile motion
Projectile motion

Hence, magnitude of average velocity is :

Substituting expression for each of the terms, we have :

vavg = u (3 u2cos + 1)/2

Hence, option (d) is correct.

Exercise 22.

A projectile is projected at an angle " θ " from the horizon. The tangent of angle of elevation of
the highest point as seen from the position of projection is :

The angle of elevation of the highest point " θ " is shown in the figure. Clearly,
 Figure 4.22. Projectile motion
Projectile motion

Putting expressions of the maximum height and range of the flight, we have :

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Exercise 23.

In a firing range, shots are taken at different angles and in different directions. If the speed of the
bullets is "u", then find the area in which bullets can spread.

The bullets can spread around in a circular area of radius equal to maximum horizontal range. The
maximum horizontal range is given for angle of projection of 45°.

The circular area corresponding to the radius equal to maximum horizontal range is given as :

Hence, option (c) is correct.

 More exercises

Check the module titled " Features of projectile motion (application) to work out more
problems.

Features of projectile motion (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Hints on solving problems

1: In general, we should rely on analysis in two individual directions as linear motion.

2: Wherever possible, we should use the formula directly as available for time of flight, maximum
height and horizontal range.

3: We should be aware that time of flight and maximum height are two attributes of projectile
motion, which are obtained by analyzing motion in vertical direction. For determining time of
flight, the vertical displacement is zero; whereas for determining maximum height, vertical
component of velocity is zero.

4: However, if problem has information about motion in horizontal direction, then it is always
advantageous to analyze motion in horizontal direction. It is so because motion in horizontal
direction is uniform motion and analysis in this direction is simpler.

5: The situation, involving quadratic equations, may have three possibilities : (i) quadratic in time
"t" (ii) quadratic in displacement or position "x" and (iii) quadratic in "tanθ" i.e."θ". We should
use appropriate equations in each case as discussed in the module titled " Features of projectile
motion ".

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the features of
projectile motion. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the
subject matter :

Time of flight

Horizontal range
 Horizontal range

Maximum height

Height attained by a projectile

Composition of motion

Projectile motion with wind/drag force

Time of flight

Example 4.13.
Problem : The speed of a particle, projected at 60°, is 20 m/s at the time of projection. Find
the time interval for projectile to loose half its initial speed.
Solution : Here, we see that final and initial speeds (not velocity) are subject to given
condition. We need to use the given condition with appropriate expressions of speeds for two
instants.

According to question,
u=2v
⇒ u2 = 4 v2
⇒ u2 x + u2 y = 4 ( v2 x + v2 y )
But, horizontal component of velocity remains same. Hence,
⇒ u2 x + u2 y = 4 ( u2 x + v2 y )
Rearranging for vertical velocity :
v2 y = u2 y – 3 u2 x = ( 20 sin 600 )2 – 3 X ( 20 cos 600 )2

The component of velocity in vertical direction becomes zero for the given condition. This
means that the projectile has actually reached the maximum height for the given condition.
The time to reach maximum height is half of the time of flight :
Horizontal range

Example 4.14.
Problem : A man can throw a ball to a greatest height denoted by "h". Find the greatest
horizontal distance that he can throw the ball (consider g = 10 ).
Solution : The first part of the question provides the information about the initial speed. We
know that projectile achieves greatest height in vertical throw. Let "u" be the initial speed. We
can, now, apply equation of motion " " for vertical throw. We use this form of
equation as we want to relate initial speed with the greatest height.
Here, v = 0; a = -g

The projectile, on the other hand, attains greatest horizontal distance for the angle of
projection, θ = 45°. Accordingly, the greatest horizontal distance is :

Example 4.15.
Problem : A bullet from a gun is fired at a muzzle speed of 50 m/s to hit a target 125 m away
at the same horizontal level. At what angle from horizontal should the gun be aimed to hit the
target (consider g = 10 )?
Solution : Here, horizontal range is given. We can find out the angle of projection from
horizontal direction, using expression of horizontal range :

Example 4.16.
Problem : A projectile has same horizontal range for a given projection speed for the angles
of projections θ 1 and with the horizontal. Find the ratio of the times of flight for the
two projections.
Solution : The ratio of time of flight is :
For same horizontal range, we know that :

Putting this, we have :

Example 4.17.
Problem : A projectile, thrown at an angle 15° with the horizontal, covers a horizontal
distance of 1000 m. Find the maximum distance the projectile can cover with the same speed
(consider g = 10 ).
Solution : The range of the projectile is given by :

Here, R = 1000 m, g = 10 , θ = 15°

Now, the maximum range (for θ = 45°) is :

Maximum height

Example 4.18.
Problem : Two balls are projected from the same point in the direction inclined at 60° and 30°
respectively with the horizontal. If they attain the same height, then the ratio of speeds of
projection is :
Solution : Since the projectiles attain same height,
 Figure 4.23. Projectile motion

Example 4.19.
Problem : A projectile is thrown vertically up, whereas another projectile is thrown at an
angle θ with the vertical. Both of the projectiles stay in the air for the same time (neglect air
resistance). Find the ratio of maximum heights attained by two projectiles.
Solution : Let u 1 and u 2 be the speeds of projectiles for vertical and non-vertical projections.
The times of the flight for vertical projectile is given by :

We note here that the angle is given with respect to vertical - not with respect to horizontal as
the usual case. As such, the expression of time of flight consists of cosine term :

As, time of flight is same,

On the other hand, the maximum heights attained in the two cases are :
Using the relation u 1 = u 2 cos θ as obtained earlier, we have :

The result is intuitive about the nature of projectile. The time of flight and vertical height
both are consideration of motion in vertical direction. Since times of flight in both cases
are same, the vertical components of two projectiles should be same. Otherwise, times of
flight will be different. Now, if vertical component are same, then maximum heights have
to be same.

Height attained by a projectile

Example 4.20.
Problem : The times for attaining a particular vertical elevation during projectile motion are
t 1 and t 2 . Find time of flight, T, in terms of t 1 and t 2 .
Solution : We can answer this question analytically without using formula. Let the positions
of the projectile at two time instants be "A" and "B", as shown in the figure. The time periods
t 1 and t 2 denotes time taken by the projectile to reach points "A" and "B" respectively.
Clearly, time of flight, T, is equal to time taken to travel the curve OAB ( t 2 ) plus the time
taken to travel the curve BC.

Figure 4.24. Projectile motion

Now, projectile takes as much time to travel the curve OA, as it takes to travel curve BC. This
is so, because the time of travel of equal vertical displacement in either direction (up or down)
in vertical motion under gravity is same. Since the time of travel for curve OA is t 1 , the time
of travel for curve BC is also t 1 . Thus, the total time of flight is :

Alternatively,
As the heights attained are equal,

Composition of motion

Example 4.21.
Problem : The position of a projectile projected from the ground is :

where “x” and “y” are in meters and “t” in seconds. The position of the projectile is (0,0) at
the time of projection. Find the speed with which the projectile hits the ground.
Solution : When the projectile hits the ground, y = 0,

Here t = 0 corresponds to initial condition. Thus, projectile hits the ground in 2 s. Now
velocities in two directions are obtained by differentiating given functions of the coordinates,

Now, the velocities for t = 2 s,

The resultant velocity of the projectile,

Example 4.22.
Problem : A projectile, thrown from the foot of a triangle, lands at the edge of its base on the
other side of the triangle. The projectile just grazes the vertex as shown in the figure. Prove
that :

Figure 4.25. Projectile motion

The projectile grazes the vertex of the triangle.

tan α + tan β = tan θ

where “θ” is the angle of projection as measured from the horizontal.
Solution : In order to expand trigonometric ratio on the left side, we drop a perpendicular
from the vertex of the triangle “A” to the base line OB to meet at a point C. Let x,y be the
coordinate of vertex “A”, then,

Figure 4.26. Projectile motion

The projectile grazes the vertex of the triangle.
and

Thus,

Intuitively, we know the expression is similar to the expression involved in the equation of
projectile motion that contains range of projectile,

Comparing equations,
⇒ tan α + tan β = tan θ

Projectile motion with wind/drag force

Example 4.23.
Problem : A projectile is projected at angle “θ” from the horizontal at the speed “u”. If an
acceleration of “g/2” is applied to the projectile due to wind in horizontal direction, then find
the new time of flight, maximum height and horizontal range.
Solution : The acceleration due to wind affects only the motion in horizontal direction. It
would, therefore, not affect attributes like time of flight or maximum height that results
exclusively from the consideration of motion in vertical direction. The generic expressions of
time of flight, maximum height and horizontal range of flight with acceleration are given as
under :

The expressions above revalidate the assumption made in the beginning. We can see that it is
only the horizontal range that depends on the component of motion in horizontal direction.
Now, considering accelerated motion in horizontal direction, we have :

R′=R+H
Example 4.24.
Problem : A projectile is projected at angle “θ” from the horizontal at the speed “u”. If an
acceleration of g/2 is applied to the projectile in horizontal direction and a deceleration of g/2
in vertical direction, then find the new time of flight, maximum height and horizontal range.
Solution : The acceleration due to wind affects only the motion in horizontal direction. It
would, therefore, not affect attributes resulting exclusively from the consideration in vertical
direction. It is only the horizontal range that will be affected due to acceleration in horizontal
direction. On the other hand, deceleration in vertical direction will affect all three attributes.
1: Time of flight
Let us work out the effect on each of the attribute. Considering motion in vertical direction,
we have :

For the complete flight, y = 0 and t = T. Also,

Putting in the equation,

Neglecting T = 0,

2: Maximum height
For maximum height, vy = 0 ,

2: Horizontal range
Now, considering accelerated motion in horizontal direction, we have :
Projectile motion types*
So far, we have limited our discussion to the classic mode of a projectile motion, where points of
projection and return are on the same horizontal plane. This situation, however, may be altered.
The projection level may be at an elevation with respect to the plane where projectile returns or
the projection level may be at a lower level with respect to the plane where projectile returns. The
two situations are illustrated in the figures below.

(a) Projection from higher elevation

(b) The return of projectile at higher elevation

Figure 4.27. Projection and return at different levels

The two variants are basically the same parabolic motion. These motion types are inherently
similar to the one where points of projection and return are on same level. If we look closely, then
we find that the motion of the projectile from an elevation and from a lower level are either an
extension or a curtailment of normal parabolic motion.

The projection on an incline (where point of return is on higher level) is a shortened projectile
motion as if projectile has been stopped before returning to the normal point of return. This
motion is also visualized as if the projectile is thrown over an incline or a wedge as shown in the
figure. Again, there are two possibilities : (i) the projectile can be thrown up the incline or (ii) the
projectile can be thrown down the incline. For the sake of convenience and better organization, we
shall study projectile motion on an incline in a separate module. In this module, we shall restrict
ourselves to the first case in which projectile is projected from an elevation.

Projection from a higher level

The projection of a projectile from a higher point results in a slightly different parabolic
trajectory. We can visually recognize certain perceptible differences from the normal case as
listed here :

Figure 4.28. Projection from higher level

The trajectory extends beyond the normal point of return.

The upward trajectory is smaller than downward trajectory.

Time of ascent is smaller than the time of descent.

The speed of projection is not equal to speed of return on the ground.

The velocity of return is more aligned to vertical as the motion progresses.

It is evident that the expressions derived earlier for time of flight (T), maximum height (H) and
range (R) are not valid in the changed scenario. But the basic consideration of the analysis is
necessarily same. The important aspect of projectile motion that motions in two mutually
perpendicular directions are independent of each other, still, holds. Further, the nature of motion
in two directions is same as before : the motion in vertical direction is accelerated due to gravity,
whereas motion in horizontal direction has no acceleration.

Now, there are two important variations of this projectile motion, when projected from an
elevated level. The projectile may either be projected at certain angle (up or down) with the
horizontal or it may be projected in the horizontal direction.
(a) Projection from higher elevation at an angle

(b) Projection from higher elevation in horizontal direction

Figure 4.29. The projection from higher elevation

There are many real time situations that resemble horizontal projection. When an object is
dropped from a plane flying parallel to the ground at certain height, then the object acquires
horizontal velocity of the plane when the object is released. As the object is simply dropped, the
velocity in vertical direction is zero. This horizontal velocity of the object, as acquired from the
plane, is then modified by the force of gravity, whereby the object follows a parabolic trajectory
before hitting the ground.

This situation is analogous to projection from ground except that we track motion from the
highest point. Note that vertical velocity is zero and horizontal velocity is tangential to the path at
the time of projection. This is exactly the same situation as when projectile is projected from the
ground and reaches highest point. In the nutshell, the description of motion here is same as the
description during descent when projected from the ground.

Figure 4.30. An object dropped from a plane moving in horizontal direction

The position of plane is above object as both moves with same velocity in horizontal direction.

The interesting aspect of the object dropped from plane is that both plane and object are moving
with same horizontal velocity. Hence, plane is always above the dropped object, provided plane
maintains its velocity.

The case of projection from a higher level at certain angle (up or down) to the horizontal is
different to the one in which projectile is projected horizontally. The projectile has a vertical
component of initial velocity when thrown at an angle with horizontal. This introduces the
difference between two cases. The projectile thrown up attains a maximum height above the
projection level. On the return journey downward, it travels past its level of projection. The
difference is visually shown in the two adjoining figures below.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4.31. Maximum height attained by the projectile

The resulting trajectory in the first case has both upward and downward motions. On the other
hand, the motion in upward direction is completely missing in the horizontal projection as the
projectile keeps loosing altitude all the time.

Projectile thrown in horizontal direction

We can easily analyze projectile motion following the technique of component motions in two
mutually perpendicular directions (horizontal and vertical). Typically, we consider vertical
component of motion to determine time of flight (T). The initial velocity in vertical direction is
zero.

We consider point of projection as origin of coordinate system. Further, we choose x-axis in

horizontal direction and y-axis in the vertically downward direction for the convenience of
analysis. Then,
 Figure 4.32. An object projected in horizontal direction

But uy = 0 ,

Note the striking similarity here with the free fall of a body under gravity from a height “H”. The
time taken in free fall is same as the time of flight of projectile in this case. Now, the horizontal
range of the projectile is given as :

Example 4.25.
Problem : A plane flying at the speed of 100 m/s parallel to the ground drops an object from a
height of 2 km. Find (i) the time of flight (ii) velocity of the object at the time it strikes the
ground and (iii) the horizontal distance traveled by the object.
Solution : The basic approach to solve the problem involves consideration of motion in two
mutually perpendicular direction. Here, we consider a coordinate system with the point of
release as the origin and down ward direction as the positive y-direction.
 Figure 4.33. An object dropped from a plane moving in horizontal direction

(i) Time of flight, T

In vertical direction :

Using equation, , we have :

(ii) Velocity at the ground

We can find the velocity at the time of strike with ground by calculating component velocities
at that instant in the two mutually perpendicular directions and finding the resultant
(composite) velocity as :

Initial vertical component of initial velocity (uy) is zero and the object is accelerated down
with the acceleration due to gravity. Hence,

The component of velocity in the horizontal direction remains unchanged as there is no

acceleration in this direction.

Putting values,

(iii) Horizontal distance traveled

 From consideration of uniform motion in horizontal direction, we have :

Putting values,

Exercise 24.

A ball is thrown horizontally from a tower at a speed of 40 m/s. The speed of the projectile (in
m/s) after 3 seconds, before it touches the ground, is (consider g = 10 m / s2 ) :

Here, we consider a reference system whose origin coincides with the point of projection. The
downward direction is along y - direction as shown in the figure.

Figure 4.33. Projectile motion

Projectile motion

The initial speed of the projectile is equal to the horizontal component of the velocity, which
remains unaltered during projectile motion. On the other hand, vertical component of velocity at
the start of motion is zero. Thus,

Using equation of motion, we have :

vy = uy + ay t

Since the horizontal component of velocity remains unaltered, the speed, after 3 second, is :
 Hence, option (c) is correct.

Exercise 25.

A ball is projected horizontally from a height at a speed of 30 m/s. The time after which the
vertical component of velocity becomes equal to horizontal component of velocity is : (consider g
= 10 m / s2 ) :

The ball does not have vertical component of velocity when projected. The ball, however, is
accelerated downward and gains speed in vertical direction. At certain point of time, the vertical
component of velocity equals horizontal component of velocity. At this instant, the angle that the
velocity makes with the horizontal is :

Figure 4.33. Projectile motion

Projectile motion

⇒ θ = 450

We should note that this particular angle of 45° at any point during the motion, as a matter of fact,
signifies that two mutually perpendicular components are equal.

But we know that horizontal component of velocity does not change during the motion. It means
that vertical component of velocity at this instant is equal to horizontal component of velocity i.e.

Further, we know that we need to analyze motion in vertical direction to find time as required,

vy = uy + ay t ⇒ 30 = 0 + 10 t ⇒ t = 3 s
Hence, option (c) is correct.

Projectile thrown at an angle with horizontal direction

There are two possibilities. The projectile can be projected up or down as shown in the figure here
:

(a) Projection upwards from an elevated level (b) Projection downwards from an elevated level

Figure 4.34. Projection from an elevated level

Projectile thrown up at an angle with horizontal direction

The time of flight is determined by analyzing motion in vertical direction. The net displacement
during the motion is equal to the elevation of point of projection above ground i.e. H2 . To analyze
the motion, we consider point of projection as origin, horizontal direction as x-axis and upward
vertical direction as y-axis.

Rearranging,

This is a quadratic equation in “T”. Solving we get two values of T, one of which gives the time of
flight.
 Figure 4.35. An object projected up at an angle from an elevation

Horizontal range is given by analyzing motion in horizontal direction as :

x = R = ux T

While calculating maximum height, we can consider motion in two parts. The first part is the
motion above the projection level. On the other hand second part is the projectile motion below
projection level. The total height is equal to the sum of the magnitudes of vertical displacements :

H = | H1 | + | H2 |

Example 4.26.
Problem : A projectile is thrown from the top of a building 160 m high, at an angle of 30°
with the horizontal at a speed of 40 m/s. Find (i) time of flight (ii) Horizontal distance covered
at the end of journey and (iii) the maximum height of the projectile above the ground.
Solution : Unlike horizontal projection, the projectile has a vertical component of initial
velocity. This vertical component is acting upwards, which causes the projectile to rise above
the point of projection.
Here, we choose the point of projection as the origin and downward direction as the positive y
– direction.
 Figure 4.36. An object projected at an angle from an elevation

(i) Time of flight, T

Here,

Using equation, , we have :

Neglecting negative value of time, T = 8 s.

(ii) Horizontal distance, R
There is no acceleration in horizontal direction. Using equation for uniform motion,

Here,

(iii) Maximum height, H

The maximum height is the sum of the height of the building ( H 2 ) and the height attained by
the projectile above the building ( H 1 ).

We consider vertical motion to find the height attained by the projectile above the building (
 H 1 ).

Thus maximum height, H, is :

Projectile thrown down at an angle with horizontal direction

Projectile motion here is similar to that of projectile thrown horizontally. The only difference is
that the projectile has a finite component of velocity in downward direction against zero vertical
velocity.

For convenience, the point of projection is considered as origin of reference and the positive x and
y directions of the coordinate system are considered in horizontal and vertically downward
directions.

Figure 4.37. An object projected down at an angle from an elevation

The time of flight is obtained considering motion in vertical direction as :

Rearranging, we get a quadratic equation in “T”,

One of the two values of "T" gives the time of flight in this case. The horizontal range, on the
other hand, is given as :

x = R = ux T

Exercises

Exercise 26.

Two balls of masses " m1 ” and “ m2 ”are thrown from a tower in the horizontal direction at speeds
" u1 ” and “ u2 ” respectively at the same time. Which of the two balls strikes the ground first?

(a) the ball thrown with greater speed

(b) the ball thrown with lesser speed

(c) the ball with greater mass

(d) the balls strike the ground simultaneously

The time to strike the ground is obtained by considering motion in vertical direction.

Here, uy = 0 and y=T (total time of flight)

Thus, we see that time of flight is independent of both mass and speed of the projectile in the
horizontal direction. The two balls, therefore, strike the ground simultaneously.

Hence, option (d) is correct.

Exercise 27.

A body dropped from a height "h" strikes the ground with a velocity 3 m/s. Another body of same
mass is projected horizontally from the same height with an initial speed of 4 m/s. The final
velocity of the second body (in m/s), when it strikes the earth will be :

We can use the fact that velocities in vertical direction, attained by two bodies through same
displacement, are equal. As such, velocity of the second body , on reaching the ground, would also
be 3 m/s. Now, there is no acceleration in horizontal direction. The horizontal component of
velocity of the second body, therefore, remains constant.

and

The resultant velocity of two component velocities in mutually perpendicular directions is :

Exercise 28.

A projectile (A) is dropped from a height and another projectile (B) is projected in horizontal
direction with a speed of 5 m/s from the same height. Then the correct statement(s) is(are) :

(a) The projectile (A) reach the ground earlier than projectile (B).

(b) Both projectiles reach the ground with the same speed.

(c) Both projectiles reach the ground simultaneously.

(d) The projectiles reach the ground with different speeds.

First three options pertain to the time of flight. The time of flight depends only the vertical
displacement and vertical component of projection velocity. The vertical components of
projection in both cases are zero. The time of flight (T) in either case is obtained by considering
motion in vertical direction as :

Hence, both projectiles reach the ground simultaneously. On the other hand, component of
velocity in vertical direction, on reaching the ground is :

vy = uy + ay ⇒ T = 0 + g T

Putting value of T, we have :

Projectile (A) has no component of velocity in horizontal direction, whereas projectile (B) has
finite component of velocity in horizontal direction. As such, velocities of projectiles and hence
the speeds of the particles on reaching the ground are different.

Hence, options (c) and (d) are correct.

Exercise 29.

Four projectiles, "A","B","C" and "D" are projected from top of a tower with velocities (in m/s) 10
i + 10 j, 10 i - 20 j , -10 i - 10 j and -20 i + 10 j in the coordinate system having point of
projection as origin. If "x" and "y" coordinates are in horizontal and vertical directions
respectively, then :

(a)Time of flight of C is least.

(b) Time of flight of B is least.

(c) Times of flights of A and D are greatest.

(d) Times of flights of A and D are least.

The time of flight of a projectile solely depends on vertical component of velocity.

Figure 4.37. Projectile motion

Projectile motion

The projectile "A" is thrown up from an elevated point with vertical component of velocity 10
m/s. It travels to the maximum height ( H1 ) and the elevation from the ground( H2 ).

The projectile "B" is thrown down from an elevated point with vertical component of velocity 20
m/s. It travels only the elevation from the ground ( H2 ).

The projectile "C" is thrown down from an elevated point with vertical component of velocity 10
m/s. It travels only the elevation from the ground ( H2 ).

The projectile "D" is thrown up from an elevated point with vertical component of velocity 15
m/s. It travels to the maximum height ( H1 ) and the elevation from the ground( H2 ).

Clearly, projectile "B" and "C" travel the minimum vertical displacement. As vertical downward
component of velocity of "B" is greater than that of "C", the projectile "B" takes the least time.

The projectiles "A" and "D" are projected up with same vertical components of velocities i.e. 10
m/s and take same time to travel to reach the ground. As the projectiles are projected up, they take
more time than projectiles projected down.

Hence, options (b) and (c) are correct.

Acknowledgment

Author wishes to thank Scott Kravitz, Programming Assistant, Connexions for making suggestion
to remove syntax error in the module.

Projectile motion types (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Hints on solving problems

1: Identify projectile motion types. The possible variants are :

Projectile is thrown in horizontal direction. In this case, initial vertical component of velocity
is zero. Consider horizontal direction as positive x-direction and vertically downward direction
as positive y-direction.

Projectile is thrown above horizontal level. The projectile first goes up and then comes down
below the level of projection

Projectile is thrown below horizontal level. Consider horizontal direction as positive x-

direction and vertically downward direction as positive y-direction.
2: We can not use standard equations of time of flight, maximum height and horizontal range. We
need to analyze the problem in vertical direction for time of flight and maximum height.
Remember that determination of horizontal range will involve analysis in both vertical (for time
of flight) and horizontal (for the horizontal range) directions.

3: However, if problem has information about motion in horizontal direction, then it is always
advantageous to analyze motion in horizontal direction.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the projectile motion
types. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the subject matter :

Time of flight

Range of flight

Initial velocity

Final velocity

Time of flight

Example 4.27.
Problem : A ball from a tower of height 30 m is projected down at an angle of 30° from the
horizontal with a speed of 10 m/s. How long does ball take to reach the ground? (consider g =
10 )
Solution : Here, we consider a reference system whose origin coincides with the point of
projection. Further, we consider that the downward direction is positive y - direction.
 Figure 4.38. Projectile motion

Motion in vertical direction :

Here, . Using , we have :

Neglecting negative value of time, t = 2 s

Range of flight

Example 4.28.
Problem : A ball is thrown from a tower of height “h” in the horizontal direction at a speed
“u”. Find the horizontal range of the projectile.
Solution : Here, we consider a reference system whose origin coincides with the point of
projection. we consider that the downward direction is positive y - direction.

Figure 4.39. Projectile motion

Motion in the vertical direction :

Here, and t = T (total time of flight)

Putting expression of total time of flight in the expression for horizontal range, we have :
Example 4.29.
Problem : A projectile is projected up with a velocity √(2ag) at an angle “θ” from an
elevated position as shown in the figure. Find the maximum horizontal range that can be
achieved.

Figure 4.40. Projectile motion

Projectile projected from an elevated point .

Solution : In order to determine the maximum horizontal range, we need to find an expression
involving horizontal range. We shall use the equation of projectile as we have the final
coordinates of the motion as shown in the figure below :

Figure 4.41. Projectile motion

Projectile projected from an elevated point .
Substituting and changing trigonometric ratio with the objective to create a quadratic equation
in “tan θ” :

Rearranging, we have :
R2 tan2 θ − 4 a R tan θ + ( R2 − 4 a H ) = 0

For tan θ to be real, it is required that

16 a2 R2 ≥ 4 R2 ( R2 − 4 a H )
⇒ 4 a2 ≥ ( R2 − 4 a H )
⇒ R2 ≤ 4 a ( a + H )

Hence, maximum possible range is :

Initial velocity

Example 4.30.
Problem : A ball is thrown horizontally from the top of the tower to hit the ground at an angle
of 45° in 2 s. Find the speed of the ball with which it was projected.
Solution : The question provides the angle at which the ball hits the ground. A hit at 45°
means that horizontal and vertical speeds are equal.

⇒ vx = vy
However, we know that horizontal component of velocity does not change with time. Hence,
final velocity in horizontal direction is same as initial velocity in that direction.
⇒ v x = v y = ux
We can now find the vertical component of velocity at the time projectile hits the ground by
considering motion in vertical direction. Here,
Using equation of motion in vertical direction, assuming downward direction as positive :
vy = uy + a t

Hence, the speed with which the ball was projected in horizontal direction is :

Final velocity

Example 4.31.
Problem : A ball “A” is thrown from the edge of building “h”, at an angle of 30° from the
horizontal, in upward direction. Another ball ”B” is thrown at the same speed from the same
position, making same angle with horizontal, in vertically downward direction. If "u" be the
speed of projection, then find their speed at the time of striking the ground.
Solution : The horizontal components of velocity for two projectiles are equal. Further,
horizontal component of velocity remains unaltered during projectile motion. The speed of the
projectile at the time of striking depends solely on vertical component of velocity. For the
shake of convenience of analysis, we consider point of projection as the origin of coordinate
system and vertically downward direction as positive y - direction.

Figure 4.42. Projectile motion

Motion in vertical direction :

For A,
For B,
Thus, velocities in vertical direction are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction. The
ball,"A", which is thrown upward, returns after reaching the maximum vertical height. For
consideration in vertical direction, the ball returns to the point of projection with same speed
 it was projected. What it means that the vertical component of velocity of ball "A" on return at
the point projection is "u/2". This further means that two balls "A" and "B", as a matter of fact,
travel down with same downward vertical component of velocity.
In other words, the ball "A" returns to its initial position acquiring same speed "u/2" as that of
ball "B" before starting its downward journey. Thus, speeds of two balls are same i.e "u/2" for
downward motion. Hence, two balls strike the ground with same speed. Let the final speed is
"v".
Now, we apply equation of motion to determine the final speed in the vertical direction.
v 2 y = u2 y + 2 g h
Putting values, we have :

The horizontal component of velocity remains same during the journey. It is given as :

The resultant of two mutually perpendicular components is obtained, using Pythagoras

theorem :

Projectile motion on an incline*

Projectile motion on an incline plane is one of the various projectile motion types. The main
distinguishing aspect is that points of projection and return are not on the same horizontal plane.
There are two possibilities : (i) the point of return is at a higher level than the point of projection
i.e projectile is thrown up the incline and (ii) Point of return is at a lower level than point of
projection i.e. projectile is thrown down the incline.
(a) Projection up the incline (b) Projection down the incline

Figure 4.43. Projection on the incline

We have so far studied the projectile motion, using technique of component motions in two
mutually perpendicular directions – one which is horizontal and the other which is vertical. We
can simply extend the methodology to these types of projectile motion types as well.
Alternatively, we can choose coordinate axes along the incline and in the direction of
perpendicular to the incline. The analysis of projectile motion in two coordinate systems differs in
the detail of treatment.

For convenience of comparison, we shall refer projectile motion on a horizontal surface as the
“normal case”. The reference to “normal case” enables us to note differences and similarities
between “normal case” and the case of projectile motion on an incline plane.

Analyzing alternatives

As pointed out, there are two different approaches of analyzing projectile motion on an incline
plane. The first approach could be to continue analyzing motion in two mutually perpendicular
horizontal and vertical directions. The second approach could be to analyze motion by changing
the reference orientation i.e. we set up our coordinate system along the incline and a direction
along the perpendicular to incline.

The analysis alternatives are, therefore, distinguished on the basis of coordinate system that we
choose to employ :

planar coordinates along incline (x) and perpendicular to incline (y)

planar coordinates in horizontal (x) and vertical (y) directions

(a) With reference to incline (b) With reference to horizontal

Figure 4.44. Coordinate systems

The two alternatives, as a matter of fact, are entirely equivalent. However, we shall study both
alternatives separately for the simple reason that they provide advantage in analyzing projectile
motion in specific situation.

Projection up the incline

As pointed out, the projection up the incline can be studied in two alternative ways. We discuss
each of the approach, highlighting intricacies of each approach in the following sub-section.

Coordinates along incline (x) and perpendicular to incline (y)

This approach is typically superior approach in so far as it renders measurement of time of flight
in a relatively simpler manner. However, before we proceed to analyze projectile motion in this
new coordinate set up, we need to identify and understand attributes of motion in mutually
perpendicular directions.

Measurement of angle of projection is one attribute that needs to be handled in a consistent

manner. It is always convenient to follow certain convention in referring angles involved. We had
earlier denoted the angle of projection as measured from the horizontal and denoted the same by
the symbol “θ”. It is evident that it would be reasonable to extend the same convention and also
retain the same symbol for the angle of projection.

It also follows that we measure other angles from the horizontal – even if we select x-coordinate
in any other direction like along the incline. This convention avoids confusion. For example, the
angle of incline “α” is measured from the horizontal. The horizontal reference, therefore, is
actually a general reference for measurement of angles in the study of projectile motion.

Now, let us have a look at other characterizing aspects of new analysis set up :
1: The coordinate “x” is along the incline – not in the horizontal direction; and the coordinate “y”
is perpendicular to incline – not in the vertical direction.

2: Angle with the incline

From the figure, it is clear that the angle that the velocity of projection makes with x-axis (i.e.
incline) is “θ – α”.

Figure 4.45. Projectile motion up an incline

The projection from lower level.

3: The point of return

The point of return is specified by the coordinate R,0 in the coordinate system, where “R” is the
range along the incline.

4: Components of initial velocity

ux = u cos ( θ − α )

uy = u sin ( θ − α )

5: The components of acceleration

In order to determine the components of acceleration in new coordinate directions, we need to

know the angle between acceleration due to gravity and y-axis. We see that the direction of
acceleration is perpendicular to the base of incline (i.e. horizontal) and y-axis is perpendicular to
the incline.
 Figure 4.46. Components of acceleration due to gravity
The acceleration due to gravity forms an angle with y-axis, which is equal to angle of incline.

Thus, the angle between acceleration due to gravity and y – axis is equal to the angle of incline i.e.
“α”. Therefore, components of acceleration due to gravity are :

ax = − g sin α

ay = – g cos α

The negative signs precede the expression as two components are in the opposite directions to the
positive directions of the coordinates.

6: Unlike in the normal case, the motion in x-direction i.e. along the incline is not uniform
motion, but a decelerated motion. The velocity is in positive x-direction, whereas acceleration is
in negative x-direction. As such, component of motion in x-direction is decelerated at a constant
rate “gsin α”.

Time of flight

The time of flight (T) is obtained by analyzing motion in y-direction (which is no more vertical as
in the normal case). The displacement in y-direction after the projectile has returned to the
incline, however, is zero as in the normal case. Thus,
 Figure 4.47. Projectile motion up an incline
The projection from lower level.

Either,

T=0

or,

The first value represents the initial time of projection. Hence, second expression gives us the
time of flight as required. We should note here that the expression of time of flight is alike normal
case in a significant manner.

In the generic form, we can express the formula of the time of flight as :

In the normal case, uy = u sin θ and ay = – g . Hence,

In the case of projection on incline plane, uy = u sin ( θ − α ) and ay = – g cos α . Hence,

This comparison and understanding of generic form of the expression for time of flight helps us
write the formula accurately in both cases.

Range of flight

First thing that we should note that we do not call “horizontal range” as the range on the incline is
no more horizontal. Rather we simply refer the displacement along x-axis as “range”. We can find
range of flight by considering motion in both “x” and “y” directions. Note also that we needed the
same approach even in the normal case. Let “R” be the range of projectile motion.

The motion along x-axis is no more uniform, but decelerated. This is the major difference with
respect to normal case.

Substituting value of “T” as obtained before, we have :

Using trigonometric relation, 2 sin2 ( θ − α ) = 1 − cos 2 ( θ − α ) ,

We use the trigonometric relation, sin ( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B ,

This is the expression for the range of projectile on an incline. We can see that this expression
reduces to the one for the normal case, when α = 0 ,

Maximum range
The range of a projectile thrown up the incline is given as :

We see here that the angle of incline is constant. The range, therefore, is maximum for maximum
value of “sin(2θ – α)”. Thus, range is maximum for the angle of projection as measured from
horizontal direction, when :

sin ( 2 θ − α ) = 1

⇒ sin ( 2 θ − α ) = sin π / 2

⇒2θ−α=π/2

⇒θ=π/2+α/2

The maximum range, therefore, is :

Example 4.32.
Problem : Two projectiles are thrown with same speed, “u”, but at different angles from the
base of an incline surface of angle “α”. The angle of projection with the horizontal is “θ” for
one of the projectiles. If two projectiles reach the same point on incline, then determine the
ratio of times of flights for the two projectiles.

Figure 4.48. Projectile motion up an incline

Two projectiles reach the same point on the incline.

Solution : We need to find the ratio of times of flights. Let T1 and T2 be the times of fights.
 Now, the time of flight is given by :

Here, the angle of projection of one of the projectiles, “θ”, is given. However, angle of
projection of other projectile is not given. Let “θ’” be the angle of projection of second
projectile.

We need to know “θ’” to evaluate the above expression. For this, we shall make use of the fact
that projectiles have same range for two angles of projections. We can verify this by having a
look at the expression of range, which is given as :

Since other factors remain same, we need to analyze motions of two projectiles for same range
in terms of angle of projection only. We have noted in the case of normal projectile motion
that there are complimentary angle for which horizontal range is same. Following the same
line of argument and making use of the trigonometric relation sinθ = sin (π -θ), we analyze
the projectile motions of equal range. Here,

2 θ′ − α = π − 2 θ + α
⇒ 2 θ′ = π − 2 θ + 2 α

Putting this value in the expression for the ratio of times of flights, we have :

Coordinates in horizontal (x) and vertical (y) directions

This approach retains the coordinates used in the normal case (in which projectile returns to the
same horizontal level). In this consideration, the description of projectile motion is same as
normal case except that motion is aborted in the mid-air by the incline. Had incline been not there,
the projectile would have continued with its motion as shown in the figure.
 Figure 4.49. Projectile motion up an incline
Projetile motion up is curtailed by incline.

When the projectile is allowed to return to the projection level, then the point of return is (OQ,0),
where OQ is the horizontal range. This position of point of return changes to a new point (x,y),
specified by the angle of elevation “α” of the wedge with respect to horizontal as shown in the
figure.

Figure 4.50. Projectile motion up an incline

Projetile motion descrbed with x-axis in horizontal direction and y-axis in vertical direction.

From the triangle OPQ,

The range of the projectile is given by :

The strategy here is to determine “x” i.e. “OQ” considering the motion as normal projectile
motion. Thus, we shall first determine “x” and then using above relation, we obtain the relation
for the range of flight along the incline. Now, considering motion in horizontal direction , we have
:

x = u cos θ X T

where “T” is the time of flight of projectile motion on the incline. It is given as determined earlier
:

Substituting in the epression of “x”, we have :

We simplify this relation, using trigonometric relation as given here :

Comparing right hand side of the equation with the expression in the numerator of the equation of
“x”, we have :

C−D=2θ−2α

C+D=2θ

Adding, we have :

⇒C=2θ−α

⇒D=α

Thus, we can write :

⇒ 2 sin ( θ − α ) cos θ = sin ( 2 θ − α ) − sin α

Substituting the expression in the equation of “x”,

Using the relation connecting horizontal range “x” with the range on incline, “R”, we have :
Thus, we get the same expression for range as expected. Though the final expressions are same,
but the understanding of two approaches is important as they have best fit application in specific
situations.

Projection down the incline

A typical projection down the incline is shown with a reference system in which “x” and “y” axes
are directions along incline and perpendicular to incline. The most important aspect of the
analysis of this category of projectile motion is the emphasis that we put on the convention for
measuring angles.

Figure 4.51. Projectile motion down an incline

Projetile motion thrown from a higher point.

The angle of projection and angle of incline both are measured from a horizontal line. The
expression for the time of flight is obtained by analyzing motion in vertical directions. Here we
present the final results without working them out as the final forms of expressions are suggestive.

1: Components of initial velocity

ux = u cos ( θ + α )

uy = u sin ( θ + α )

2: Components of acceleration
 Figure 4.52. Components of acceleration due to gravity
Accelration due to gravity forms an angle with y-direction, which is equal to angle of incline.

ax = g sin α

ay = – g cos α

3: Time of flight

The expression of time of flight differs only with respect to angle of sine function in the
numerator of the expression :

4: Range of flight

The expression of range of flight differs only with respect to angle of sine function :

It is very handy to note that expressions have changed only with respect of the sign of “α” for the
time of flight and the range. We only need to exchange “α” by “-α” .

Example 4.33.
Problem : A ball is projected in horizontal direction from an elevated point “O” of an incline
of angle “α” with a speed “u”. If the ball hits the incline surface at a point “P” down the
incline, find the coordinates of point “P”.
 Figure 4.53. Projectile motion down an incline
A ball is projected in horizontal direction.

Solution : We can answer this question, using the relation of coordinates with range “R” as :

Figure 4.54. Projectile motion down an incline

A ball is projected in horizontal direction.

x = R cos α
y = − R sin α
Now, range of the flight for the downward flight is given as :

The important thing to realize here is that the ball is projected in horizontal direction. As we
measure angle from the horizontal line, it is evident that the angle of projection is zero.
Hence,
θ = 00
Putting in the equation for the range of flight, we have :
 Therefore, coordinates of the point of return, “P”, is :

Similarly,

This example illustrated how to use formulae of the range of flight. We should, however, know
that actually, we have the options to analyze projectile motion down an incline without using
derived formula.

As a matter of fact, we can consider projectile motion down an incline as equivalent to projectile
motion from an elevated point as studied in the previous module with out any reference to an
incline or wedge. We need to only shift the horizontal base line to meet the point of return. The
line joining the point of projection and point of return, then, represents the incline surface.

Figure 4.55. Projectile motion down an incline

A ball is projected in horizontal direction.

Observe the projectile motion from a height as shown in the figure. Let the projectile returns to a
point “P”. The line “OP” then represents the incline surface. We can analyze this motion in
rectangular coordinates “x” and “y” in horizontal and vertical direction, using general technique
of analysis in component directions.

Here, we work with the same example as before to illustrate the working in this alternative
manner.
Example 4.34.
Problem : A ball is projected in horizontal direction from an elevated point “O” of an incline
of angle “α” with a speed “u”. If the ball hits the incline surface at a point “P” down the
incline, find the coordinates of point “P”.

Figure 4.56. Projectile motion down from a height

A ball is projected in horizontal direction.

Solution : We draw or shift the horizontal base and represent the same by the line QP as
shown in the figure below.
From the general consideration of projectile motion, the vertical displacement, “y”, is :

Considering the magnitude of vertical displacement only, we have :

On the other hand, consideration of motion in x-direction yields,

x = ux T = u T
Since, we aim to find the coordinates of point of return “P”, we eliminate “T” from the two
equations. This gives us :

From the triangle OPQ, we have :

⇒ y = x tan α
Combining two equations, we have :
 and

The y-coordinate, however, is below origin and is negative. Thus, we put a negative sign
before the expression :

Exercises

Exercise 30.

A projectile is thrown from the base of an incline of angle 30° as shown in the figure. It is thrown
at an angle of 60° from the horizontal direction at a speed of 10 m/s. The total time of flight is
(consider g = 10 m / s2 ) :

Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline

Projectile motion on an incline

This situation can be handled with a reoriented coordinate system as shown in the figure. Here,
angle of projection with respect to x - direction is (θ-α) and acceleration in y - direction is "g
cosα". Now, total time of flight for projectile motion, when points of projection and return are on
same level, is :

Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline

Projectile motion on an incline

Replacing "θ" by "(θ-α)" and "g" by "gcosα", we have formula of time of flight over the incline :

Now, θ = 60° , α = 30°, u = 10 m/s. Putting these values,

Hence, option (d) is correct.

Exercise 31.

Two projectiles are thrown with the same speed from point "O" and "A" so that they hit the
incline. If tO and tA be the time of flight in two cases, then :

Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline

 Projectile motion on an incline

We have discussed that projectile motion on an incline surface can be rendered equivalent to
projectile motion on plane surface by reorienting coordinate system as shown here :

Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline

Projectile motion on an incline

In this reoriented coordinate system, we need to consider component of acceleration due to

gravity along y-direction. Now, time of flight is given by :

Let us first consider the projectile thrown from point "O". Considering the angle the velocity
vector makes with the horizontal, the time of flight is given as :

For the projectile thrown from point "A", the angle with horizontal is zero. Hence, the time of
flight is :

Thus, we see that times of flight in the two cases are equal.

⇒ tA = tO

Hence, option (a) is correct.

Exercise 32.

A ball is projected on an incline of 30° from its base with a speed 20 m/s, making an angle 60°
from the horizontal. The magnitude of the component of velocity, perpendicular to the incline, at
the time ball hits the incline is :

Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline

Projectile motion on an incline

The velocity in y-direction can be determined making use of the fact that a ball under constant
acceleration like gravity returns to the ground with the same speed, but inverted direction. The
component of velocity in y-direction at the end of the journey, in this case, is :

Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline

Projectile motion on an incline
Hence, option (a) is correct.

Exercise 33.

A projectile is projected from the foot of an incline of angle 30°. What should be the angle of
projection, as measured from the horizontal direction so that range on the incline is maximum?

Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline

Projectile motion on an incline

We can interpret the equation obtained for the range of projectile :

The range is maximum for the maximum value of "sin(2θ-α) “ :

sin ( 2 θ − α ) = 1 = sin 900 ⇒ 2 θ − 300 = 900 ⇒ θ = 600

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Exercise 34.

A projectile is projected from the foot of an incline of angle 30° with a velocity 30 m/s. The angle
of projection as measured from the horizontal is 60°. What would be its speed when the projectile
is parallel to the incline?

In the coordinate system of incline and perpendicular to incline, motion parallel to incline denotes
a situation when component of velocity in y-direction is zero. Note that this is an analogous
situation to the point of maximum height in the normal case when projectile returns to same level.
 Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline
Projectile motion on an incline

We shall analyze the situation, taking advantage of this fact. Since component of velocity in y -
direction is zero, it means that velocity of projectile is same as that of component velocity in x-
direction. For consideration of motion in y -direction, we have :

vy = uy + ay t

⇒ 0 = 30 sin 300 − g cos 300 X t

For consideration of motion in x -direction, we have :

vx = ux + ax t = 30 cos 300 − g sin 300 X t

But, component of velocity in y-direction is zero. Hence,

Hence, option (d) is correct.

Exercise 35.

Two incline planes of angles 30° and 60° are placed touching each other at the base as shown in
the figure. A projectile is projected at right angle with a speed of m/s from point "P" and hits
the other incline at point "Q" normally. If the coordinates are taken along the inclines as shown in
the figure, then
 Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline
Projectile motion on an incline

(a) component of acceleration in x-direction is

(b) component of acceleration in x-direction is

(c) component of acceleration in y-direction is

(d) component of acceleration in y-direction is – 5 m / s2

This arrangement is an specific case in which incline plane are right angle to each other. We have
actually taken advantage of this fact in assigning our coordinates along the planes, say y-axis
along first incline and x-axis against second incline.

The acceleration due to gravity is acting in vertically downward direction. We can get the
component accelerations either using the angle of first or second incline. Either of the
considerations will yield same result. Considering first incline,

Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline

Projectile motion on an incline
Hence, options (a) and (d) are correct.

Exercise 36.

Two incline planes of angles 30° and 60° are placed touching each other at the base as shown in
the figure. A projectile is projected at right angle with a speed of m/s from point "P" and hits
the other incline at point "Q" normally. Then, the time of flight is :

Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline

Projectile motion on an incline

This arrangement is an specific case in which incline plane are right angle to each other. We have
actually taken advantage of this fact in assigning our coordinates along the planes, say y-axis
along first incline and x-axis against second incline.

In order to find the time of flight, we can further use the fact that projectile hits the other plane at
right angle i.e. parallel to y-axis. This means that component of velocity in x-direction i.e. along
the second incline is zero. This, in turn, suggests that we can analyze motion in x-direction to
obtain time of flight.
 Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline
Projectile motion on an incline

In x-direction,

vx = ux + ax T ⇒ 0 = ux + ax T

We know need to know "ux” and "ax” in this coordinate system. The acceleration due to gravity is
acting in vertically downward direction. Considering first incline,

Also, we observe that projectile is projected at right angle. Hence, component of projection
velocity in x - direction is :

Putting values in the equation and solving, we have :

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Exercise 37.

Two incline planes of angles 30° and 60° are placed touching each other at the base as shown in
the figure. A projectile is projected at right angle with a speed of m/s from point "P" and hits
the other incline at point "Q" normally. The speed with which the projectile hits the incline at "Q"
is :
 Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline
Projectile motion on an incline

We notice here that initial velocity in y-direction is zero. On the other hand, final velocity in the
y-direction is equal to the velocity with which projectile hits at "Q". The x-component of velocity
at "Q" is zero. The analysis of motion in y - direction gives us the relation for component of
velocity in y-direction as :

Figure 4.56. Projectile motion on an incline

Projectile motion on an incline

In y-direction,

v = vy = uy + ay ⇒ T = 0 + ay T ⇒ v = vy = ay T

Thus, we need to know component of acceleration in y-direction and time of flight. As far as
components of acceleration are concerned, the acceleration due to gravity is acting in vertically
downward direction. Considering first incline, we have :
In order to find the time of flight, we can further use the fact that the component of velocity in x-
direction i.e. along the second incline is zero. This, in turn, suggests that we can analyze motion in
x-direction to obtain time of flight.

In x-direction,

vx = ux + ax T ⇒ 0 = ux + ax T

We know need to know "ux" in this coordinate system. We observe that projectile is projected at
right angle. Hence, component of projection velocity in x - direction is :

Putting values in the equation and solving, we have :

Thus putting values for the expression for the speed of the projectile with which it hits the incline
is :

Thus, speed is 10 m/s.

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Projectile motion on an incline (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Hints for solving problems

Problems based on projectile motion over an incline are slightly difficult. The analysis is
complicated mainly because there are multitudes of approaches available. First there is issue of
coordinates, then we might face the conflict to either use derived formula or analyze motion
independently in component directions and so on. We also need to handle motion up and down the
incline in an appropriate manner. However, solutions get easier if we have the insight into the
working with new set of coordinate system and develop ability to assign appropriate values of
accelerations, angles and component velocities etc.

Here, we present a simple set of guidelines in a very general way :

1: Analyze motion independently along the selected coordinates. Avoid using derived formula to
the extent possible.

2: Make note of information given in the question like angles etc., which might render certain
component of velocity zero in certain direction.

3: If range of the projectile is given, we may try the trigonometric ratio of the incline itself to get
the answer.

4: If we use coordinate system along incline and in the direction perpendicular to it, then always
remember that component motion along both incline and in the direction perpendicular to it are
accelerated motions. Ensure that we use appropriate components of acceleration in the equations
of motion.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the concept of
projectile motion on an incline. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing
features of the subject matter :

Range of the flight

Angle of projection

Final Speed of the projectile

Elastic collision with the incline

Projectile motion on double inclines

Range of the flight

Example 4.35.
Problem : A projectile is thrown with a speed "u" at an angle 60° over an incline of 30°. If the
time of flight of the projectile is “T”, then find the range of the flight.
 Figure 4.57. Projectile motion on an incline
The time of flight is “T”.

Solution : We can see here that time of flight is already given. We can find range considering
projectile motion in the coordinates of horizontal and vertical axes. The range of the projectile
“R” is obtained by using trigonometric ratio in triangle OAB. The range is related to
horizontal base “OB” as :

Figure 4.58. Projectile motion on an incline

The time of flight is “T”.

Now, we can find OB by considering motion in horizontal direction :

Thus, the range of the projectile, OA, is :

Angle of projection

Example 4.36.
Problem : A particle is projected from the foot of an incline of angle “30°” at a certain
velocity so that it strikes the incline normally. Find the angle of projection (θ ) as measured
from the horizontal.

Figure 4.59. Projectile motion on an incline

The projectile hits the incline normally.

Solution : Here, projectile hits the incline normally. It means that component of velocity
along the incline is zero. We should remember that the motion along the incline is not uniform
motion, but a decelerated motion. In order to take advantage of the fact that final component
velocity along incline is zero, we consider motion in a coordinate system along the incline and
along a direction perpendicular to it.

Figure 4.60. Projectile motion on an incline

The projectile hits the incline normally.

vx = ux + ax T
⇒ 0 = u cos ( θ − 300 ) − g sin 300 T
Now, time of flight is also given by the formulae :

Equating two expressions for time of flight, we have :

Final speed of the projectile

Example 4.37.
Problem : A ball is projected on an incline of 30° from its base with a speed 20 m/s, making
an angle 60° from the horizontal. Find the speed with which the ball hits the incline.

Figure 4.61. Projectile motion on an incline

The projectile is projected from base of the incline.

Solution : We analyze this problem in the coordinates along the incline (x-axis) and in the
direction perpendicular to the incline (y-axis). In order to find the speed at the end of flight,
we need to find the component velocities in “x” and “y” directions.
The velocity in y-direction can be determined making use of the fact that a ball under constant
acceleration like gravity returns to the ground with the same speed, but in opposite direction.
The component of velocity in y-direction at the end of the journey, therefore, is :
 Figure 4.62. Projectile motion on an incline
The projectile is projected from base of the incline.

Now, we should attempt to find the component of velocity in x-direction. We should, however,
recall that motion in x-direction is not a uniform motion, but has deceleration of “-gsinα”.
Using equation of motion in x-direction, we have :
vx = ux + ax T
Putting values,

Clearly, we need to know time of flight to know the component of velocity in x-direction. The
time of flight is given by :

Hence, component of velocity in x-direction is :

The speed of the projectile is equal to resultant of components :

Elastic collision with the incline

Example 4.38.
Problem : A ball falls through a height “H” and impacts an incline elastically. Find the time
of flight between first and second impact of the projectile on the incline.
Solution : The ball falls vertically through a distance "H". We can get the value of initial
speed by considering free fall of the ball before impacting incline.
⇒ 0 = u2 − 2 g H

In order to answer this question, we need to identify the velocity with which projectile
rebounds. Since impact is considered elastic, the projectile is rebounded without any loss of
speed. The projectile is rebounded such that angle of incidence i.e. the angle with the normal
is equal to angle of reflection.

Figure 4.63. Projectile motion on an incline

The ball impacts incline elastically.

The components of velocity along the incline and perpendicular to it are shown in the figure.
The motion of ball, thereafter, is same as that of a projectile over an incline. Here, we shall
analyze motion in y-direction (normal to the incline) to find the time of flight. We note that
the net displacement between two strikes is zero in y – direction.
Applying equation of motion

T=0
Or
Putting value of initial speed in the equation of time of flight, we have :

It should be noted here that we can find the time of flight also by using standard formula of
time of flight for projectile motion down the incline. The time of flight for projection down an
incline is given as :

We need to be careful while appropriating angles in the above expression. It may be recalled
that all angles are measured from the horizontal. We redraw the figure to denote the value of
angle of projection “θ” from the horizon.

Figure 4.64. Projectile motion on an incline

The ball impacts incline elastically.

Projectile motion on two inclines

Example 4.39.
Problem : Two incline plane of angles 30° and 60° are placed touching each other at the base
as shown in the figure. A projectile is projected at right angle with a speed of 10√3 m/s from
point “P” and hits the other incline at point “Q” normally. Find the linear distance between
PQ.
 Figure 4.65. Projectile motion on two inclines
A projectile projected at right angle from an incline hits another incline at right angle.

Solution : We notice here OPQ forms a right angle triangle at “O”. The linear distance, “PQ”
is related as :

Figure 4.66. Projectile motion on two inclines

A projectile projected at right angle from an incline hits another incline at right angle.

P Q2 = O P2 + O Q2
In order to find “PQ”, we need to know “OP” and “OQ”. We can find “OP”, considering
motion in y-direction.

Similarly,

In order to evaluate these two relations, we need to find components of accelerations and time
of flight.
Considering first incline, we have :
 In order to find the time of flight, we can further use the fact that the component of velocity in
x-direction i.e. along the second incline is zero. This, in turn, suggests that we can analyze
motion in x-direction to obtain time of flight.
In x-direction,
vx = ux + ax T
⇒ 0 = ux + ax T

Putting values in the equation and solving, we have :

Now, we can evaluate “x” and “y” displacements as :

Considering positive values, the linear distance, “PQ” is given as :

Relative motion of projectiles*

In this module, we shall apply the concept of relative velocity and relative acceleration to the
projectile motion. The description here is essentially same as the analysis of relative motion in
two dimensions, which was described earlier in the course except that there is emphasis on
projectile motion. Besides, we shall extend the concept of relative motion to analyze the
possibility of collision between projectiles.

We shall maintain the convention of subscript designation for relative quantities for the sake of
continuity. The first letter of the subscript determines the “object”, whereas the second letter
determines the “other object” with respect to which measurement is carried out. Some expansion
of meaning is given here to quickly recapitulate uses of subscripted terms :

vAB : Relative velocity of object “A” with respect to object “B”

vABx : Component of relative velocity of object “A” with respect to object “B” in x-direction
For two dimensional case, the relative velocity is denoted with bold type vector symbol. We shall
, however, favor use of component scalar symbol with appropriate sign to represent velocity
vector in two dimensions like in the component direction along the axes of the coordinate system.
The generic expression for two dimensional relative velocity are :

In vector notation :

vAB = vA − vB ()

In component scalar form :

vABx = vAx – vBx ()

vABy = vAy – vBy ()

Relative velocity of projectiles

The relative velocity of projectiles can be found out, if we have the expressions of velocities of
the two projectiles at a given time. Let “ v A ” and “ v B ” denote velocities of two projectiles
respectively at a given instant “t”. Then :

Figure 4.67. Relative velocity of projectiles

Velocities of projectiles.

vA = vAx i + vAy j

vB = vBx i + vBy j

Hence, relative velocity of projectile “A” with respect to projectile “B” is :

vAB = v A – v B = vAx i + vAy j − vBx i − vBy j

 vAB = ( vAx − vBx ) i + ( vAy − vBy ) j ()

We can interpret this expression of relative velocity as equivalent to consideration of relative

velocity in component directions. In the nutshell, it means that we can determine relative velocity
in two mutually perpendicular directions and then combine them as vector sum to obtain the
resultant relative velocity. Mathematically,

vAB = vABx i + vABy j ()

where,

vABx = vAx − vBx

This is a significant analysis simplification as study of relative motion in one dimension can be
done with scalar representation with appropriate sign.

Interpretation of relative velocity of projectiles

The interpretation is best understood in terms of component relative motions. We consider motion
in both horizontal and vertical directions.

Relative velocity in horizontal direction

The interpretation is best understood in terms of component relative motion. In horizontal

direction, the motion is uniform for both projectiles. It follows then that relative velocity in
horizontal x-direction is also a uniform velocity i.e. motion without acceleration.

Figure 4.68. Component relative velocity

Component relative velocity in x-direction.
The relative velocity in x-direction is :

vABx = vAx − vBx

As horizontal component of velocity of projectile does not change with time, we can re-write the
equation of component relative velocity as :

vABx = uAx − uBx ()

Significantly, relative velocity in x-direction is determined by the initial velocities or initial

conditions of the projection of two projectiles. It is expected also as components of velocities in
x-direction do not change with time. The initial velocity, on the other hand, is fixed for a given
projectile motion. As such, horizontal component of relative velocity is constant. A plot of
relative velocity in x - direction .vs. time will be a straight line parallel to time axis.

The separation between two objects in x-direction at a given time "t" depends on two factors : (i)
the initial separation of two objects in x-direction and (ii) relative velocity in x - direction. The
separation in x - direction is given as :

Δ x = xA − xB = x0 + vABx t

where x0 is the initial separation between two projectiles in x-direction. Clearly, the separation in
horizontal direction .vs. time plot would be a straight line with a constant slope. In physical terms,
the separation between two projectiles in horizontal direction keeps increasing at a constant rate,
which is equal to the magnitude of the component of relative velocity in that direction.

Relative velocity in vertical direction

The motion in the vertical direction, however, is subject to acceleration due to gravity, which
always acts in vertically downward direction. The relative velocity in y-direction is :

Figure 4.69. Component relative velocity

 Component relative velocity in y-direction.

vABy = vAy − vBy

As vertical component of motion is not a uniform motion, we can use equation of motion to
determine velocity at a given time “t” as,

vAy = uAy − g t

vBy = uBy − g t

Putting in the expression of relative velocity in y-direction, we have :

vABy = vAy − vBy = uAy − g t − uBy + g t

⇒ vABy = uAy − uBy ()

The important aspect of the relative velocity in vertical y-direction is that acceleration due to
gravity has not made any difference. The component relative velocity in y-direction is equal to
simple difference of components of initial velocities of two projectiles in vertical direction. It is
clearly due to the fact the acceleration of two projectiles in y-direction are same i.e. acceleration
due to gravity and hence relative acceleration between two projectiles in vertical direction is zero.
It means that the nature of relative velocity in vertical direction is same as that in the horizontal
direction. A plot of relative velocity in y -direction .vs. time will be a straight line parallel to time
axis.

The separation between two objects in y-direction at a given time "t" depends on two factors : (i)
the initial separation of two objects in y-direction and (ii) relative velocity in y - direction. The
separation in y - direction is given as :

Δ y = yA − yB = y0 + vABy t

where y0 is the initial separation between two projectiles in y-direction. Note that acceleration
term has not appeared in the expression of relative velocity, because they cancel out. Clearly, the
separation in vertical direction .vs. time plot would be a straight line with a constant slope. In
physical terms, the separation between two projectiles in vertical direction keeps increasing at a
constant rate, which is equal to the magnitude of the component of relative velocity in that
direction.

Resultant relative motion

The component relative velocities in two mutually perpendicular directions have been derived in
the previous section as :
 Figure 4.70. Relative velocity of projectiles
Relative velocity of projectiles depends on initial velocities of projectiles.

vABx = uAx − uBx

vABy = uAy − uBy

These equations are very important results. It means that relative velocity between projectiles is
exclusively determined by initial velocities of the two projectiles i.e. by the initial conditions of
the two projectiles as shown in the figure below. The component relative velocities do not depend
on the subsequent motion i.e. velocities. The resultant relative velocity is vector sum of
component relative velocities :

vAB = vABx i + vABy j

Figure 4.71. Resultant relative velocity of projectiles

Resultant relative velocity of projectiles is constant.

Since the component relative velocities do not depend on the subsequent motion, the resultant
relative velocity also does not depend on the subsequent motion. The magnitude of resultant
relative velocity is given by :

()

The slope of the relative velocity of “A” with respect to “B” from x-direction is given as :
()

Example 4.40.
Problem : Two projectiles are projected simultaneously from two towers as shown in the
figure. Find the magnitude of relative velocity, vAB , and the angle that relative velocity makes
with horizontal direction

Figure 4.72. Relative motion of projectiles

Relative motion of projectiles

Solution : We shall first calculate relative velocity in horizontal and vertical directions and
then combine them to find the resultant relative velocity. Let "x" and "y" axes be in horizontal
and perpendicular directions. In x-direction,

In y-direction,

The magnitude of relative velocity is :

The angle that relative velocity makes with horizontal is :

 Physical interpretation of relative velocity of projectiles

The physical interpretation of the results obtained in the previous section will help us to
understand relative motion between two projectiles. We recall that relative velocity can be
interpreted by assuming that the reference object is stationary. Consider the expression, for
example,

vABx = uAx − uBx

What it means that relative velocity “vABx” of object “A” with respect to object “B” in x-
direction is the velocity of the object “A” in x-direction as seen by the stationary object “B”. This
interpretation helps us in understanding the nature of relative velocity of projectiles.

Extending the reasoning, we can say that object “A” is moving with uniform motion in “x” and
“y” directions as seen by the stationary object “B”. The resultant motion of “A”, therefore, is
along a straight line with a constant slope. This result may be a bit surprising as we might have
expected that two projectiles see (if they could) each other moving along some curve - not a
straight line.

Figure 4.73. Relative velocity of projectiles

Relative velocity of projectiles is constant.

Special cases

There are two interesting cases. What if horizontal component of velocities of the two projectiles
are same? In this case, relative velocity of projectiles in horizontal direction is zero. Also, it is
imperative that there is no change in the initial separation between two projectiles in x-direction.
Mathematically,

vABx = uAx – uBx = 0

There is no relative motion between two projectiles in horizontal direction. They may, however,
move with respect to each other in y-direction. The relative velocity in y-direction is given by :

vABy = uAy − uBy

Since relative velocity in x-direction is zero, the relative velocity in y-direction is also the net
relative velocity between two projectiles.

In the second case, components of velocities in y-direction are equal. In this case, there is no
relative velocity in y-direction. The projectiles may, however, have relative velocity in x-
direction. As such the relative velocity in y-direction is also the net relative velocity between two
projectiles.

Exercises

Exercise 38.

Two projectiles are projected simultaneously at same speeds, but with different angles of
projections from a common point in a given vertical plane. The path of one projectile, as viewed
from other projectile is :

(a) a straight line parallel to horizontal

(b) a straight line parallel to vertical

(c) a circle

(d) None of above

The component relative velocities in horizontal and vertical directions are, defined in terms of
initial velocities, which are constant for the given pair of projectiles. Therefore, the relative
velocities of two projectiles in horizontal and vertical directions are constants. Let " uA ” and “
uB ” be the initial velocities of two projectiles, then component relative velocities in "x" and "y"
directions are :
 Figure 4.73. Relative motion of projectiles
Relative motion of projectiles

vABx = uAx − uBx vABy = uAy − uBy

The resultant relative velocity is :

uAB = ( uAx − uBx ) i + ( uAy − uBy ) j

As given in the question, the initial speeds of the projectiles are same, but angles of projections
are different. Since sine and cosine of two different angles are different, it follows that component
velocities of two projectiles are different in either direction. This is ensured as speeds of two
projectiles are same. It implies that components (horizontal or vertical) of the relative velocity
are non-zero and finite constant. The resultant relative velocity is, thus, constant, making an angle
" θ " with horizontal (x-axis) such that :

Figure 4.73. Relative motion of projectiles

Relative motion of projectiles
Thus, one projectile (B) sees other projectile (A) moving in a straight line with constant velocity,
which makes a constant angle with the horizontal. Hence, option (d) is correct.

Exercise 39.

Two projectiles are projected simultaneously at different velocities from a common point in a
given vertical plane. If the components of initial velocities of two projectiles in horizontal
direction are equal, then the path of one projectile as viewed from other projectile is :

(a) a straight line parallel to horizontal

(b) a straight line parallel to vertical

(c) a parabola

(d) None of above

The component relative velocities in horizontal and vertical directions are, defined in terms of
initial velocities, which are constant for the given projectiles. Let " uA ” and “ uB ” be the initial
velocities of two projectiles, then component relative velocities in "x" and "y" directions are :

vABx = uAx − uBx vABy = uAy − uBy

According to the question, components of initial velocities of two projectiles in horizontal

direction are equal :

uAx − uBx = 0

It is given that velocities of projections are different. As horizontal components of velocities in

horizontal directions are equal, the components of velocities in vertical directions are different.
As such, above expression evaluates to a constant vector. Thus, one projectile sees other projectile
moving in a straight line parallel to vertical (i.e. direction of unit vector j).

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Collision of projectiles*
Collision between two projectiles is a rare eventuality. The precise requirement of collision is that
the two projectiles are at the same position (having same x and y coordinates) at a given time
instant. This is the condition for two point objects to collide or for a collision to occur. This is
possible only rarely. Consider projections of two projectiles as shown in the figure.
 Figure 4.74. Collision of projectiles
The position of plane with respect to the earth keeps changing with time.

We see that paths of two projectiles cross twice. Thus, there are two positions (or corresponding
time instants) when it is possible that projectiles occupy same position and thus may collide with
each other. But, there are infinite possibilities that they would not. Projectile “A” may rise to the
required height but “B” may be at lower or higher position. Similarly, even if two projectiles are
at same height they may be horizontally separated. To top these, the projectiles may have time
difference at the start of their motion. However, if two projectiles collide then we can make lot
many simplifying assumptions resulting from the requirement of collision that two projectiles are
at the same position at the same time. In this module, we shall examine these simplifying aspects
of projectile motion under collision.

Analysis of motion

Two projectiles need to approach towards each other for collision to take place. If we look at this
requirement in component form, then projectiles should approach towards each other both
vertically and horizontally. It is possible that projectiles have different projection times. We can,
however, extend the analysis even when projectiles are projected at different times by accounting
motion for the additional time available to one of projectiles. For the sake of simplicity however,
we consider that two projectiles are initiated at the same time instant.

The most important aspect of analysis of projectile motion involving collision is that we can
interpret condition of collision in terms of relative velocity. We actually use the fact that
components of relative velocity in either x or y direction is uniform motion - not accelerated one.
This simplifies the analysis a great deal.

Relative motion in x-direction

If “ x0 ” is the initial separation between projectiles, then for collision they should cover this
separation with x-component of relative velocity. Since two projectiles are initiated at the same
time instant, the time when collision occurs is given by :

where vABx is the relative speed of approach of A with respect B. Note that time expression
evaluates to same value whether we compute it with vABx or vBAx . On the other hand, if there is no
initial separation in x – direction, the projectiles should cover same horizontal distance for all
time intervals. It is so because projectiles have to reach same horizontal i..e x-position at the point
of collision in two dimensional space. This means that relative velocity of projectiles in x-
direction is zero for the condition of collision. Mathematically,

vABx = vAx − vBx = 0

Relative motion in y-direction

If “ y0 ” is the initial separation between projectiles, then for collision they should cover this
separation with y-component of relative velocity. Since two projectiles are initiated at the same
time instant, the time when collision occurs is given by :

where vABy is the relative speed of approach of A with respect B. Note that time expression
evaluates to same value whether we compute it with vABy or vBAy . On the other hand, if there is no
initial separation in y – direction, the projectiles should cover same vertical distance for all time
intervals. It is so because projectiles have to reach same vertical i..e y-position at the point of
collision in two dimensional space. This means that relative velocity of projectiles in y-direction
is zero for the condition of collision. Mathematically,

vABy = vAy − vBy = 0

Collision of projectiles initiated without vertical separation

In this case, there is no initial vertical separation. Such is the case, when projectiles are projected
from same horizontal level. Both projectiles should rise to same height for all time. Clearly,
relative velocity in vertical i.e y-direction is zero :

vABy = vAy − vBy = 0

On the other hand, time of collision is obtained by considering relative motion in x-direction :
There are different cases for projection from the same horizontal level. Some important cases are :
(i) one projectile is projected at certain angle to the horizontal while the other projectile is
projected vertically and (ii) Both projectiles are projected at certain angles to the horizontal. Here,
we shall work out examples for each of these cases.

Example 4.41.
Problem : Two projectiles “A” and “B” are projected simultaneously as shown in the figure.
If they collide after 0.5 s, then determine (i) angle of projection “θ” and (ii) the distance “s”.

Figure 4.75. Relative motion

The projectiles collide after 0.5 s.

Solution : We see here that projectile “A” is approaching towards projectile “B” in horizontal
direction. Their movement in two component directions should be synchronized so that they
are at the same position at a particular given time. There is no separation in vertical direction
at the start of motion. As such, relative velocity in y-direction should be zero for collision to
occur.

Figure 4.76. Relative motion

The projectiles collide after 0.5 s.

vABy = uAy − uBy = 0

⇒ θ = 450
In the x-direction, the relative velocity is :

The distance “s” covered with the relative velocity in 0.5 second is :
s = vABx X t = 20 X 0.5 = 10 m

Example 4.42.
Problem : Two projectiles “A” and “B” are thrown simultaneously in opposite directions as
shown in the figure. If they happen to collide in the mid air, then find the time when collision
takes place.

Figure 4.77. Two projectiles

Two projectiles are thrown towards each other.

Solution : There is no separation in vertical direction at the start of motion. As such, relative
velocity in y-direction should be zero for collision to occur.
vABy = uAy − uBy = 0
⇒ uA sin θA = uB sin θB
Putting values,

The projectiles move towards each other with the relative velocity in horizontal direction. The
 relative velocity in x-direction is :
vABx = uAx − uBx = 60 cos 300 + 50 cos θB
In order to find relative velocity in x-direction, we need to know “ cos θB ”. Using
trigonometric relation, we have :

Hence,

We should now understand that projectiles move towards each other with a relative velocity of
92 m/s. We can interpret this as if projectile “B” is stationary and projectile “A” moves
towards it with a velocity 92 m/s, covering the initial separation between two particles for
collision to take place. The time of collision, therefore, is :
⇒ t = 92 / 92 = 1 s

Collision of projectiles initiated without horizontal separation

In this case, there is no initial horizontal separation. Projectiles are thrown from different levels.
Both projectiles travel same horizontal distnace for all time. Clearly, relative velocity in
horizontal i.e x-direction is zero :

vABx = vAx − vBx = 0

On the other hand, time of collision is obtained by considering relative motion in y-direction :

Example 4.43.
Problem : A fighter plane is flying horizontally at a speed of 360 km/hr and is exactly above
an aircraft gun at a given moment. At that instant, the aircraft gun is fired to hit the plane,
which is at a vertical height of 1 km. If the speed of the shell is 720 km/hr, then at what angle
should the gun be aimed to hit the plane (Neglect resistance due to air)?
Solution : This is a case of collision between fighter plane and shell fired from the gun. Since
plane is overhead, it is required that horizontal component of velocity of the shell be equal to
that of the plane as it is flying in horizontal direction. This will ensure that shell will hit the
plane whenever it rises to the height of the plane.
 Figure 4.78. Two projectiles
The shell fired aircraft gun hits the fighter plane.

Now the horizontal and vertical components of shell velocity are :

ux = 720 cos θ
⇒ uy = 720 sin θ
For collision,
⇒ ux = 720 cos θ = 360

⇒ θ = 600
However, we need to check that shell is capable to rise to the height of the plane. Here,

The maximum height achieved by the shell is obtained as here :

The shell indeed rises to the height of the plane (1000 m) and hence will hit it.

Example 4.44.
Problem : Two projectiles are projected simultaneously from a point on the ground “O” and
an elevated position “A” respectively as shown in the figure. If collision occurs at the point of
return of two projectiles on the horizontal surface, then find the height of “A” above the
ground and the angle at which the projectile "O" at the ground should be projected.
 Figure 4.79. Relative motion
The projectiles collide in the mid air.

Solution : There is no initial separation between two projectiles in x-direction. For collision
to occur, the relative motion in x-direction should be zero. In other words, the component
velocities in x-direction should be equal so that two projectiles cover equal horizontal distance
at any given time. Hence,
uOx = uAx
⇒ uO cos θ = uA

⇒ θ = 600

Figure 4.80. Relative motion

The projectiles collide in the mid air.

We should ensure that collision does occur at the point of return. It means that by the time
projectiles travel horizontal distances required, they should also cover vertical distances so
that both projectiles are at “C” at the same time. In the nutshell, their times of flight should be
 equal. For projectile from "O",

For projectile from "A",

For projectile from "A",

Squaring both sides and putting values,

We have deliberately worked out this problem taking advantage of the fact that projectiles are
colliding at the end of their flights and hence their times of flight should be equal. We can,
however, proceed to analyze in typical manner, using concept of relative velocity. The initial
separation between two projectiles in the vertical direction is “H”. This separation is covered
with the component of relative velocity in vertical direction.

Now, time of flight of projectile from ground is :

Hence, the vertical displacement of projectile from "A" before collision is :

Collision of projectiles initiated from different horizontal and vertical levels

In this case, there are finite initial horizontal and vertical separations. For collision to occur,
projectiles need to cover these separations simultaneously. Clearly, component relative velocity in
x and y directions are finitie. We can obtain time of collision by consideration of relative motion
in either direction,

or
Example 4.45.
Problem : Two projectiles are projected simultaneously from two towers as shown in the
figure. If the projectiles collide in the air, then find the distance “s” between the towers.

Figure 4.81. Relative motion

The projectiles collide in the mid air.

Solution : We see here that projectiles are approaching both horizontally and vertically. Their
movement in two component directions should be synchronized so that they are at the same
position at a particular given time. For collision, the necessary requirement is that relative
velocity and displacement should be in the same direction.
It is given that collision does occur. It means that two projectiles should cover the
displacement with relative velocity in each of the component directions.

Figure 4.82. Relative motion

The projectiles collide in the mid air.

In x-direction,
 If “t” is time after which collision occurs, then
⇒ s = vABx X t = 20 t
Clearly, we need to know “t” to find “s”. The component of relative velocity in y-direction is :
vABy = uAy − uBy

The initial vertical distance between points of projection is 30-10 = 20 m. This vertical
distance is covered with component of relative velocity in vertical direction. Hence, time
taken to collide, “t”, is :

Putting this value in the earlier equation for “s”, we have :

Exercises

Exercise 40.

Two projectiles are projected simultaneously from two towers as shown in the figure. If collision
takes place in the air, then what should be the ratio "x/y" :

Figure 4.82. Relative motion of projectiles

Relative motion of projectiles
According to question, collision occurs in the mid air. The necessary condition for collision is that
direction of relative velocity and initial displacement between projectiles should be same.

In x-direction,

In y-direction,

The angle that relative velocity makes with horizontal is :

This is also the slope of displacement AB,

Hence, option (c) is correct.

Exercise 41.

Two balls are projected simultaneously with speeds " u1 ” and “" u2 ” from two points "O" and "A"
respectively as shown in the figure. If the balls collide, then find the ratio " ” (consider g = 10
m / s2 ) :

Figure 4.82. Relative motion of projectiles

Relative motion of projectiles
It is given that the projectiles collide. Now the initial separation in vertical direction is zero. It
follows then that component of relative velocity between two projectiles in vertical direction
should be zero for collision to take place. This is possible if the vertical component of velocity of
projectile form "O" is equal to the speed of projectile form "A" (Remember that acceleration due
to gravity applies to both projectiles and relative acceleration in vertical direction is zero).

u1 sin 600 = u2

Hence, option (a) is correct.

Exercise 42.

Two projectiles “A” and “B” are projected simultaneously towards each other as shown in the
figure. Determine if they collide.

Figure 4.82. Relative motion

The projectiles collide in the mid air.

There is no separation in vertical direction at the start of motion. As such, relative velocity in y-
direction should be zero for collision to occur.
 Figure 4.82. Relative motion
The projectiles collide in the mid air.

vABy = uAy − uBy = 0

θ = 300

In the x-direction, the initial separation is 15 m and the relative velocity is :

The time after which collision may occur is :

We should, however, check whether projectiles stay that long in the air in the first place? Now, we
have seen that the projectiles should have same vertical component of velocity for collision to
occur. As time of flight is a function of vertical component of velocity, the time of the flight of
the projectiles are equal. For projectile “A” :

This means that projectiles would not stay that long in the air even though the necessary
conditions (but not sufficient conditions) for the collision are fulfilled. Clearly, collision does not
occur in this case. We should clearly understand that "analysis of motion with respect to
collision" and "requirements of collision" are not same. In this module, we have studied the
"consequence of collision" - not the "conditions for collision".

4.2. Circular motion

Uniform circular motion*

Uniform circular motion denotes motion of a particle along a circular arc or a circle with constant
speed. This statement, as a matter of fact, can be construed as the definition of uniform circular
motion.

Requirement of uniform circular motion

The uniform circular motion represents the basic form of rotational motion in the same manner as
uniform linear motion represents the basic form of translational motion. They, however, are
different with respect to the requirement of force to maintain motion.

Uniform linear motion is the reflection of the inherent natural tendency of all natural bodies. This
motion by itself is the statement of Newton’s first law of motion : an object keeps moving with its
velocity unless there is net external force. Thus, uniform linear motion indicates “absence” of
force.

On the other hand, uniform circular motion involves continuous change in the direction of
velocity without any change in its magnitude (v). A change in the direction of velocity is a change
in velocity ( v). It means that an uniform circular motion is associated with an acceleration and
hence force. Thus, uniform circular motion indicates “presence” of force.

Let us now investigate the nature of force required to maintain uniform circular motion. We know
that a force acting in the direction of motion changes only the magnitude of velocity. A change in
the direction of motion, therefore, requires that velocity of the particle and force acting on it
should be at an angle. However, such a force, at an angle with the direction of motion, would have
a component along the direction of velocity as well and that would change the magnitude of the
motion.
 Figure 4.83. Change of direction
A change in the direction of motion requires that velocity of the particle and force should be at an angle.

In order that there is no change in the magnitude of velocity, the force should have zero
component along the direction of velocity. It is possible only if the force be perpendicular to the
direction of velocity such that its component in the direction of velocity is zero (Fcos90° = 0).
Precisely, this is the requirement for a motion to be uniform circular motion.

Figure 4.84. Uniform circular motion

Force is perpendicular to the direction of velocity.

In plain words, uniform circular motion (UCM) needs a force, which is always perpendicular to
the direction of velocity. Since the direction of velocity is continuously changing, the direction of
force, being perpendicular to velocity, should also change continously.

The direction of velocity along the circular trajectory is tangential. The perpendicular direction to
the circular trajectory is, therefore, radial direction. It implies that force (and hence acceleration)
in uniform direction motion is radial. For this reason, acceleration in UCM is recognized to seek
center i.e. centripetal (seeking center).
This fact is also validated by the fact that the difference of velocity vectors, whose time rate gives
acceleration, at two instants (Δ v) is radial.

Figure 4.85. Uniform circular motion

Force is centripetal.

The yet another important aspect of the UCM is that the centripetal force is radial and hence does
not constitute a torque as the force is passing through the axis of rotation. A torque is force
multiplied by the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the axis of rotation.
It must be clearly understood that the requirement of centripetal force is essentially additional or
different to the force, which is required in non-uniform circular motion to accelerate the particle
tangentially. The centripetal force is required to accelerate particle in radial direction and is
different to one required to accelerate particle tangentially.

Irrespective of whether circular motion is uniform (constant speed) or non-uniform (varying

speed), the circular motion inherently associates a radial acceleration to ensure that the direction
of motion is continuously changed – at all instants. We shall learn about the magnitude of radial
acceleration soon, but let us be emphatic to differentiate radial acceleration (accounting change in
direction that arises from radial force) with tangential acceleration (accounting change in the
speed that arises from tangential force or equivalently a torque).

Motion of natural bodies and sub-atomic particles are always under certain force system. Absence
of force in the observable neighborhood is rare. Thus, uniform linear motion is rare, while
uniform circular motion abounds in nature as there is availability of external force that
continuously changes direction of the motion of the bodies or particles. Consider the electrostatic
force between nucleus and an electron in an atom. The force keeps changing direction as electron
moves. So is the case of gravitational force (indicated by red arrow in the figure), which keeps
changing its direction as the planet moves around sun.
 Figure 4.86. Approximated circular motion of Earth around Sun
Gravitational force is radial, whereas velocity is tangential.

It may sometimes be perceived that a force like centripetal force should have caused the particle
or body to move towards center ultimately. The important point to understand here is that a force
determines initial direction of motion only when the particle is stationary. However, if the particle
is already in motion, then force modifies the direction in accordance with initial inclination
between velocity and force such that the resulting acceleration (change in vector velocity) is in the
direction of force. We shall soon see that this is exactly the case in uniform circular motion.

Let us summarize the discussion of uniform circular motion so far :

The trajectory of uniform circular motion is circular arc or a circle and hence planar or two
dimensional.

The speed (v) of the particle in UCM is a constant.

The velocity ( v) of the particle in UCM is variable and is tangential or circumferential to the
path of motion.

Centripetal force ( F) is required to maintain uniform circular motion against the natural
tendency of the bodies to move linearly.

Centripetal force ( F) is variable and is radial in direction.

Centripetal force ( F) is not a torque and does not cause acceleration in tangential direction.

Centripetal acceleration ( a R ) is variable and radial in direction.

Analysis of uniform circular motion

It has been pointed out that any motion, that changes directions, requires more than one dimension
for representation. Circular motion by the geometry of the trajectory is two dimensional motion.

In the case of circular motion, it is a matter of convenience to locate origin of the two dimensional
coordinate system at the center of circle. This choice ensures the symmetry of the circular motion
about the origin of the reference system.

Coordinates of the particle

The coordinates of the particle is given by the "x" and "y" coordinate pair as :
()

The angle "θ" is measured anti-clockwise from x-axis.

Position of the particle

The position vector of the position of the particle, r, is represented in terms of unit vectors as :
()

Velocity of the particle

The magnitude of velocity of the particle (v) is constant by the definition of uniform circular
motion. In component form, the velocity (refer to the figure) is :
()

From the geometry as shown in the figure,

Figure 4.87. Uniform circular motion

 Component velocities in UCM.

()

We may emphasize here that it is always easy to find the sign of the component of a vector like
velocity. Decide the sign by the direction of component (projection) with respect to positive
direction of reference axis. Note from the figure that component along x-direction is opposite to
the positive reference direction and hence negative.

From the ΔOAP,

Putting these values in the expression for velocity, we have :

()

Centripetal acceleration

We are now sufficiently equipped and familiarized with the nature of uniform circular motion and
the associated centripetal (center seeking) acceleration. Now, we seek to determine this
acceleration.

Knowing that speed, "v" and radius of circle, "r" are constants, we differentiate the expression of
velocity with respect to time to obtain expression for centripetal acceleration as :

Putting values of component velocities in terms of angle,

()
 Figure 4.88. Uniform circular motion
Components of radial accelerations

where

It is evident from the equation of acceleration that it varies as the angle with horizontal, "θ"
changes. The magnitude of acceleration is :
()

The radius of the circle is constant. The magnitude of velocity i.e. speed, "v" is constant for UCM.
It, then, follows that though velocity changes with the motion (angle from reference direction),
but the speed of the particle in UCM is a constant.

Example 4.46.
Problem : A cyclist negotiates the curvature of 20 m with a speed of 20 m/s. What is the
magnitude of his acceleration?
Solution : The speed of the cyclist is constant. The acceleration of cyclist, therefore, is the
centripetal acceleration required to move the cyclist along a circular path i.e. the acceleration
resulting from the change in the direction of motion along the circular path.
Here, v = 20 m/s and r = 20 m
This example points to an interesting aspect of circular motion. The centripetal acceleration of the
cyclist is actually two (2) times that of acceleration due to gravity (g = 10 m / s 2 ). This fact is
used to create large acceleration in small space with appropriate values of “v” and “r” as per the
requirement in hand. The large acceleration so produced finds application in particle physics and
for equipments designed to segregate material on the basis of difference in density. This is also
used to simulate large acceleration in a centrifuge for astronauts, who experience large
acceleration at the time of take off or during entry on the return.

Generation of high magnitude of acceleration during uniform circular motion also points to a
potential danger to pilots, while maneuvering circular trajectory at high speed. Since a pilot is
inclined with the head leaning towards the center of motion, the blood circulation in the brain is
low. If his body part, including brain, is subjected to high acceleration (multiple of acceleration
due to gravity), then it is likely that the pilot experiences dizziness or sometimes even looses
consciousness.

Circular motion has many interesting applications in real world and provides explanations for
many natural events. In this module, however, we restrict ourselves till we study the dynamics of
the circular motion also in subsequent modules.

Direction of centripetal acceleration

Here, we set out to evaluate the angle “α” as shown in the figure. Clearly, if this angle “α” is equal
to “θ”, then we can conclude that acceleration is directed in radial direction.

Figure 4.89. Uniform circular motion

Radial acceleration

Now,
This proves that centripetal acceleration is indeed radial (i.e acting along radial direction).

Time period of uniform circular motion

A particle under UCM covers a constant distance in completing circular trajectory in one
revolution, which is equal to the perimeter of the circle.

Further the particle covers the perimeter with constant speed. It means that the particle travels the
circular trajectory in a constant time given by its time period as :
()

Exercise 43.

An astronaut, executing uniform circular motion in a centrifuge of radius 10 m, is subjected to a

radial acceleration of 4g. The time period of the centrifuge (in seconds) is :

(a) π (b) 2π (c) 3π (d) 4π

From the inputs given in the question,

The time period of the motion is :

Hence, option (a) is correct.

Uniform circular motion and projectile motion

Both these motions are two dimensional motions. They are alike in the sense that motion in each
case is subjected to continuous change of the direction of motion. At the same time, they are
different in other details. The most important difference is that projectile motion has a constant
acceleration, whereas uniform circular motion has a constant magnitude of acceleration.

Significantly, a projectile motion completely resembles uniform circular motion at one particular
instant. The projectile has only horizontal component of velocity, when it is at the maximum
height. At that instant, the force of gravity, which is always directed downward, is perpendicular
to the direction of velocity. Thus, projectile at that moment executes an uniform circular motion.

Figure 4.90. Projectile motion

Projectile meets the condition of UCM at maximum height

Let radius of curvature of the projectile trajectory at maximum height be “r”, then

The radius of curvature is not equal to maximum height – though expression appears to be
same. But, they are actually different. The numerator here consists of cosine function, whereas
it is sine function in the expression of maximum height. The difference is also visible from
the figure.

Exercise

Exercise 44.

A particle moves along a circle of radius “r” meter with a time period of “T”. The acceleration of
the particle is :

(a) (b) (c) (c)

In order to determine centripetal acceleration, we need to find the speed of the particle. We can
determine the speed of the particle, using expression of time period :
The acceleration of the particle is :

Hence, option (a) is correct.

Exercise 45.

Which of the following quantities are constant in uniform circular motion :

(a) velocity and acceleration

(b) magnitude of acceleration and radius of the circular path

(c) radius of the circular path and speed

(d) speed and acceleration

Three quantities, namely, radius of the circular path, magnitude of acceleration and speed are
constant in uniform circular motion.

Hence, options (b) and (c) are correct.

Exercise 46.

Which of these is/are correct for a particle in uniform circular motion :

(a) the acceleration of the particle is tangential to the path

(b) the acceleration of the particle in the direction of velocity is zero

(c) the time period of the motion is inversely proportional to the radius

(d) for a given acceleration, velocity of the particle is proportional to the radius of circle

The options (a), (c) and (d) are wrong.

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Exercise 47.

A particle moves with a speed of 10 m/s along a horizontal circle of radius 10 m in anti-clockwise
direction. The x and y coordinates of the particle is 0,r at t = 0. The velocity of the particle (in
m/s), when its position makes an angle 135° with x - axis, is :

(a) (b) (c) (d)

The velocity is a vector quantity. We need to know the components of the velocity when particle
makes the angle 135° with x - axis.

Figure 4.90. Uniform circular motion

The component v x is in the reference x - direction, whereas component v y is in the negative

reference y - direction.

Hence, option (a) is correct.

Exercise 48.

A car moves along a path as shown in the figure at a constant speed. Let a A , a B , a C and a D be
the centripetal accelerations at locations A,B,C and D respectively. Then
 Figure 4.90. Uniform circular motion

(a) (b) (c) (d)

The curvatures of path at four points are indicated with our circles drawn so that they align
exactly with the curved path at these points. The radii of these circles at points A and B are
smaller than that at points C and D.

Figure 4.90. Uniform circular motion

Now, the centripetal acceleration is given by :

The smaller the radius, greater is centripetal acceleration. Thus,

and
Hence, options (b) and (d) are correct.

Exercise 49.

A particle executes uniform circular motion with a speed “v” in xy plane, starting from position
(r,0), where “r” denotes the radius of the circle. Then

(a) the component of velocity along x - axis is constant

(b) the component of acceleration along x - axis is constant

(c) the angle swept by the line joining center and particle in equal time interval is constant

(d) the velocity is parallel to external force on the particle

The component of velocity along x - direction is “-v sinθ” and is not a constant. The component of
acceleration along x - direction is “ ” and is not a constant. The external force in
uniform circular motion is equal to centripetal force, which is directed towards the center. Thus,
the velocity is perpendicular to external force.

On the other hand, the particle covers equal circular arc in equal time interval. Hence, the angle
subtended by the arc at the center is also equal in equal time interval.

Hence, option (c) is correct.

Exercise 50.

A particle executes uniform circular motion with a speed “v” in anticlockwise direction, starting
from position (r,0), where “r” denotes the radius of the circle. Then, both components of the
velocities are positive in :

(a) first quadrant of the motion

(b) second quadrant of the motion

(c) third quadrant of the motion

(d) fourth quadrant of the motion

From the figure, it is clear that the components of velocity in the fourth quadrant are both
positive.
 Figure 4.90. Uniform circular motion

Hence, option (d) is correct.

Exercise 51.

A particle executes uniform circular motion with a constant speed of 1 m/s in xy - plane. The
particle starts moving with constant speed from position (r,0), where "r" denotes the radius of the
circle. If center of circle is the origin of the coordinate system, then what is the velocity in "m/s"
of the particle at the position specified by the coordinates (3m,-4m) ?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Here, the inputs are given in terms of coordinates. Thus, we shall use the expression of velocity,
which involves coordinates. Velocity of the particle in circular motion is given by :

Figure 4.90. Uniform circular motion

Here, radius of the circle is :

Hence, option (a) is correct.

Uniform circular motion (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the uniform circular
motion. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the subject matter
:

Direction of velocity

Direction of position vector

Velocity

Relative speed

Nature of UCM

Direction of velocity

Example 4.47.
Problem : A particle moves in xy-plane along a circle of radius "r". The particle moves at a
constant speed in anti-clockwise direction with center of circle as the origin of the coordinate
system. At a certain instant, the velocity of the particle is i – √3 j. Determine the angle that
velocity makes with x-direction.
Solution : The sign of y-component of velocity is negative, whereas that of x-component of
velocity is positive. It means that the particle is in the third quadrant of the circle as shown in
the figure.

Figure 4.91. Top view of uniform circular motion in xy-plane

The acute angle formed by the velocity with x-axis is obtained by considering the magnitude
of components (without sign) as :

⇒ α = 600
This is the required angle as measured in clockwise direction from x-axis. If the angle is
measured in anti-clockwise direction from positive direction of x-axis, then
⇒ α ′ = 3600 − 600 = 3000

Direction of position vector

Example 4.48.
Problem : A particle moves in xy-plane along a circle of radius “r”. The particle moves at a
constant speed in anti-clockwise direction with center of circle as the origin of the coordinate
system. At a certain instant, the velocity of the particle is i – √3 j. Determine the angle that
position vector makes with x-direction.
Solution : The sign of y-component of velocity is negative, whereas that of x-component of
velocity is positive. It means that the particle is in the third quadrant of the circle as shown in
the figure.
 Figure 4.92. Top view of uniform circular motion in xy-plane

The acute angle formed by the velocity with x-axis is obtained by considering the magnitude
of components (without sign) as :

⇒ α = 600
But, we know that position vector is perpendicular to velocity vector. By geometry,
θ = 1800 − 300 = 1500
This is the angle as measured in clockwise direction from x-axis. If the angle is measured in
anti-clockwise direction from positive direction of x-axis, then
⇒ α ′ = 3600 − 1500 = 2100
Note : Recall the derivation of the expression of velocity vector in the previous module. We
had denoted “θ” as the angle that position vector makes with x-axis (not the velocity vector).
See the figure that we had used to derive the velocity expression.

Figure 4.93. Top view of uniform circular motion in xy-plane

As a matter of fact “θ” is the angle that velocity vector makes with y-axis (not x-axis). We can
determine the angle “θ” by considering the sign while evaluating tan θ,

θ = 1500

Velocity

Example 4.49.
Problem : A particle moves with a speed 10 m/s in xy-plane along a circle of radius 10 m in
anti-clockwise direction. The particle starts moving with constant speed from position (r,0),
where "r" denotes the radius of the circle. Find the velocity of the particle (in m/s), when its
position makes an angle 135° with x – axis.
Solution : The velocity of the particle making an angle "θ" with x – axis is given as :

Figure 4.94. Uniform circular motion

Here,

Here, both the components are negative.

Relative speed

Example 4.50.
Problem : Two particles tracing a circle of radius 10 m begin their journey simultaneously
from a point on the circle in opposite directions. If their speeds are 2.0 m/s and 1.14 m/s
respectively, then find the time after which they collide.
Solution : The particles approach each other with a relative speed, which is equal to the sum
of their speeds.

For collision to take place, the particles need to cover the initial separation with the relative
speed as measured above. The time for collision is, thus, obtained as :

Nature of UCM

Example 4.51.
Problem : Two particles “A” and “B” are moving along circles of radii " rA " and " rB "
respectively at constant speeds. If the particles complete one revolution in same time, then
prove that speed of the particle is directly proportional to radius of the circular path.
Solution : As the time period of the UCM is same,

Hence, speed of the particle is directly proportional to the radius of the circle.

Example 4.52.
Problem : Two particles “A” and “B” are moving along circles of radii " rA " and " rB "
respectively at constant speeds. If the particles have same acceleration, then prove that speed
of the particle is directly proportional to square root of the radius of the circular path.
Solution : As the acceleration of the UCM is same,
 Hence, speed of the particle is directly proportional to square root of the radius of the circular
path.

Circular motion and rotational kinematics*

In pure rotational motion, the constituent particles of a rigid body rotate about a fixed axis in a
circular trajectory. The particles, composing the rigid body, are always at a constant perpendicular
distance from the axis of rotation as their internal distances within the rigid body is locked.
Farther the particle from the axis of rotation, greater is the speed of rotation of the particle.
Clearly, rotation of a rigid body comprises of circular motion of individual particles.

Figure 4.95. Rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis

Each particle constituting the body executes an uniform circular motion about the fixed axis.

We shall study these and other details about the rotational motion of rigid bodies at a later stage.
For now, we confine ourselves to the aspects of rotational motion, which are connected to the
circular motion as executed by a particle. In this background, we can say that uniform circular
motion (UCM) represents the basic form of circular motion and circular motion, in turn,
constitutes rotational motion of a rigid body.

The description of a circular and hence that of rotational motion is best suited to corresponding
angular quantities as against linear quantities that we have so far used to describe translational
motion. In this module, we shall introduce these angular quantities and prepare the ground work to
enable us apply the concepts of angular quantities to “circular motion” in general and “uniform
circulation motion” in particular.
Most important aspect of angular description as against linear description is that there exists one
to one correspondence of quantities describing motion : angular displacement (linear
displacement), angular velocity (linear velocity) and angular acceleration (linear acceleration).

Angular quantities

In this section, we discuss some of the defining quantities, which are used to study uniform
circular motion of a particle and rotational motion of rigid bodies. These quantities are angular
position, angular displacement and angular velocity. They possess directional properties. Their
measurement in counter clockwise direction is considered positive, whereas quantities measured
in clockwise direction is considered negative. This gives us a simplified scheme to represent an
angular vector by a simple variable, whose sign indicates its direction.

Notably, we shall not discuss angular acceleration in this module. It will be discussed as a part of
non-uniform circular motion in a separate module.

Angular position (θ)

We need two straight lines to measure an angle. In rotational motion, one of them represents fixed
direction, while another represents the rotating arm containing the particle. Both these lines are
perpendicular to the rotating axis. The rotating arm, additionally, passes through the position of
the particle.

Figure 4.96. Angular position (θ)

Angular position is the angle between reference direction and rotating arm.

For convenience, the reference direction like x – axis of the coordinate system serves to represent
fixed direction. The angle between reference direction and rotating arm (OP) at any instant is the
angular position of the particle (θ).

It must be clearly understood that angular position (θ) is an angle and does not represent the
position of the particle by itself. It requires to be paired with radius of the circle (r) along which
particle moves in order to specify the position of the particle. Thus, a specification of a position in
the reference system will require both “r” and “θ” to be specified.

Figure 4.97. Relation between distance (s) and angle (θ)

By geometry,
()

where "s" is the length of the arc subtending angle “θ” at the origin and “r” is the radius of the
circle containing the position of the particle. The angular position is measured in “radian”, which
has no dimension, being ratio of two lengths. One revolution contains 2π radians. The unit of
radian is related to other angle measuring units "degree" and "revolution" as :

1 revolution = 360° = 2π radian

The quantities related to angular motion are expressed in terms of angular position. It must be
ensured that values of angular position wherever it appears in the expression be substituted in
radians only. If the given value is in some other unit, then we first need to change the value
into radian. It is so because, radian is a unit derived from the definition of the angle. The
defining relation θ = s/r will not hold unless “θ” is in radian.

Angular displacement (Δθ)

Angular displacement is equal to the difference of angular positions at two instants of rotational
motion.
 Figure 4.98. Angular displacement (Δθ)
Angular displacement is equal to the difference of angular positions at two positions.

()

The angular displacement is also measured in “radian” like angular position. In case our
measurement of angular position coincides with the reference direction, we can make substitution
as given here :

θ1 = 0

θ2 = θ

With these substitution, we can simply express angular displacement in terms of angle as :

⇒ Δ θ = θ2 − θ1 = θ − 0 = θ

Angular velocity (ω)

Angular speed is the ratio of the magnitude of angular displacement and time interval.
()

This ratio is called average angular velocity, when it is evaluated for finite time interval; and
instantaneous angular velocity, when it is evaluated for infinitesimally small period (Δ→0).
()

The angular velocity is measured in “rad/s”.

Description of circular motion

Circular motion is completely described when angular position of a particle is given as a function
of time like :

For example, θ = 2 t 2 – 3 t + 1 tells us the position of the particle with the progress of time. The
attributes of circular motion such as angular velocity and acceleration are first and second time
derivatives of this function in time. Similarity to pure translational motion is quite obvious here.
In pure translational motion, each particle constituting a rigid body follows parallel linear paths.
The position of a particle is a function of time, whereby :

Example 4.53.
Problem : The angular position (in radian) of a particle under circular motion about a
perpendicular axis with respect to reference direction is given by the function in time
(seconds) as :

Find (i) angular position when angular velocity is zero and (ii) determine whether rotation is
clock-wise or anti-clockwise.
Solution : The angular velocity is equal to first derivative of angular position,

For ω= 0, we have :

The angular position at t = 0.1 s,

As the particle makes a positive angle with respect to reference direction, we conclude that the
particle is moving in anti-clockwise direction (We shall discuss the convention regarding
direction of angular quantities in detail subsequently).

Relationship between linear (v) and angular speed (ω)

In order to understand the relation, let us consider two uniform circular motions with equal time
period (T) along two circular trajectories of radii r 1 and r 2 ( r 2 > r 2 ). It is evident that particle
along the outer circle is moving at a greater speed as it has to cover greater perimeter or distance.
On the other hand angular speeds of the two particles are equal as they transverse equal angles in a
given time.

This observation is key to understand the relation between linear and angular speed. Now, we
know that :

Differentiating with respect to time, we have :

Since, “r” is constant for a given circular motion, .

Now, is equal to linear speed, v. Hence,

()

This is the relation between angular and linear speeds. Though it is apparent, but it is emphasized
here for clarity that angular and linear speeds do not represent two separate individual speeds.
Remember that a particle can have only one speed at a particular point of time. They are, as a
matter of fact, equivalent representation of the same change of position with respect to time. They
represent same speed – but in different language or notation.

Example 4.54.
Problem : The angular position (in radian) of a particle with respect to reference direction,
along a circle of radius 0.5 m is given by the function in time (seconds) as :

Find linear velocity of the particle at t = 0 second.

Solution : The angular velocity is given by :

For t = 0, the angular velocity is :

The linear velocity at this instant is :

Vector representation of angular quantities

The angular quantities (displacement, velocity and acceleration) are also vector quantities like
their linear counter parts and follow vector rules of addition and multiplication, with the notable
exception of angular displacement. Angular displacement does not follow the rule of vector
addition strictly. In particular, it can be shown that addition of angular displacement depends on
the order in which they are added. This is contrary to the property of vector addition. Order of
addition should not affect the result. We intend here to skip the details of this exception to focus
on the subject matter in hand. Besides, we should know that we may completely ignore this
exception if the angles involved have small values.

The vector angular quantities like angular velocity ( ω) or ω (as scalar representation of angular
vector) is represented by a vector, whose direction is obtained by applying “Right hand rule”. We
just hold the axis of rotation with right hand in such a manner that the direction of the curl of
fingers is along the direction of the rotation. The direction of extended thumb (along y-axis in the
figure below) then represents the direction of angular velocity ( ω).

Figure 4.99. Vector cross product

Right Hand Rule (RHR)

The important aspect of angular vector representation is that the angular vector is essentially a
straight line of certain magnitude represented on certain scale with an arrow showing direction
(shown in the figure as a red line with arrow) – not a curl as some might have expected. Further,
the angular vector quantities are axial in nature. This means that they apply along the axis of
rotation. Now, there are only two possible directions along the axis of rotation. Thus, we can work
with sign (positive or negative) to indicate directional attribute of angular quantities. The angular
quantities measured in counter clockwise direction is considered positive, whereas quantities
measured in clockwise direction is considered negative.

This simplicity resulting from fixed axis of rotation is very useful. We can take the liberty to
represent angular vector quantities in terms of signed scalar quantities as done in the case of linear
quantities. The sign of the angular quantity represents the relative direction of the angular quantity
with respect to a reference direction.

Analysis of angular motion involves working interchangeably between linear and angular
quantities. We must understand here that the relationships essentially involve both axial (angular)
and polar (linear) vectors. In this context, it is recommended that we know the relationship
between linear and angular quantities in vector forms as vector relation provide complete
information about the quantities involved.

Linear and angular velocity relation in vector form

If we want to write the relation for velocities (as against the one derived for speed, v = ω r), then
we need to write the relation as vector cross product :
()

The order of quantities in vector product is important. A change in the order of cross product like (
r x ω ) represents the product vector in opposite direction. The directional relationship between
thee vector quantities are shown in the figure. The vectors “ v” and “ r” are in the plane of “xz”
plane, whereas angular velocity ( ω ), is in y-direction.

Figure 4.100. Linear and angular velocity

Directional relation between linear and angular velocity

Here, we shall demonstrate the usefulness of vector notation. Let us do a bit of interpretation here
to establish the directional relationship among the quantities from the vector notation. It is
expected from the equation ( v = ω x r ) that the vector product of angular velocity ( ω ) and
radius vector ( r) should yield the direction of velocity ( v).

Remember that a vector cross product is evaluated by Right Hand Rule (RHR). We move from
first vector ( ω ) to the second vector ( r) of the vector product in an arc as shown in the figure.
 Figure 4.101. Vector cross product
Determining direction of vector cross product

We place our right hand such that the curl of fingers follows the direction of arc. The extended
thumb, then, represents the direction of cross product ( v), which is perpendicular (this fact lets us
draw the exact direction) to each of the vectors and the plane containing two vectors ( ω and r)
whose products is being evaluated. In the case of circular motion, vectors ω and r are
perpendicular to each other and vector v is perpendicular to the plane defined by vectors ω and r.

Figure 4.102. Vector cross product

Determining direction of vector cross product

Thus, we see that the interpretation of cross products completely defines the directions of
quantities involved at the expense of developing skill to interpret vector product (we may require
to do a bit of practice).

Also, we can evaluate magnitude (speed) as :

()

where θ is the angle between two vectors ω and r. In the case of circular motion, θ = 90°, Hence,
Thus, we have every detail of directional quantities involved in the equation by remembering
vector form of equation.

Uniform circular motion

In the case of the uniform circular motion, the speed (v) of the particle is constant (by definition).
This implies that angular velocity (ω = v/r) in uniform circular motion is also constant.

Also, the time period of the uniform circular motion is :

()

Linear .vs. angular quantity

The description of circular motion is described better in terms of angular quantity than its linear
counter part.

The reasons are easy to understand. For example, consider the case of uniform circular motion.
Here, the velocity of particle is changing - though the motion is “uniform”. The two concepts do
not go together. The general connotation of the term “uniform” indicates “constant”, but the
velocity is actually changing all the time.

When we describe the same uniform circular motion in terms of angular velocity, there is no
contradiction. The velocity (i.e. angular velocity) is indeed constant. This is the first advantage of
describing uniform circular motion in terms of angular velocity.

In other words, the vector manipulation or analysis of linear velocity along the circular path is
complicated as its direction is specific to a particular point on the circular path and is basically
multi-directional. On the other hand, direction of angular velocity is limited to be bi-directional at
the most, along the fixed axis of rotation.
 Figure 4.103. Linear and angular velocity

Second advantage is that angular velocity conveys the physical sense of the rotation of the particle
as against linear velocity, which indicates translational motion. Alternatively, angular description
emphasizes the distinction between two types of motion (translational and rotational).

Finally, angular quantities allow to write equations of motion as available for translational motion
with constant acceleration. For illustration purpose, we can refer to equation of motion connecting
initial and final angular velocities for a motion with constant angular acceleration “α” as :

We shall study detailed aspect of circular motion under constant angular acceleration in a separate
module.

Exercises

Exercise 52.

A flywheel of a car is rotating at 300 revolutions per minute. Find its angular speed in radian per
second.

Flywheel covers angular displacement of "2π" in one revolution. Therefore, the angular speed in
"radian/second" is :

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Exercise 53.

A particle is rotating along a circle of radius 0.1 m at an angular speed of π rad/s. The time period
of the rotation is :

The time period of rotation is :

Note : The input of radius is superfluous here.

Hence, option (b) is correct.

Exercise 54.

A particle is rotating at constant speed along a circle of radius 0.1 m, having a time period of 1
second. Then, angular speed in "revolution/s" is :

The time period of rotation is :

Rearranging, the angular speed is :

Converting to in the unit of revolution per second, the angular speed is :

Hence, option (a) is correct.

Exercise 55.

A particle is moving with a constant angular speed "ω" along a circle of radius "r" about a
perpendicular axis passing through the center of the circle. If " n" be the unit vector in the positive
direction of axis of rotation, then linear velocity is given by :
The linear velocity is given by the following vector cross product,

v=ωXr

We know that a change in the order of operands in cross product reverses the resulting vector.
Hence,

v=−rXω

Further, it is given in the question that positive axial direction has the unit vector "n". But, the
plane of motion is perpendicular to axis of rotation. Hence, velocity is not aligned in the direction
of unit vector n.

Hence, options (a) and (b) are correct.

Exercise 56.

The figure shows the plot of angular displacement and time of a rotating disc. Corresponding to
the segments marked on the plot, the direction of rotation is as :

Figure 4.103. Angular displacement

Angular displacement

(a) disk rotates in clockwise direction in the segments OA and AB.

(b) disk rotates in clockwise direction in the segment OA, but in anti-clockwise direction in the
segment AB.

(c) disk rotates in anti-clockwise direction in the segment BC.

(d) disk rotates in anti-clockwise direction in the segment CD.

The direction of rotation is determined by the sign of angular velocity. In turn, the sign of angular
velocity is determined by the sign of the slope on angular displacement - time plot. The sign of
slope is negative for line OA, positive for line AC and zero for line CD.

The positive angular velocity indicates anti-clockwise rotation and negative angular velocity
indicates clockwise rotation. The disk is stationary when angular velocity is zero.

Hence, options (b) and (c) are correct.

Exercise 57.

A particle moves along a circle in xy-plane with center of the circle as origin. It moves from
position Q(1, √3) to R(-1, √3) as shown in the figure. The angular displacement is :

Figure 4.103. Angular displacement

Angular displacement

In order to find angular displacement, we need to find initial and final angular positions. From the
geometry,
 Figure 4.103. Angular displacement
Angular displacement

⇒ θ1 = 600

Similarly,

⇒ θ2 = 1200

Thus, angular displacement is :

⇒ Δ θ = θ2 − θ1 = 1200 − 600 = 600

Hence, option (c) is correct.

Exercise 58.

Select the correct statement(s) :

(a) The direction of angular velocity is tangential to the circular path.

(b) The direction of angular velocity and centripetal acceleration are radial towards the center of
the circle.

(c) The linear velocity, angular velocity and centripetal accelerations are mutually perpendicular
to each other.

(d) The direction of angular velocity is axial.

The direction of linear velocity is normal to radial direction. The direction of centripetal
acceleration is radial. The direction of angular velocity is axial. See the figure.
 Figure 4.103. Angular motion
Angular motion

Clearly, the three directions are mutually perpendicular to each other.

Hence, options (c) and (d) are correct.

Exercise 59.

The magnitude of centripetal acceleration is given by :

The centripetal acceleration is given by :

The linear speed "v" is related to angular speed by the relation,

⇒v=ωr

Substituting this in the expression of centripetal acceleration, we have :

We need to evaluate fourth cross product expression to know whether its modulus is equal to the
magnitude of centripetal acceleration or not. Let the cross product be equal to a vector " A". The
magnitude of vector " A" is :

A = | ω X v | = ω v sin θ
For circular motion, the angle between linear and angular velocity is 90°. Hence,

⇒ A = | ω X v | = ω v sin 900 = ω v

Substituting for " ω", we have :

The modulus of the expression, therefore, is equal to the magnitude of centripetal acceleration.

Note : The vector cross product "| ω X v|” is the vector expression of centripetal force.

Hence, options (a) and (d) are correct.

Circular motion and rotational kinematics (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the circular motion
and rotational kinematics. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of
the subject matter :

Measurement of angular displacement

Angular speeds

Centripetal acceleration

Measurement of angular displacement

Example 4.55.
Problem : A particle in uniform circular motion about the center has angular velocity "ω ".
What is its angular velocity with respect to a point "P" on the circumference of the circle ?
 Figure 4.104. Uniform circular motion

Solution : Angular velocity is a measure of angle in unit time. In the question, measurement
of angular velocity about the center of circle is given. It is, therefore, imperative that we seek
a relation of angles formed by the motion of the particle at two points of references.
We consider a small arc AA' as shown in the figure, which is covered by the particle in time
"dt". By geometry, if the arc subtends an angle "dθ" at "P", then the arc subtends an angle
"2dθ" at the center.

Figure 4.105. Uniform circular motion

Let ω P be the angular velocity of the particle with respect to point "P", then

From the relation between angles as obtained earlier, the angular velocity of the particle with
respect to center is :

Angular speeds
Example 4.56.
Problem : Let ω H and ω E respectively be the angular speeds of the hour hand of a watch and
that of the earth around its own axis. Compare the angular speeds of earth and hour hand of a
watch.
Solution : The time periods of hour hand and that of the earth are 12 hours and 24 hours
respectively. Now,

and

Example 4.57.
Problem : A particle is kept on a uniformly rotating turn table at a radial distance of 2 m from
the axis of rotation. The speed of the particle is “v”. The particle is then shifted to a radial
distance of 1 m from the axis of rotation. Find the speed of the particle at the new position.
Solution : The angular speed of rotation is constant. Now, linear velocities of the particle at
the two positions are :

Centripetal acceleration

Example 4.58.
Problem : Find the centripetal acceleration (in ) at a point on the equator of the earth
(consider earth as a sphere of radius = 6400 km).
Solution : The centripetal acceleration in terms of angular speed is given by :

Now, angular speed, in terms of time period is :

Combining two equations, we have :

Accelerated motion in two dimensions*
We have already studied two dimensional motions such as projectile and uniform circular motion.
These motions are the most celebrated examples of two dimensional motion, but it is easy to
realize that they are specific instances with simplifying assumptions. The motions that we
investigate in our surrounding mostly occur in two or three dimensions in a non-specific manner.
The stage is, therefore, set to study two-dimensional motion in non-specific manner i.e. in a very
general manner. This requires clear understanding of both linear and non-linear motion. As we
have already studied circular motion - an instance of non-linear motion, we can develop an
analysis model for a general case involving non-linear motion.

The study of two dimensional motion without any simplifying assumptions, provides us with an
insight into the actual relationship among the various motional attributes, which is generally
concealed in the consideration of specific two dimensional motions like projectile or uniform
circular motion. We need to develop an analysis frame work, which is not limited by any
consideration. In two dimensional motion, the first and foremost consideration is that acceleration
denotes a change in velocity that reflects a change in the velocity due to any of the following
combinations :

change in the magnitude of velocity i.e. speed

change in the direction of velocity

change in both magnitude and direction of velocity

In one dimensional motion, we mostly deal with change in magnitude and change in direction
limited to reversal of motion. Such limitations do not exist in two or three dimensional motion. A
vector like velocity can change by virtue of even direction only as in the case of uniform circular
motion. Further, a circular motion may also involve variable speed i.e. a motion in which velocity
changes in both direction and magnitude.

Most importantly, the generalized consideration here will resolve the subtle differences that arises
in interpreting vector quantities like displacement, velocity etc. We have noted that there are
certain subtle differences in interpreting terms such as Δr and |Δ r |; dr/dt and |d r/dt|; dv/dt and |d
v/dt| etc. In words, we have seen that time rate of change in the magnitude of velocity (speed) is
not equal to the magnitude of time rate of change in velocity. This is a subtle, but significant
difference that we should account for. In this module, we shall find that time rate of change in the
magnitude of velocity (speed), as a matter of fact, represents the magnitude of a component of
acceleration known as "tangential acceleration".
 Characteristics of two dimensional motion

Let us have a look at two dimensional motions that we have so far studied. We observe that
projectile motion is characterized by a constant acceleration, “g”, i.e. acceleration due to gravity.
What it means that though the motion itself is two dimensional, but acceleration is one
dimensional. Therefore, this motion presents the most simplified two dimensional motion after
rectilinear motion, which can be studied with the help of consideration of motion in two
component directions.

Uniform circular motion, on the other hand, involves an acceleration, which is not one
dimensional. It is constant in magnitude, but keeps changing direction along the line connecting
the center of the circle and the particle. The main point is that acceleration in uniform circular
motion is two dimensional unlike projectile motion in which acceleration (due to gravity) is one
dimensional. As a more generalized case, we can think of circular motion in which both
magnitude and direction of acceleration is changing. Such would be the case when particle moves
with varying speed along the circular path.

In the nutshell, we can conclude that two dimensional motion types (circular motion, elliptical
motion and other non-linear motion) involve varying acceleration in two dimensions. In order to
facilitate study of general class of motion in two dimensions, we introduce the concept of
components of acceleration in two specific directions. Notably, these directions are not same as
the coordinate directions (“x” and “y”). One of the component acceleration is called “tangential
acceleration”, which is directed along the tangent to the path of motion and the other is called
“normal acceleration”, which is perpendicular to the tangent to the path of motion. Two
accelerations are perpendicular to each other. The acceleration (sometimes also referred as total
acceleration) is the vector sum of two mutually perpendicular component accelerations,

Figure 4.106. Two dimensional acceleration

There are tangential and normal components of acceleration.

()
The normal acceleration is also known as radial or centripetal acceleration, , particularly in
reference of circular motion.

Tangential acceleration

Tangential acceleration is directed tangentially to the path of motion. Since velocity is also
tangential to the path of motion, it is imperative that tangential acceleration is directed in the
direction of velocity. This leads to an important meaning. We recall that it is only the component
of force in the direction of velocity that changes the magnitude of velocity. This means that
component of acceleration in the tangential direction represents the change in the magnitude of
velocity (read speed). In non-uniform circular motion, the tangential acceleration accounts for the
change in the speed (we shall study non-uniform circular motion in detail in a separate module).

By logical extension, we can define that tangential acceleration is time rate of change of "speed".
The speed is highlighted here to underscore the character of tangential acceleration.
Mathematically,
()

This insight into the motion should resolve the differences that we had highlighted earlier,
emphasizing that rate of change in the magnitude of velocity (dv/dt) is not equal to the magnitude
of rate of change of velocity (|d v/dt|). What we see now that rate of change in the magnitude of
velocity (dv/dt) is actually just a component of total acceleration (d v/dt).

It is easy to realize that tangential acceleration comes into picture only when there is change in the
magnitude of velocity. For example, uniform circular motion does not involve change in the
magnitude of velocity (i.e. speed is constant). There is, therefore, no tangential acceleration
involved in uniform circular motion.

Normal acceleration

Normal (radial) acceleration acts in the direction perpendicular to tangential direction. We have
seen that the normal acceleration, known as centripetal acceleration in the case of uniform circular
motion, is given by :
()

where “r” is the radius of the circular path. We can extend the expression of centripetal
acceleration to all such trajectories of two dimensional motion, which involve radius of curvature.
It is so because, radius of the circle is the radius of curvature of the circular path of motion.

In the case of tangential acceleration, we have argued that the motion should involve a change in
the magnitude of velocity. Is there any such inference about normal (radial) acceleration? If
motion is along a straight line without any change of direction, then there is no normal or radial
acceleration involved. The radial acceleration comes into being only when motion involves a
change in direction. We can, therefore, say that two components of accelerations are linked with
two elements of velocity (magnitude and direction). A time rate of change in magnitude
represents tangential acceleration, whereas a time rate of change of direction represents radial
(normal) acceleration.

The above deduction has important implication for uniform circular motion. The uniform circular
motion is characterized by constant speed, but continuously changing velocity. The velocity
changes exclusively due to change in direction. Clearly, tangential acceleration is zero and radial
acceleration is finite and acting towards the center of rotation.

Total acceleration

Total acceleration is defined in terms of velocity as :

()

In terms of component accelerations, we can write total accelerations in the following manner :

The magnitude of total acceleration is given as :

()

where

In the nutshell, we see that time rate of change in the speed represents a component of
acceleration in tangential direction. On the other hand, magnitude of time rate of change in
velocity represents the magnitude of total acceleration. Vector difference of total and tangential
acceleration is equal to normal acceleration in general. In case of circular motion or motion with
curvature, radial acceleration is normal acceleration.

Tangential and normal accelerations in circular motion

We consider motion of a particle along a circular path. As pointed out in the section above, the
acceleration is given as vector sum of two acceleration components as :
 Figure 4.107. Two dimensional circular motion
There are tangential and normal components of acceleration.

()

where “ t” and “ n” are unit vectors in the tangential and radial directions. Note that normal
direction is same as radial direction. For the motion shown in the figure, the unit vector in radial
direction is :

Figure 4.108. Unit vectors

Unit vectors in tangential and normal directions.

()

Similarly, the unit vector in tangential direction is :

()

There is an easy way to find the sign of component, using graphical representation. Shift the
 vector at the origin, if the vector in question does not start from the origin. Simply imagine
the component of a vector as projection on the coordinate. If the projection is on the positive
side of the coordinate, then sign of component is positive; otherwise negative.

The position vector of a particle in circular motion is given in terms of components as :

Figure 4.109. Position vector

Position vector of a particle moving along a circular path.

()

1: Velocity

The velocity of the particle, therefore, is obtained by differentiating with respect to time,:

()

where ω = dθ/dt is angular velocity. Also note that velocity is directed tangentially to path. For
this reason, velocity vector is expressed with the help of unit vector in tangential direction.

2: Acceleration

The acceleration of the particle is obtained by differentiating the above expression of velocity
with respect to time. However, as the radius of the circle is a constant, we take the same out of the
differentiation,
 ()

Thus, we see that :

The above expressions, therefore, give two components of total acceleration in two specific
directions. Again, we should emphasize that these directions are not the same as coordinate
directions.

The derivation of acceleration components for two dimensional motion has, though, been carried
out for circular motion, but the concepts of acceleration components as defined here can be
applied - whenever there is curvature of path (non-linear path). In the case of rectilinear motion,
normal acceleration reduces to zero as radius of curvature is infinite and as such total acceleration
becomes equal to tangential acceleration.

Elliptical motion

In order to illustrate the features of two dimensional motion, we shall consider the case of
elliptical motion of a particle in a plane. We shall use this motion to bring out the basic elements
associated with the understanding of acceleration and its relation with other attributes of motion.

It is important that we work with the examples without any pre-notion such as “constant”
acceleration etc. The treatment here is very general and intuitive of the various facets of
accelerated motion in two dimensions.

Path of motion

Example 4.59.
Problem : The coordinates of a particle moving in a plane are given by x = A cos(ωt) and y =
B sin (ωt) where A, B (< A) and ω are positive constants. Find the nature of path of motion.
Solution : We shall use the general technique to find path of motion in two dimensional case.
In order to find the path motion, we need to have an equation that connects “x” and “y”
coordinates of the planar coordinate system. Note that there is no third coordinate.
 Figure 4.110. Elliptical motion
Motion of a particle moving along an elliptical path path.

An inspection of the expressions of “x” and “y” suggests that we can use the trigonometric
identity,

Here, we have :

Similarly, we have :

Squaring and adding two equations,

This is an equation of ellipse. Hence, the particle follows an elliptical path.

Nature of velocity and acceleration

Example 4.60.
Problem : The coordinates of a particle moving in a plane are given by x = A cos(ωt) and y =
B sin (ωt) where A, B (< A) and ω are positive constants. Investigate the nature of velocity
and acceleration for this motion. Also, discuss the case for A = B and when "ω" is constant.
Solution : We can investigate the motion as required if we know expressions of velocity and
acceleration. Therefore, we need to determine velocity and acceleration. Since components of
position are given, we can find components of velocity and acceleration by differentiating the
expression with respect to time.
1: Velocity
The components of velocity in “x” and “y” directions are :

The velocity of the particle is given by :

Evidently, magnitude and direction of the particle varies with time.

2: Acceleration
We find the components of acceleration by differentiating again, as :

Both “x” and “y” components of the acceleration are trigonometric functions. This means that
acceleration varies in component direction. The net or resultant acceleration is :

3: When A = B and "ω" is constant

When A = B, the elliptical motion reduces to circular motion. Its path is given by the equation
:

This is an equation of circle of radius “A”. The speed for this condition is given by :

Thus, speed becomes a constant for circular motion, when ω = constant.

The magnitude of acceleration is :

Thus, acceleration becomes a constant for circular motion, when ω = constant.

 Application

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to the accelerated
motion in two dimensions. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of
the subject matter :

Path of motion

Tangential and normal accelerations

Nature of motion

Displacement in two dimensions

Path of motion

Example 4.61.
Problem : A balloon starts rising from the surface with a constant upward velocity, “ v0 ”. The
balloon gains a horizontal drift due to the wind. The horizontal drift velocity is given by “ky”,
where “k” is a constant and “y” is the vertical height of the balloon from the surface. Derive
an expression of path of the motion.
Solution : An inspection of the equation of drift velocity (v = ky) suggests that balloon drifts
more with the gain in height. A suggestive x-y plot of the motion is shown here.
 Figure 4.111. Motion of a balloon
The balloon moves with an acceleration in horizontal direction.

Let vertical and horizontal direction corresponds to “y” and “x” axes of the coordinate system.
Here,
vy = v0
vx = ky
We are required to know the relation between vertical and horizontal components of
displacement from the expression of component velocities. It means that we need to know a
lower order attribute from higher order attribute. Thus, we shall proceed with integration of
differential equation, which defines velocity as :

Similarly,

⇒ đ y = v0 đ t
Combining two equations by eliminating “dt”,

Now, integrating both sides, we have :

Taking out constants out of the integral,

This is the required equation of motion, which is an equation of a parabola. Thus, the
 suggested plot given in the beginning, as a matter of fact, was correct.

Tangential and normal accelerations

Example 4.62.
Problem : A balloon starts rising from the surface with a constant upward velocity, “ v0 ”. The
balloon gains a horizontal drift due to the wind. The horizontal drift velocity is given by “ky”,
where “k” is a constant and “y” is the vertical height of the balloon from the surface. Derive
expressions for the tangential and normal accelerations of the balloon.
Solution : We can proceed to find the magnitude of total acceleration by first finding the
expression of velocity. Here, velocity is given as :

Since acceleration is higher order attribute, we obtain its expression by differentiating the
expression of velocity with respect to time :

It is obvious that acceleration is one dimensional. It is evident from the data given also. The
balloon moving with constant vertical velocity has no acceleration in y-direction. The speed of
the balloon in x-direction, however, keeps changing with height (time) and as such total
acceleration of the balloon is in x-direction. The magnitude of total acceleration is :

Figure 4.112. Motion of a balloon

The acceleration of the balloon has two components in mutually perpendicular directions.

Thus, we see that total acceleration is not only one dimensional, but constant as well.
However, this does not mean that component accelerations viz tangential and normal
 accelerations are also constant. We need to investigate their expressions. We can obtain
tangential acceleration as time rate of change of the magnitude of velocity i.e. the time rate of
change of speed. We, therefore, need to first know an expression of the speed. Now, speed is :

Differentiating with respect to time, we have :

In order to find the normal acceleration, we use the fact that total acceleration is vector sum of
two mutually perpendicular tangential and normal accelerations.
a2 = a2 T + a2 N

Nature of motion

Example 4.63.
Problem : The coordinates of a particle moving in a plane are given by x = A cos(ωt) and y =
B sin (ωt) where A, B (< A) and “ω” are positive constants of appropriate dimensions. Prove
that the velocity and acceleration of the particle are normal to each other at t = π/2ω.
Solution : By differentiation, the components of velocity and acceleration are as given under :
The components of velocity in “x” and “y” directions are :

The components of acceleration in “x” and “y” directions are :

At time, and . Putting this value in the component expressions, we have :

Figure 4.113. Motion along elliptical path

Velocity and acceleration are perpendicular at the given instant.

⇒ vx = – A ω sin ω t = – A ω sin π / 2 = – A ω
⇒ vy = B ω cos ω t = B ω cos π / 2 = 0
⇒ ax = – A ω2 cos ω t = – A ω2 cos π / 2 = 0
⇒ a y = – B ω2 sin ω t = – b ω2 sin π / 2 = – B ω2
The net velocity is in negative x-direction, whereas net acceleration is in negative y-direction.
Hence at , velocity and acceleration of the particle are normal to each other.

Example 4.64.
Problem : Position vector of a particle is :

Show that velocity vector is perpendicular to position vector.

Solution : We shall use a different technique to prove as required. We shall use the fact that
scalar (dot) product of two perpendicular vectors is zero. We, therefore, need to find the
expression of velocity. We can obtain the same by differentiating the expression of position
vector with respect to time as :
 To check whether velocity is perpendicular to the position vector, we take the scalar product
of r and v as :

This means that the angle between position vector and velocity are at right angle to each other.
Hence, velocity is perpendicular to position vector.

Displacement in two dimensions

Example 4.65.
Problem : The coordinates of a particle moving in a plane are given by x = A cos(ω t) and y =
B sin (ω t) where A, B (<A) and ω are positive constants of appropriate dimensions. Find the
displacement of the particle in time interval t = 0 to t = π/2 ω.
Solution : In order to find the displacement, we shall first know the positions of the particle at
the start of motion and at the given time. Now, the position of the particle is given by
coordinates :
x = A cos ω t
and
y = B sin ω t
At t = 0, the position of the particle is given by :
⇒ x = A cos ( ω x 0 ) = A cos 0 = A
⇒ y = B sin ( ω x 0 ) = B sin 0 = 0
At , the position of the particle is given by :
⇒ x = A cos ( ω x π / 2 ω ) = A cos π / 2 = 0
⇒ y = B sin ( ω x π / 2 ω ) = a sin π / 2 = B
 Figure 4.114. Motion along an elliptical path
The linear distance equals displacement.

Therefore , the displacement in the given time interval is :

Transformation of graphs*
Transformation of graphs means changing graphs. This generally allows us to draw graphs of
more complicated functions from graphs of basic or simpler functions by applying different
transformation techniques. It is important to emphasize here that plotting a graph is an extremely
powerful technique and method to know properties of a function such as domain, range,
periodicity, polarity and other features which involve differentiability of a function. Subsequently,
we shall see that plotting enables us to know these properties more elegantly and easily as
compared to other analytical methods.

Graphing of a given function involves modifying graph of a core function. We modify core
function and its graph, applying various mathematical operations on the core function. There are
two fundamental ways in which we operate on core function and hence its graph. We can either
modify input to the function or modify output of function.

Broad categories of transformation

Transformation applied by modification to input

Transformation applied by modification to output

Transformation applied by modulus function

Transformation applied by greatest integer function

 Transformation applied by fraction part function

Transformation applied by least integer function

We shall cover first transformation in this module. Others will be taken up in other modules.

Important concepts

Graph of a function

It is a plot of values of function against independent variable x. The value of function changes in
accordance with function rule as x changes. Graph depicts these changes pictorially. In the current
context, both core function and modified function graphs are plotted against same independent
variable x.

Input to the function

What is input to the function? How do we change input to the function? Values are passed to the
function through argument of the function. The argument itself is a function in x i.e. independent
variable. The simplest form of argument is "x" like in function f(x). The modified arguments are
"2x" in function f(2x) or "2x-1" in function f(2x-1). This changes input to the function. Important
to underline is that independent variable x remains what it is, but argument of the function
changes due to mathematical operation on independent variable. Thus, we modify argument
though mathematical operation on independent variable x. Basic possibilities of modifying
argument i.e. input by using arithmetic operations on x are addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and negation. In notation, we write modification to the input of the function as :

These changes are called internal or pre-composition modifications.

Output of the function

A modification in input to the graph is reflected in the values of the function. This is one way of
modifying output and hence corresponding graph. Yet another approach of changing output is by
applying arithmetic operations on the function itself. We shall represent such arithmetic
operations on the function as :

These changes are called external or post-composition modifications.

 Arithmetic operations

Addition/subtraction operations

Addition and subtraction to independent variable x is represented as :

The notation represents addition operation when c is positive and subtraction when c is negative.
In particular, we should underline that notation “bx+c” does not represent addition to independent
variable. Rather it represents addition/ subtraction to “bx”. We shall develop proper algorithm to
handle such operations subsequently. Similarly, addition and subtraction operation on function is
represented as :

Again, “af(x) + d” is addition/ subtraction to “af(x)” not to “f(x)”.

Product/division operations

Product and division operations are defined with a positive constant for both independent variable
and function. It is because negation i.e. multiplication or division with -1 is a separate operation
from the point of graphical effect. In the case of product operation, the magnitude of constants (a
or b) is greater than 1 such that resulting value is greater than the original value.

The division operation is eqivalent to product operation when value of multiplier is less than 1. In
this case, magnitude of constants (a or b) is less than 1 such that resulting value is less than the
original value.

Negation

Negation means multiplication or division by -1.

Effect of arithmetic operations

Addition/ subtraction operation on independent variable results in shifting of core graph along x-
axis i..e horizontally. Similarly, product/division operations results in scaling (shrinking or
stretching) of core graph horizontally. The change in graphs due to negation is reflected as
mirroring (across y–axis) horizontally. Clearly, modifications resulting from modification to
input modifies core graph horizontally. Another important aspect of these modification is that
changes takes place opposite to that of operation on independent variable. For example, when “2”
is added to independent variable, then core graph shifts left which is opposite to the direction of
increasing x. A multiplication by 2 shrinks the graph horizontally by a factor 2, whereas division
by 2 stretches the graph by a factor of 2.

On the other hand, modification in the output of function is reflected in change in graphs along y-
axis i.e. vertically. Effects such as shifting, scaling (shrinking or stretching) or mirroring across x-
axis takes place in vertical direction. Also, the effect of modification in output is in the direction
of modification as against effects due to modifications to input. A multiplication of function by a
positive constant greater than 1, for example, stretches the graph in y-direction as expected. These
aspects will be clear as we study each of the modifications mentioned here.

Forms of representation

There is a bit of ambiguity about the nature of constants in symbolic representation of

transformation. Consider the representation,

In this case "a", "b", "c" and "d" can be either positive or negative depending on the particular
transformation. A positive "d" means that graph is shifted up. On the other hand, we can specify
constants to be positive in the following representation :

The form of representation appears to be cumbersome, but is more explicit in its intent. It delinks
sign from the magnitude of constants. In this case, the signs preceding positive constants need to
be interpreted for the nature of transformation. For example, a negative sign before c denotes right
horizontal shift. It is, however, clear that both representations are essentially equivalent and their
use depends on personal choice or context. This difference does not matter so long we understand
the process of graphing.

Transformation of graph by input

Addition and subtraction to independent variable

In order to understand this type of transformation, we need to explore how output of the function
changes as input to the function changes. Let us consider an example of functions f(x) and f(x+1).
The integral values of inedependent variable are same as integral values on x-axis of coordinate
system. Note that independent variable is plotted along x-axis as real number line. The integral
x+1 values to the function f(x+1) - such that input values are same as that of f(x) - are shown on a
separate line just below x-axis. The corresponding values are linked with arrow signs. Input to the
function f(x+1) which is same as that of f(x) corresponds to x which is 1 unit smaller. It means
graph of f(x+1) is same as graph of f(x), which has been shifted by 1 unit towards left. Else, we
can say that the origin of plot (also x-axis) has shifted right by 1 unit.

Figure 4.115. Shifting of graph parallel to x-axis

Each element of graph is shifted left by same value.

Let us now consider an example of functions f(x) and f(x-2). Input to the function f(x-2) which is
same as that of f(x) now appears 2 unit later on x-axis. It means graph of f(x-2) is same as graph
of f(x), which has been shifted by 2 units towards right. Else, we can say that the origin of plot
(also x-axis) has shifted left by 2 units.

Figure 4.116. Shifting of graph parallel to x-axis

Each element of graph is shifted right by same value.

The addition/subtraction transformation is depicted symbolically as :

If we add a positive constant to the argument of the function, then value of y at x=x in the new
function y=f(x+|a|) is same as that of y=f(x) at x=x-|a|. For this reason, the graph of f(x+|a|) is
same as the graph of y=f(x) shifted left by unit “a” in x-direction. Similarly, the graph of f(x-|a|)
is same as the graph of y=f(x) shifted right by unit “a” in x-direction.

1 : The plot of y=f(x+|a|); is the plot of y=f(x) shifted left by unit “|a|”.

2 : The plot of y=f(x-|a|); is the plot of y=f(x) shifted right by unit “|a|”.

We use these facts to draw graph of transformed function f(x±a) by shifting graph of f(x) by unit
“a” in x-direction. Each point forming the plot is shifted parallel to x-axis (see quadratic graph
showm in the of figure below). The graph in the center of left figure depicts monomial function
y = x2 with vertex at origin. It is shifted right by “a” units (a>0) and the function representing
shifted graph is y = ( x − a )2 . Note that vertex of parabola is shifted from (0,0) to (a,0). Further,
the graph is shifted left by “b” units (b>0) and the function representing shifted graph is
y = ( x + b )2 . In this case, vertex of parabola is shifted from (0,0) to (-b,0).

Figure 4.117. Shifting of graph parallel to x-axis

Each element of graph is shifted by same value.

Example 4.66.
Problem : Draw graph of function 4 y = 2x .
Solution : Given function is exponential function. On simplification, we have :
⇒ y = 2 – 2 X 2x = 2 x – 2
Here, core graph is y = 2x . We draw its graph first and then shift the graph right by 2 units to
get the graph of given function.
 Figure 4.118. Shifting of exponential graph parallel to x-axis
Each element of graph is shifted by same value.

Note that the value of function at x=0 for core and modified functions, respectively, are :
⇒ y = 2x = 20 = 1

Multiplication and division of independent variable

Let us consider an example of functions f(x) and f(2x). The integral values of independent
variable are same as integral values on x-axis of coordinate system. Note that independent
variable is plotted along x-axis as real number line. The integral 2x values to the function f(2x) -
such that input values are same as that of f(x) - are shown on a separate line just below x-axis. The
corresponding values are linked with arrow signs. Input to the function f(2x) which is same as that
of f(x) now appears closer to origin by a factor of 2. It means graph of f(2x) is same as graph of
f(x), which has been shrunk by a factor 2 towards origin. Else, we can say that x-axis has been
stretched by a factor 2.
 Figure 4.119. Multiplication of independent variable
The graph shrinks towards origin.

Let us consider another example of functions f(x) and f(x/2). The integral values of independent
variable are same as integral values on x-axis of coordinate system. Note that independent
variable is plotted along x-axis as real number line. The integral x/2 values to the function f(x/2) -
such that input values are same as that of f(x) - are shown on a separate line just below x-axis. The
corresponding values are linked with arrow signs. Input to the function f(x/2) which is same as
that of f(x) now appears away from origin by a factor of 2. It means graph of f(x/2) is same as
graph of f(x), which has been stretched by a factor 2 away from origin. Else, we can say that x-
axis has been shrunk by a factor 2.

Figure 4.120. Multiplication of independent variable

The graph stretches away from origin.

Important thing to note about horizontal scaling (shrinking or stretching) is that it takes place with
respect to origin of the coordinate system and along x-axis – not about any other point and not
along y-axis. What it means that behavior of graph at x=0 remains unchanged. In equivalent term,
we can say that y-intercept of graph remains same and is not affected by scaling resulting from
multiplication or division of the independent variable.

Negation of independent variable

Let us consider an example of functions f(x) and f(-x). The integral values of independent variable
are same as integral values on x-axis of coordinate system. Note that independent variable is
plotted along x-axis as real number line. The integral -x values to the function f(-x) - such that
input values are same as that of f(x) - are shown on a separate line just below x-axis. The
corresponding values are linked with arrow signs. Input to the function f(-x) which is same as that
of f(x) now appears to be flipped across y-axis. It means graph of f(-x) is same as graph of f(x),
which is mirror image in y-axis i.e. across y-axis.

Figure 4.121. Negation of independent variable

The graph flipped across y. -axis.

The form of transformation is depicted as :

A graph of a function is drawn for values of x in its domain. Depending on the nature of function,
we plot function values for both negative and positive values of x. When sign of the independent
variable is changed, the function values for negative x become the values of function for positive
x and vice-versa. It means that we need to flip the plot across y-axis. In the nutshell, the graph of
y=f(-x) can be obtained by taking mirror image of the graph of y=f(x) in y-axis.

While using this transformation, we should know about even function. For even function. f(x)=f(-
x). As such, this transformation will not have any implication for even functions as they are
already symmetric about y-axis. It means that two parts of the graph of even function across y-
axis are image of each other. For this reason, y=cos(-x) = cos(x), y = |-x|=|x| etc. The graphs of
these even functions are not affected by change in sign of independent variable.

Example 4.67.
Problem : Draw graph of y=cosec(-x) function
Solution : The plot is obtained by plotting image of core graph y=cosec(x) in y axis.
 Figure 4.122. Changing sign of the argument of graph
The transformed graph is image of core graph in y-axis.

Combined input operations

Certain function are derived from core function as a result of multiple arithmetic operations on
independent variable. Consider an example :

f(x)=–2x–2

We can consider this as a function composition which is based on identity function f(x) = x as
core function. From the composition, it is apparent that order of formation consists of operations
as :

(i) f(2x) i.e. multiply independent variable by 2 i.e. shrink the graph horizontally by half.

(ii) f(-2x) i.e. negate independent variable x i.e. flip the graph across y-axis.

(iii) f(-2x-2) i.e. subtract 2 from -2x.

This sequence of operation is not correct for the reason that third operation is a subtraction
operation to -2x not to independent variable x, whereas we have defined transformation for
subtraction from independent variable. The order of operation for transformation resulting from
modifications to input can, therefore, be determined using following considerations :

1 : Order of operations for transformation due to input is opposite to the order of composition.

2 : Precedence of addition/subtraction is higher than that of multiplication/division.

Keeping above two rules in mind, let us rework transformation steps :

(i) f(x-2) i.e. subtract 2 from independent variable x i.e. shift the graph right by 2 units.

(ii) f(2x-2) i.e. multiply independent variable x by 2 i.e. shrink the graph horizontally by half.

(iii) f(-2x-2) i.e. negate independent variable i.e. flip the graph across y-axis.

This is the correct sequence as all transformations involved are as defined. The resulting graph is
shown in the figure below :

Figure 4.123. Graph of transformed function

Operations are carried in sequence.

It is important the way graph is shrunk horizontally towards origin. Important thing is to ensure
that y-intercept is not changed. It can be seen that function before being shrunk is :

f(x)=x–2

Its y-intercept is 2. When the graph is shrunk by a factor by 2, the function is :

f(x)=2x–2

The y-intercept is again 2.The graph moves 1 unit half of x-intercept towards origin. Further, we
can verify validity of critical points like x and y intercepts to ensure that transformation steps are
indeed correct. Here,

We can decompose a given function in more than one ways so long transformations are valid as
defined. Can we rewrite function as y = f{-2(x+1)}? Let us see :

(i) f(2x) i.e. multiply independent variable x by 2 i.e. i.e. shrink the graph horizontally by half.

(ii) f(-2x) i.e. negate independent variable i.e. flip the graph across y-axis.
(iii) f{-2(x+1} i.e. add 1 to independent variable x x i.e. shift the graph left by 1 unit.

This decomposition is valid as transformation steps are consistent with the transformations
allowed for arithmetic operations on independent variable.

Figure 4.124. Graph of transformed function

Operations are carried in sequence.

Horizontal shift

We have discussed transformation resulting in horizontal shift. In the simple case of operation
with independent variable alone, the horizontal shift is “c”. In this case, transformation is
represented by f(x+c). What is horizontal shift for more general case of transformation
represented by f(bx+c)? Let us rearrange argument of the function,

Comparing with f(x+c), horizontal shift is given by :

Non-uniform circular motion*

What do we mean by non-uniform circular motion? The answer lies in the definition of uniform
circular motion, which defines it be a circular motion with constant speed. It follows then that
non-uniform circular motion denotes a change in the speed of the particle moving along the
circular path as shown in the figure. Note specially the change in the velocity vector sizes,
denoting change in the magnitude of velocity.
 Figure 4.125. Circular motion
The speed of the particle changes with time in non-uniform circular motion.

A change in speed means that unequal length of arc (s) is covered in equal time intervals. It
further means that the change in the velocity ( v) of the particle is not limited to change in
direction as in the case of uniform circular motion. In other words, the magnitude of the velocity (
v) changes with time, in addition to continuous change in direction, which is inherent to the
circular motion owing to the requirement of the particle to follow a non-linear circular path.

Radial (centripetal) acceleration

We have seen that change in direction is accounted by radial acceleration (centripetal

acceleration), which is given by following relation,

The change in speed have implications on radial (centripetal) acceleration. There are two
possibilities :

1: The radius of circle is constant (like in the motion along a circular rail or motor track)

A change in “v” shall change the magnitude of radial acceleration. This means that the centripetal
acceleration is not constant as in the case of uniform circular motion. Greater the speed, greater is
the radial acceleration. It can be easily visualized that a particle moving at higher speed will need
a greater radial force to change direction and vice-versa, when radius of circular path is constant.

2: The radial (centripetal) force is constant (like a satellite rotating about the earth under the
influence of constant force of gravity)

The circular motion adjusts its radius in response to change in speed. This means that the radius of
the circular path is variable as against that in the case of uniform circular motion.
In any eventuality, the equation of centripetal acceleration in terms of “speed” and “radius” must
be satisfied. The important thing to note here is that though change in speed of the particle affects
radial acceleration, but the change in speed is not affected by radial or centripetal force. We need
a tangential force to affect the change in the magnitude of a tangential velocity. The
corresponding acceleration is called tangential acceleration.

Angular velocity

The angular velocity in non-uniform circular motion is not constant as ω = v/r and “v” is varying.

We construct a data set here to have an understanding of what is actually happening to angular
speed with the passage of time. Let us consider a non-uniform circular motion of a particle in a
centrifuge, whose linear speed, starting with zero, is incremented by 1 m/s at the end of every
second. Let the radius of the circle be 10 m.

---------------------------
t v ω
(s) (m/s) (rad/s)
---------------------------
0 0 0.0
1 1 0.1
2 2 0.2
3 3 0.3
---------------------------

The above data set describes just a simplified situation for the purpose of highlighting variation in
angular speed. We can visualize this change in terms of angular velocity vector with increasing
magnitudes as shown in the figure here :

Figure 4.126. Angular velocity

Angular velocity changes with time in non-uniform circular motion.
Note that magnitude of angular velocity i.e. speed changes, but not its direction in the illustrated
case. However, it has been pointed out earlier that there are actually two directional possibilities
i.e. clockwise and anti-clockwise rotation. Thus, a circular motion may also involve change of
direction besides a change in its magnitude.

Tangential acceleration

The non-uniform circular motion involves a change in speed. This change is accounted by the
tangential acceleration, which results due to a tangential force and which acts along the direction
of velocity circumferentially as shown in the figure. It is easy to realize that tangential velocity
and acceleration are tangential to the path of motion and keeps changing their direction as motion
progresses.

Figure 4.127. Tangential acceleration

Velocity, tangential acceleration and tangential force all act along the same direction.

We note that velocity, tangential acceleration and tangential force all act along the same direction.
It must, however, be recognized that force (and hence acceleration) may also act in the opposite
direction to the velocity. In that case, the speed of the particle will decrease with time.

The magnitude of tangential acceleration is equal to the time rate of change in the speed of the
particle.
()

Example 4.68.
Problem : A particle, starting from the position (5 m,0 m), is moving along a circular path
about the origin in xy – plane. The angular position of the particle is a function of time as
given here,
 Find (i) centripetal acceleration and (ii) tangential acceleration and (iii)direction of motion at
t =0 .
Solution : From the data on initial position of the particle, it is clear that the radius of the
circle is 5 m.
(i) For determining centripetal acceleration, we need to know the linear speed or angular speed
at a given time. Here, we differentiate angular position function to obtain angular speed as :

Angular speed is varying as it is a function of time. For t = 0,

Now, the centripetal acceleration is :

(ii) For determining tangential acceleration, we need to have expression of linear speed in
time.

We obtain tangential acceleration by differentiating the above function :

Evidently, the tangential acceleration is constant and is independent of time.

(iii) Since, the angular speed is evaluated to be positive at t = 0, it means that angular velocity
is positive. This, in turn, means that the particle is rotating anti-clockwise at t = 0.

Angular acceleration

The magnitude of angular acceleration is the ratio of angular speed and time interval.
()

If the ratio is evaluated for finite time interval, then the ratio is called average angular
acceleration and If the ratio is is evaluated for infinitesimally small period (Δ t →0), then the
ratio is called instantaneous angular acceleration. Mathematically, the instantaneous angular
acceleration is :
()

The angular acceleration is measured in “ rad / s 2 ”. It is important to emphasize here that this
angular acceleration is associated with the change in angular speed (ω) i.e. change in the linear
speed of the particle (v = ωr) - not associated with the change in the direction of the linear
velocity ( v). In the case of uniform circular motion, ω = constant, hence angular acceleration is
zero.

Relationship between linear and angular acceleration

We can relate angular acceleration (α) with tangential acceleration ( a T ) in non – uniform
circular motion as :

We see here that angular acceleration and tangential acceleration are representation of the same
aspect of motion, which is related to the change in angular speed or the equivalent linear speed. It
is only the difference in the manner in which change of the magnitude of motion is described.

The existence of angular or tangential acceleration indicates the presence of a tangential force on
the particle.

Note : All relations between angular quantities and their linear counterparts involve multiplication
of angular quantity by the radius of circular path “r” to yield to corresponding linear equivalents.
Let us revisit the relations so far arrived to appreciate this aspect of relationship :
()

Linear and angular acceleration relation in vector form

We can represent the relation between angular acceleration and tangential acceleration in terms of
vector cross product :
 Figure 4.128. Tangential and angular acceleration
Angular acceleration is an axial vector.

The order of quantities in vector product is important. A change in the order of cross product like (
r X α ) represents the product vector in opposite direction. The directional relationship between
thee vector quantities are shown in the figure. The vectors “ a T ” and “ r” are in “xz” plane i.e. in
the plane of motion, whereas angular acceleration ( α) is in y-direction i.e. perpendicular to the
plane of motion. We can know about tangential acceleration completely by analyzing the right
hand side of vector equation. The spatial relationship among the vectors is automatically
conveyed by the vector relation.

We can evaluate magnitude of tangential acceleration as :

where θ is the angle between two vectors α and r. In the case of circular motion, θ = 90°, Hence,

Uniform circular motion

In the case of the uniform circular motion, the speed (v) of the particle in uniform circular motion
is constant (by definition). This implies that tangential acceleration, a T , is zero. Consequently,
angular acceleration ( ) is also zero.

Description of circular motion using vectors

In the light of new quantities and new relationships, we can attempt analysis of the general
circular motion (including both uniform and non-uniform), using vector relations. We have seen
that :

A close scrutiny of the quantities on the right hand of the expression of velocity indicate two
possible changes :

change in angular velocity ( ω ) and

change in position vector ( r)

The angular velocity ( ω ) can change either in its direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise) or can
change in its magnitude. There is no change in the direction of axis of rotation, however, which is
fixed. As far as position vector ( r) is concerned, there is no change in its magnitude i.e. | r | or r is
constant, but its direction keeps changing with time. So there is only change of direction involved
with vector “ r”.

Now differentiating the vector equation, we have

We must understand the meaning of each of the acceleration defined by the differentials in the
above equation :

The term " " represents total acceleration ( a ) i.e. the resultant of radial ( a R ) and
tangential acceleration( a T ).

The term represents angular acceleration ( α)

The term represents velocity of the particle ( v)

where, a T = α X r is tangential acceleration and is measure of the time rate change of the
magnitude of the velocity of the particle in the tangential direction and a R = ω X v is the radial
acceleration also known as centripetal acceleration, which is measure of time rate change of the
velocity of the particle in radial direction.

Various vector quantities involved in the equation are shown graphically with respect to the plane
of motion (xz plane) :

Figure 4.129. Vector quantities

The magnitude of total acceleration in general circular motion is given by :

Figure 4.130. Resultant acceleration

Example 4.69.
Problem : At a particular instant, a particle is moving with a speed of 10 m/s on a circular
path of radius 100 m. Its speed is increasing at the rate of 1 m / s 2 . What is the acceleration of
the particle ?
Solution : The acceleration of the particle is the vector sum of mutually perpendicular radial
and tangential accelerations. The magnitude of tangential acceleration is given here to be 1
m / s 2 . Now, the radial acceleration at the particular instant is :

Hence, the magnitude of the acceleration of the particle is :

Exercises

Exercise 60.

A particle is moving along a circle in yz - plane with varying linear speed. Then

(a) acceleration of the particle is in x – direction

(b) acceleration of the particle lies in xy – plane

(c) acceleration of the particle lies in xz – plane

(d) acceleration of the particle lies in yz – plane

The figure here shows the acceleration of the particle as the resultant of radial and tangential
accelerations. The resultant acceleration lies in the plane of motion i.e yz – plane.

Figure 4.130. Circular motion

Hence, option (d) is correct.

Exercise 61.

A particle is moving along a circle of radius “r”. The linear and angular velocities at an instant
during the motion are “v” and “ω” respectively. Then, the product vω represents :

(a) centripetal acceleration

(b) tangential acceleration

(c) angular acceleration divided by radius

(d) None of the above

The given product expands as :

This is the expression of centripetal acceleration.

Hence, option (a) is correct.

Exercise 62.

Which of the following expression represents the magnitude of centripetal acceleration :

The expression represents the magnitude of total or resultant acceleration. The differential
represents the magnitude of angular velocity. The expression represents the magnitude
of tangential velocity. The expression is second order differentiation of position vector ( r).
This is actually the expression of acceleration of a particle under motion. Hence, the expression
represents the magnitude of total or resultant acceleration.

Hence, option (d) is correct.

Exercise 63.

A particle is circling about origin in xy-plane with an angular speed of 0.2 rad/s. What is the linear
speed (in m/s) of the particle at a point specified by the coordinate (3m,4m) ?

(a)1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4

The linear speed “v” is given by :

Now radius of the circle is obtained from the position data. Here, x = 3 m and y = 4 m. Hence,

Hence, option (a) is correct.

Exercise 64.

A particle is executing circular motion. Man The velocity of the particle changes from zero to (0.3
i + 0.4 j) m/s in a period of 1 second. The magnitude of average tangential acceleration is :
The magnitude of average tangential acceleration is the ratio of the change in speed and time :

Now,

Hence, option (d) is correct.

Exercise 65.

The radial and tangential accelerations of a particle in motions are a T and a R respectively. The
motion can be circular if :

Centripetal acceleration is a requirement for circular motion and as such it should be non-zero. On
the other hand, tangential acceleration is zero for uniform circular acceleration and non-zero for
non-uniform circular motion. Clearly, the motion can be circular motion if centripetal
acceleration is non-zero.

Hence, options (a) and (d) are correct.

Exercise 66.

Which of the following pair of vector quantities is/are parallel to each other in direction ?

(a) angular velocity and linear velocity

(b) angular acceleration and tangential acceleration

(c) centripetal acceleration and tangential acceleration

(d) angular velocity and angular acceleration

The option (d) is correct.

Exercise 67.

A particle is moving along a circle in a plane with axis of rotation passing through the origin of
circle. Which of the following pairs of vector quantities are perpendicular to each other :

(a) tangential acceleration and angular velocity

(b) centripetal acceleration and angular velocity

(c) position vector and angular velocity

(d) angular velocity and linear velocity

Clearly, vector attributes in each given pairs are perpendicular to each other.

Hence, options (a), (b), (c) and (d) are correct.

Exercise 68.

A particle is executing circular motion along a circle of diameter 2 m, with a tangential speed
given by v = 2t.

(a) Tangential acceleration directly varies with time.

(b) Tangential acceleration inversely varies with time.

(c) Centripetal acceleration directly varies with time.

(d) Centripetal acceleration directly varies with square of time.

Tangential acceleration is found out by differentiating the expression of speed :

The tangential acceleration is a constant. Now, let us determine centripetal acceleration,

The option (d) is correct.

Non – uniform circular motion(application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Hints on problem solving

1: Calculation of acceleration as time rate of change of speed gives tangential acceleration.

2: Calculation of acceleration as time rate of change of velocity gives total acceleration.

3: Tangential acceleration is component of total acceleration along the direction of velocity.

Centripetal acceleration is component of acceleration along the radial direction.

4: We exchange between linear and angular quantities by using radius of circle, "r", as
multiplication factor. It is helpful to think that linear quantities are bigger than angular quantities.
As such, we need to multiply angular quantity by “r” to get corresponding linear quantities and
divide a linear quantity by “r” to get corresponding angular quantity.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to non-uniform circular
motion. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the subject matter
:

Velocity

Average total acceleration

Total acceleration

Velocity

Example 4.70.
Problem : A particle, tied to a string, starts moving along a horizontal circle of diameter 2 m,
with zero angular velocity and a tangential acceleration given by " 4 t ". If the string breaks off
at t = 5 s, then find the speed of the particle with which it flies off the circular path.
Solution : Here, tangential acceleration of the particle at time "t" is given as :
aT = 4 t
We note here that an expression of tangential acceleration (an higher attribute) is given and
we are required to find lower order attribute i.e. linear speed. In order to find linear speed, we
need to integrate the acceleration function :

⇒đv=4tđt
Integrating with appropriate limits, we have :
⇒∫đv=∫4tđt=4∫tđt

⇒ vf − 0 = 50

Average total acceleration

Example 4.71.
Problem : A particle is executing circular motion. The velocity of the particle changes from
(0.1 i + 0.2 j) m/s to (0.5 i + 0.5 j) m/s in a period of 1 second. Find the magnitude of average
total acceleration.
Solution : The average total acceleration is :

The magnitude of acceleration is :

Example 4.72.
Problem : A particle starting with a speed “v” completes half circle in time “t” such that its
speed at the end is again “v”. Find the magnitude of average total acceleration.
Solution : Average total acceleration is equal to the ratio of change in velocity and time
interval.

From the figure and as given in the question, it is clear that the velocity of the particle has
same magnitude but opposite directions.
 Figure 4.131. Circular motion
The speeds of the particle are same at two positions.

v1 = v
v2 = – v
Putting in the expression of average total acceleration, we have :

The magnitude of the average acceleration is :

Total acceleration

Example 4.73.
Problem : The angular position of a particle (in radian), on circular path of radius 0.5 m, is
given by :

At t = 1 s, find (i) angular velocity (ii) linear speed (iii) angular acceleration (iv) magnitude
of tangential acceleration (v) magnitude of centripetal acceleration and (vi) magnitude of total
acceleration.
Solution : Angular velocity is :

The angular speed, therefore, is dependent as it is a function in "t". At t = 1 s,

The magnitude of linear velocity, at t = 1 s, is :

Angular acceleration is :

Clearly, angular acceleration is constant and is independent of time.

The magnitude of tangential acceleration is :

Tangential acceleration is also constant and is independent of time.

The magnitude of centripetal acceleration is :
⇒ aR = ω v = 0.4 t X 0.2 t = 0.08 t2
At t = 1 s,

The magnitude of total acceleration, at t =1 s, is :

Example 4.74.
Problem : The speed (m/s) of a particle, along a circle of radius 4 m, is a function in time, "t"
as :
v = t2
Find the total acceleration of the particle at time, t = 2 s.
Solution : The tangential acceleration of the particle is obtained by differentiating the speed
function with respect to time,

The tangential acceleration at time, t = 2 s, therefore, is :

The radial acceleration of the particle is given as :

In order to evaluate this expression, we need to know the velocity at the given time, t = 2 s :
 Putting in the expression of radial acceleration, we have :

The total acceleration of the particle is :

Circular motion with constant acceleration*

The description of non-uniform circular motion of a particle is lot simplified, if the time rate of
the change in angular velocity (angular acceleration) is constant. We have seen such
simplification, while dealing with motion along a straight line. It is observed that the constant
acceleration presents an additive frame work for motion along straight line. The velocity of the
particle changes by a fixed value after every second (i.e. unit time). In translational motion along
a straight line, we say, for example, that :

where “v”, “ v 0 ” and “a” are attributes of motion along straight line with directional property. We
can recall here that we are able to treat these vector quantities as signed scalars, because there are
only two possible directions along a straight line. Now the moot question is : are these
simplifications also possible with non-uniform circular motion, when angular acceleration is
constant ?

The answer is yes. Let us see how does it work in the case of circular motion :

1: First, the multiplicity of directions associated with the velocity of the particle rotating about an
axis is resolved to be equivalent to one directional angular velocity,"ω", acting along the axis of
rotation. See the figure. If we stick to translational description of motion, then velocity vector is
tangential to path. The direction of velocity vector changes as the particle moves along the
circular path. On the other hand, angular velocity vector aligns in a single direction.
 Figure 4.132. Angular velocity
Angular velocity acts along axis of rotation.

2: Second, the acceleration resulting from the change in the speed of the particle is represented by
angular acceleration,"α". Like angular velocity, it is also one directional.

3: Third, there are only two possible directions as far as directional angular quantities are
considered. The direction can be either clockwise (negative) or anti-clockwise (positive). This
situation is similar to linear consideration where motion in the reference direction is considered
positive and motion in opposite direction is considered negative.

4: Fourth, the change in either angular displacement or angular speed is basically translated to a
change in the magnitude of one directional angular quantities. This allows us to treat the change in
angular quantities as a consideration along straight line as in the case of motion along straight
line.

(b)

(a)

Figure 4.133. The direction of angular quantities

There are two possible directions with angular quantities.
Clearly, it is possible to covert a motion along a circular path into an equivalent system along
straight line. As the angular quantities are represented along a straight line, it is then logical that
relations available for linear motion for constant acceleration are also available for circular
motion with appropriate substitution of linear quantities by angular quantities.

For example, the equation " v = v 0 + a t " has its corresponding relation in the circular motion as :

As a matter of fact, there exists one to one correspondence between two types of equation sets.
Importantly, we can treat angular vector quantities as signed scalars in the equations of motion,
dispensing with the need to use vector notation. The similarity of situation suggests that we need
not derive equations of motion again for the circular motion. We, therefore, proceed to simply
write equation of angular motion with appropriate substitution.

In this section of circular motion kinematics, our interest or domain of study is usually limited
to the motion or acceleration in tangential direction. We may not refer to the requirement of
motion in the radial direction in the form of centripetal acceleration, unless stated
specifically.

What corresponds to what ?

The correspondence goes like this : the angular position is “θ” for linear “x”; the angular
displacement is “Δθ” for linear “Δx”; the angular velocity is “ω” for linear “v” and the angular
acceleration is “α” for linear “a”.

Angular quantities

The different angular quantities corresponding to their linear counterparts are listed here fore
ready reference :

Basic equations
The corresponding equations for the two types of motion are :

Derived equations

The derived equations for the two types of motion are :

Sign of angular quantities

The sign of angular quantities represents direction. A positive sign indicates anti-clockwise
direction, whereas a negative sign indicates clockwise direction.

In the measurement of angle, a typical problem arises from the fact that circular motion may
continue to rotate passing through the reference point again and again. The question arises,
whether we keep adding angle or reset the measurement from the reference point ? The answer is
that angle measurement is not reset in rotational kinematics. This means that we can have
measurements like 540° and 20 rad etc.

Figure 4.134. Measurement of angle

The measurement of angle is not reset.

This convention is not without reason. Equations of motion of circular motion with constant
acceleration treats motion in an equivalent linear frame work, which considers only one reference
position. If we reset the measurements, then equations of motion would not be valid.

Example 4.75.
Problem : The angular velocity – time plot of the circular motion is shown in the figure. (i)
Determine the nature of angular velocity and acceleration at positions marked A, B, C, D and
E. (ii) In which of the segments (AB, BC, CD and DE) of motion, the particle is decelerated
and (iii) Is angular acceleration constant during the motion ?

Figure 4.135. Angular velocity – time plot

Solution :
(i) Angular velocity :
The angular velocities at A and E are positive (anti-clockwise). The angular velocities at B
and D are each zero. The angular velocities at C is negative (clockwise).
Angular acceleration :
The angular acceleration is equal to the first differential of angular velocity with respect to
time.

The sign of the angular acceleration is determined by the sign of the slope at different
positions. The slopes at various points are as shown in the figure :
 Figure 4.136. Slopes at different points

The angular accelerations at point A and B are negative (angular speed decreases with the
passage of time). The angular accelerations at C is zero. The angular accelerations at point D
and E are positive (angular speed increases with the passage of time).
(ii) Deceleration :
In the segments AB and CD, the magnitude of angular velocity i.e. angular speed decreases
with the passage of time. Thus, circular motions in these two segments are decelerated. This is
also confirmed by the fact that angular velocity and angular acceleration are in opposite
directions in these segments.
(iii) The slopes on angular velocity - time plot are different at different points. Thus, angular
accelerations are different at these points. Hence, angular acceleration of the motion is not
constant.

Angular velocity

The angular velocity increases by a constant value at the end of every unit time interval, when
angular velocity and acceleration act in the same direction. On the other hand, angular velocity
decreases, when angular velocity and acceleration act in the opposite direction.

To appreciate this, we consider a circular motion of a particle whose initial angular velocity is 0.3
rad/s. The motion is subjected to an angular acceleration of magnitude 0.1 in the opposite
direction to the initial velocity. In the table here, we calculate angular velocity of the particle,
using relation, ω = ω 0 + α t , at the end of every second and plot the data (for first 5 seconds) to
understand the variation of angular velocity with time.

-----------------------------------------------------
Time Angular acceleration Angular velocity
(s) (rad/s.s) (rad/s)
-----------------------------------------------------
0 -0.1 0.3
1 -0.1 0.3 - 0.1 x 1 = 0.2
2 -0.1 0.3 - 0.1 x 2 = 0.1
3 -0.1 0.3 - 0.1 x 3 = 0.0
4 -0.1 0.3 - 0.1 x 4 = -0.1
5 -0.1 0.3 - 0.1 x 5 = -0.2
-----------------------------------------------------

Here, the particle stops at the end of 3 seconds. The particle then reverses its direction (clockwise
from anti-clockwise) and continues to move around the axis. The angular velocity – time plot is as
shown here :

Figure 4.137. Angular velocity - time plot

We observe following aspects of the illustrated motion with constant acceleration :

1. The angular velocity decreases at uniform rate and the angular velocity – time plot is straight
line. Positive angular velocity becomes less positive and negative angular velocity becomes
more negative.

2. The slope of the plot is constant and negative.

Example 4.76.
Problem : A particle at the periphery of a disk at a radial distance 10 m from the axis of
rotation, uniformly accelerates for a period of 5 seconds. The speed of the particle in the
meantime increases from 5 m/s to 10 m/s. Find angular acceleration.
Solution : The initial and final angular velocities are :
 Using equation of motion, ω = ω 0 + α t , we have :

Angular displacement

The angular displacement is given as :

If we start observation of motion as t = 0 and θ° = 0, then displacement (θ) is :

The particle covers greater angular displacement for every successive time interval, when angular
velocity and acceleration act in the same direction and the particle covers smaller angular
displacement, when angular velocity and acceleration act in the opposite direction.

To appreciate this, we reconsider the earlier case of a circular motion of a particle whose initial
angular velocity is 0.3 rad/s. The motion is subjected to an angular acceleration of magnitude 0.1
rad / s 2 in the opposite direction to the initial velocity. In the table here, we calculate angular
displacement of the particle, using relation, , at the end of every second and plot the
data (for first 7 seconds) to understand the variation of angular displacement with time.

--------------------------------------------------------------------
Time wo t Angular displacement (θ)
(s) (rad) (rad)
--------------------------------------------------------------------
0 0.0 0.00
1 0.3 x 1 0.3 – 0.5 x 0.1 x 1 = 0.3 – 0.05 = 0.25
2 0.3 x 2 0.6 – 0.5 x 0.1 x 4 = 0.6 – 0.20 = 0.40
3 0.3 x 3 0.9 – 0.5 x 0.1 x 9 = 0.9 – 0.45 = 0.45
4 0.3 x 4 1.2 – 0.5 x 0.1 x 16 = 1.2 – 0.80 = 0.40
5 0.3 x 5 1.5 – 0.5 x 0.1 x 25 = 1.5 – 1.25 = 0.25
6 0.3 x 6 1.8 – 0.5 x 0.1 x 36 = 1.8 – 1.80 = 0.00
7 0.3 x 7 2.1 – 0.5 x 0.1 x 49 = 2.1 – 2.50 = -0.40
--------------------------------------------------------------------
We see here that the particle moves in anti-clockwise direction for first 3 seconds as determined
earlier and then turns back (clockwise) retracing the path till it reaches the initial position.
Subsequently, the particle continues moving in the clockwise direction.

The angular displacement – time plot is as shown here :

Figure 4.138. Angular displacement – time plot

Example 4.77.
Problem : A particle at the periphery of a disk at a radial distance 10 m from the axis of
rotation, uniformly accelerates for a period of 20 seconds. The speed of the particle in the
meantime increases from 5 m/s to 20 m/s. Find the numbers of revolutions the particle
completes around the axis.
Solution : We need to find angular displacement to know the numbers of revolutions made.
Here,

To calculate angular displacement, we need to know angular acceleration. Here, we can

calculate angular acceleration as in the earlier exercise as :

Now, using equation of motion, , we have :

 The number of revolutions (nearest integer), n,

Exercises

Exercise 69.

The angular velocity .vs. time plot of the motion of a rotating disk is shown in the figure. Then,

Figure 4.138. Velocity .vs. time plot

Velocity .vs. time plot

angular acceleration is constant.

angular acceleration is negative.

disk comes to a stop at a particular instant.

disk reverses direction during the motion.

The slope of the straight line is a negative constant. Therefore, options (a) and (b) are correct. The
line crosses time axis, when angular velocity is zero. Thus option (c) is correct. The angular
velocities have opposite sign across time axis. It means that the disk reverses its direction. Thus
option (d) is correct.

Hence, options (a),(b),(c) and (d) are correct.

Exercise 70.
A point on a rotating disk, starting from rest, achieves an angular velocity of 40 rad/s at constant
rate in 5 seconds. If the point is at a distance 0.1 meters from the center of the disk, then the
distance covered (in meters) during the motion is :

We can find the distance covered, if we know the angular displacement. On the other hand, we can
find angular displacement if we know the average angular speed as time is given.

We can consider this accelerated motion as uniform motion with average speed as calculated
above. The angular displacement is :

The distance covered is :

Exercise 71.

A point on a rotating disk completes two revolutions starting from rest and achieves an angular
velocity of 8 rad/s. If the angular velocity of the disk is increasing at a constant rate, the angular
acceleration ( rad / s 2 ) is :

We can use the equation of motion for constant acceleration. Here,

Looking at the data, it is easy to find that the following equation will serve the purpose,

Solving for "α" and putting values,

Hence, option (c) is correct.

Exercise 72.

A point on a rotating disk is accelerating at a constant rate 1 rad / s 2 till it achieves an angular
velocity of 10 rad/s. What is the angular displacement (radian) in last 2 seconds of the motion?

Here, final angular velocity, angular acceleration and time of motion are given. We can find the
angular displacement using equation of motion for angular displacement that involves final
angular velocity :

Putting values, we have :

Hence, option (a) is correct.

Circular motion with constant acceleration (application)*

Questions and their answers are presented here in the module text format as if it were an extension
of the treatment of the topic. The idea is to provide a verbose explanation, detailing the
application of theory. Solution presented is, therefore, treated as the part of the understanding
process – not merely a Q/A session. The emphasis is to enforce ideas and concepts, which can not
be completely absorbed unless they are put to real time situation.

Check understanding

An online examination, based on the basic subject matter, is available at the link given here. The
examination session is designed only for the basic level so that we can ensure that our
understanding of subject matter is satisfactory.

Circular motion with constant acceleration

Hints for problem solving

1: Visualize the circular motion as if we are dealing with straight line (pure translational) motion.
Write down formula with substitution of linear quantities with angular quantities.

2: Use formula in scalar form. Stick to anticlockwise measurement as positive and clockwise
measurement as negative.

Representative problems and their solutions

We discuss problems, which highlight certain aspects of the study leading to circular motion with
constant acceleration. The questions are categorized in terms of the characterizing features of the
subject matter :

Nature of angular motion

Time interval

Angular displacement

Nature of angular motion

Example 4.78.
Problem : The angular velocity .vs. time plot of the motion of a rotating disk is shown in the
figure.

Figure 4.139. angular displacement .vs. time plot

Determine (i) nature of angular velocity (ii) nature of angular acceleration and (iii) whether
the disk comes to a standstill during the motion?
Solution : The angular velocity is anticlockwise (positive) above time axis and clockwise
(negative) below time axis.
The slope of angular velocity - time plot indicates nature of acceleration. Since the plot is a
straight line, motion is accelerated/ decelerated at constant rate. Further, the slope of the
straight line (angular velocity - time plot) is negative all through out.
Recall that it is easy to determine the sign of the straight line. Just move from left to right in
the direction of increasing time along the time - axis. See whether the angular velocity
increases of decreases. If increases, then slope is positive; otherwise negative. The angular
velocity, here, becomes less positive above time axis and becomes more negative below time
axis. Hence, slope is negative all through out.
It means that acceleration (negative) is opposite to angular velocity (positive) above time axis.
Therefore, the disk is decelerated and the angular speed of disk decreases at constant rate.
Below time - axis, the angular acceleration is still negative. However, angular velocity is also
negative below the time axis. As such, disk is accelerated and the angular speed increases at
constant rate.
We see here that the plot intersects time - axis. It means that the disk comes to a stand still
before changing direction from anticlockwise rotation to clockwise rotation.

Time interval

Example 4.79.
Problem : The angular position of a point on a flywheel is given by the relation :

Find the time (in seconds) when flywheel comes to a stop.

Solution : The speed of the particle is :

When flywheel comes to a standstill, ω = 0,

Example 4.80.
Problem : The magnitude of deceleration of the motion of a point on a rotating disk is equal
to the acceleration due to gravity (10 m / s 2 ). The point is at a linear distance 10 m from the
center of the disk. If initial speed is 40 m/s in anti-clockwise direction, then find the time for
the point to return to its position.
Solution : The disk first rotates in anti-clockwise direction till its speed becomes zero and
then the disk turns back to move in clockwise direction. In order to analyze the motion, we
first convert linear quantities to angular quantities as :

When the point returns to its initial position, the total displacement is zero. Applying equation
of motion for angular displacement, we have :

⇒ t2 − 8 t = 0
⇒t(t−8)=0

The zero time corresponds to initial position. The time of return to initial position, therefore,
is 8 seconds.

Angular displacement

Example 4.81.
Problem : A disk initially rotating at 80 rad/s is slowed down with a constant deceleration of
magnitude 4 rad / s 2 . What angle (rad) does the disk rotate before coming to rest ?
Solution : Initial and final angular velocities and angular acceleration are given. We can use
ω = ω 0 + α t to determine the time disk takes to come to stop. Here,

Using equation, , we have :

Example 4.82.
Problem : The initial angular velocity of a point (in radian) on a rotating disk is 0.5 rad/s. The
disk is subjected to a constant acceleration of 0. 2 rad / s 2 . in the direction opposite to the
angular velocity. Determine the angle (in radian) through which the point moves in third
second.
Solution : Here, we need to be careful as the point reverses its direction in the third second !
For ω = 0,

Thus the disk stops at t = 2.5 second. In this question, we are to find the angle (in rad) through
which the point moves in third second – not the displacement. The figure here qualitatively
depicts the situation. In the third second, the point moves from B to C and then from C to D.
The displacement in third second is BOD, whereas the angle moved in the third second is
|BOC| + |DOC|. Where,
∠BOC = displacement between 2 and 2.5 seconds.
∠DOC = displacement between 2.5 and 3 seconds.

Figure 4.140. Angle measurement

The angular velocity at the end of 2 seconds is :

The angular velocity at the end of 2.5 seconds is zero. Hence,

It means that the point, at t = 3 s, actually returns to the position where it was at t = 2 s. The
displacement is, thus, zero.
The total angle moved in third second = |0.025| + |-0.025| = 0.05 rad
Example 4.83.
Problem : The angular velocity of a point (in radian) on a rotating disk is given by |t – 2|,
where “t” is in seconds. If the point aligns with the reference direction at time t = 0, then find
the quadrant in which the point falls after 5 seconds.
Problem : The area under the angular velocity – time plot and time axis is equal to angular
displacement. As required, let us generate angular velocity data for first 5 seconds to enable us
draw the requisite plot :
---------------------------------
Time (t) Angular velocity (θ)
(s) (rad/s)
---------------------------------
0 2
1 1
2 0
3 1
4 2
5 3
---------------------------------
The angular velocity – time plot is as shown in the figure :

Figure 4.141. Angular velocity – time plot

The displacement is equal to the area of two triangles :

Thus, the point moves 6.5 rad from the reference direction. Now, one revolution is equal to 2π
= 2 x 3.14 = 6.28 rad. The particle is, therefore, in the fourth quadrant with respect to the
reference direction.
Solutions
 Index

Symbols
(i) , Combined input operations
(ii) , Combined input operations
(iii) , Combined input operations
., Products of vectors
1 :, Addition and subtraction to independent variable , Combined input operations
1. motion in two dimension : , Displacement and dimension of motion
1: , Attributes of scalar (dot) product , Attributes of vector (cross) product , Summary , Position
vector , External force and possible scenarios , Components of acceleration , Shortest path , Hints
on solving problems , Hints on solving problems , Coordinates along incline (x) and perpendicular
to incline (y) , Projection down the incline , Hints for solving problems , Tangential and normal
accelerations in circular motion , Nature of velocity and acceleration , Hints on problem solving ,
Circular motion with constant acceleration, Hints for problem solving
1: acceleration is zero , Velocity – time plot
2 :, Addition and subtraction to independent variable , Combined input operations
2. motion in one dimension : , Displacement and dimension of motion
2: , Attributes of scalar (dot) product , Attributes of vector (cross) product , Summary , Position
vector , External force and possible scenarios , Components of acceleration , Shortest path , Hints
on solving problems , Hints on solving problems , Coordinates along incline (x) and perpendicular
to incline (y) , Projection down the incline , Hints for solving problems , Tangential and normal
accelerations in circular motion , Nature of velocity and acceleration , Hints on problem solving ,
Circular motion with constant acceleration, Hints for problem solving
2: acceleration is constant , Velocity – time plot
3: , Attributes of scalar (dot) product , Attributes of vector (cross) product , Summary , Position
vector , External force and possible scenarios , Components of acceleration , Hints on solving
problems , Hints on solving problems , Coordinates along incline (x) and perpendicular to incline
(y) , Projection down the incline , Hints for solving problems , Nature of velocity and acceleration
, Hints on problem solving , Circular motion with constant acceleration
3: the magnitude of acceleration is increasing , Velocity – time plot
4: , Attributes of scalar (dot) product , Attributes of vector (cross) product , Summary , Position
vector , External force and possible scenarios , Hints on solving problems , Coordinates along
incline (x) and perpendicular to incline (y) , Projection down the incline , Hints for solving
problems , Hints on problem solving , Circular motion with constant acceleration
4: the magnitude of acceleration is decreasing , Velocity – time plot
5: , Attributes of scalar (dot) product , Attributes of vector (cross) product , Summary , Position
vector , External force and possible scenarios , Hints on solving problems , Coordinates along
incline (x) and perpendicular to incline (y)
6: , Attributes of scalar (dot) product , Attributes of vector (cross) product , Coordinates along
incline (x) and perpendicular to incline (y)
7: , Attributes of scalar (dot) product , Attributes of vector (cross) product
8: , Attributes of scalar (dot) product
9: , Attributes of scalar (dot) product
α, Linear and angular acceleration relation in vector form , Description of circular motion using
vectors
ω, Vector representation of angular quantities , Linear and angular velocity relation in vector form
, Exercises, Description of circular motion using vectors
“s”, Displacement and Position vector
A
a, Unit vector , Triangle law , Polygon law , Subtraction , Vector addition : Analytical method ,
Vector sum and difference , Lami's theorem , Components of a vector , Vector addition :
Algebraic method , Multiplication with scalar , Scalar product (dot product) , Angle between
vectors , Meaning of scalar product , Component as scalar (dot) product , Attributes of scalar (dot)
product , Law of cosine and dot product , Exercises , Condition of perpendicular vectors ,
Component as scalar product , Scalar product of a vector with itself , Evaluation of dot product ,
Vector (cross) product, Direction of vector product , Cross product in component form, Evaluation
of vector product , Area of parallelogram , Displacement and Position vector , Instantaneous
acceleration, Velocity, acceleration and force , External force and possible scenarios , Negative
vector quantities , Acceleration vector , Nature of acceleration in one dimensional motion ,
Equation of motion , Average velocity , Equations of motion , Exercises, Description of circular
motion using vectors
a x b x c , Attributes of vector (cross) product
a.b, Scalar product (dot product) , Attributes of scalar (dot) product , Exercises , Condition of
perpendicular vectors , Nature of scalar product , Evaluation of vector product
a.b.c, Attributes of scalar (dot) product
a.c, Attributes of scalar (dot) product , Nature of scalar product
ab, Vector addition : graphical method , Components of a vector , Displacement and Position
vector , Few words of caution
ac, Displacement and Position vector
acceleration , Acceleration, Acceleration in terms of position vector, Glossary
alternatively , Clearing posts of equal height
alternatively, ,
axb, Nature of vector product , Evaluation of vector product
axc, Nature of vector product
B
b, Why should we study vectors? , Triangle law , Parallelogram law , Polygon law , Subtraction ,
Vector addition : Analytical method , Vector sum and difference , Lami's theorem , Vector
addition : Algebraic method , Multiplication with scalar , Scalar product (dot product) , Angle
between vectors , Meaning of scalar product , Attributes of scalar (dot) product , Law of cosine
and dot product , Exercises , Condition of perpendicular vectors , Nature of scalar product , Scalar
product of a vector with itself , Evaluation of dot product , Vector (cross) product, Direction of
vector product , Cross product in component form, Nature of vector product , Evaluation of vector
product , Area of parallelogram , Negative vector quantities
b.a, Exercises , Condition of perpendicular vectors
bc, Vector addition : graphical method
broad categories of transformation, Transformation of graphs
C
c, Triangle law , Polygon law , Lami's theorem , Attributes of scalar (dot) product , Exercises ,
Nature of scalar product , Evaluation of dot product , Nature of vector product
ca, Triangle law
case 1: ,
case 2: ,
case 3: ,
case 4: ,
characteristics of motion : , Displacement and Position vector , Position – time plot and average
velocity
curve ac : , Reading of graph
D
d, Polygon law
displacement , Displacement, Glossary
distance , Distance, Glossary
F
f, Why should we study vectors? , Meaning of scalar product , Cross product in component form,
External force and possible scenarios , Requirement of uniform circular motion
f. , Meaning of scalar product
G
g, Graphical interpretation of equations of motion
I
i, Negative vector , Components of a vector , Exercises , Values of scalar product, Component as
scalar (dot) product , Angle between two vectors , Component as scalar product , Values of cross
product , Cross product in component form, Condition of parallel vectors , Unit vector of cross
product , Area of parallelogram , Position vector in rectilinear motion , Vector interpretation and
equivalent system of scalars , Negative vector quantities , Accelerated motion in one dimension,
Nature of acceleration in one dimensional motion , Velocity of an individual object , Exercises,
Maximum height , Exercises, Exercises , Direction of velocity , Direction of position vector ,
Exercises , Average total acceleration
i: , Components of acceleration
ii: , Components of acceleration
instantaneous acceleration , Instantaneous acceleration, Glossary
J
j, Components of a vector , Exercises , Values of scalar product, Component as scalar (dot)
product , Angle between two vectors , Component as scalar product , Values of cross product ,
Cross product in component form, Condition of parallel vectors , Unit vector of cross product ,
Area of parallelogram , Accelerated motion in one dimension, Nature of acceleration in one
dimensional motion , Velocity of an individual object , Exercises, Maximum height , Exercises,
Exercises , Exercises , Direction of velocity , Direction of position vector , Exercises , Average
total acceleration
K
k, Components of a vector , Values of scalar product, Angle between two vectors , Values of cross
product , Condition of parallel vectors , Unit vector of cross product , Area of parallelogram ,
Accelerated motion in one dimension
M
motion, Motion, Speed, Glossary
N
n, Component as scalar (dot) product , Component as scalar product , Vector (cross) product,
Attributes of vector (cross) product , Exercises, Tangential and normal accelerations in circular
motion
negative vector , Negative vector , Glossary
note 1 : , Differentiation and Integration methods
note 2 : , Differentiation and Integration methods
note :, Triangle law , Planar components of a vector , Exercises , Scalar product of a vector with
itself , Example , Representative problems and their solutions , Equation with reference to earth, ,
Direction of position vector
note: , Components of acceleration ,
O
oa, Representation of a vector in component form
P
parallelogram law , Parallelogram law , Glossary
point a : , Reading of graph
point c : , Reading of graph
point e : , Reading of graph
point f : , Reading of graph
points b, d : , Reading of graph
polygon law , Polygon law , Glossary
position , Position , Glossary
position vector , Position vector, Glossary
problem , Position , Position – time plot, Position Vector in component form , Average speed ,
Position - time plot
problem : , Vector addition : Analytical method , Components of a vector , Planar components of a
vector , Values of scalar product, Component as scalar (dot) product , Attributes of scalar (dot)
product , Angle between two vectors , Condition of perpendicular vectors , Component as scalar
product , Nature of scalar product , Scalar product of a vector with itself , Evaluation of dot
product , Condition of parallel vectors , Unit vector of cross product , Nature of vector product ,
Evaluation of vector product , Area of parallelogram , Examples , Example , Position - time plot ,
Position – time plot and average velocity , Exercises, Rectilinear motion, Position vector ,
Interpretation of displacement - time plot , Displacement , Average velocity , Similarities and
differences , Position vector , Displacement , Constrained motion , Nature of velocity , Comparing
velocities , Acceleration in terms of position vector, Velocity, acceleration and force , External
force and possible scenarios , Deceleration , Accelerated motion in one dimension, Velocity –
time plot , Understanding constant acceleration , Equations of motion in component form ,
Equivalent scalar system of equations of motion , Average velocity , Differentiation and
Integration methods , Components of acceleration , Rectilinear motion with constant acceleration ,
Equations of motion , One dimensional motion with constant acceleration, Equation of motion for
one dimensional motion with constant acceleration , Additional equations of motion ,
Displacement in a particular second , Average acceleration , , Example , Displacement and
distance , Position , Motion plots , Equal displacement , Equal time , Displacement in a particular
second , Twice in a position , Collision in air , Velocity and acceleration is expressed in terms of
time “t , Non-uniform acceleration, Velocity and acceleration is expressed in terms of time “x” ,
Acceleration in terms of velocity , Velocity .vs. time , Acceleration .vs. time , Velocity of the
point object , Equation with reference to earth, Direction of relative velocities , Worked out
problems , Representative problems and their solutions , Velocity of the point object , Equation
with reference to earth, Evaluation of equation using analytical technique , Equation in component
form , Velocity of an individual object , Relative velocity , Closest approach , Shortest interval of
time to cross the stream , Motion of an object in a medium , Velocity of the object , Time to cross
the river , Multiple references , Minimum time, distance and speed , Time of flight , Velocity of
projectile , Direction of motion on return , Maximum height , Equation of projectile motion ,
Change in angles during motion , Kinetic energy of a projectile , Change in the direction of
velocity vector , Clearing posts of equal height , Hitting a specified target , Determining attributes
of projectile trajectory , Time of flight , Horizontal range , Maximum height , Height attained by a
projectile , Composition of motion , Projectile motion with wind/drag force , Projectile thrown in
horizontal direction , Projectile thrown up at an angle with horizontal direction , Time of flight ,
Range of flight , Initial velocity , Final velocity , Projection up the incline , Projection down the
incline , Range of the flight , Angle of projection , Final speed of the projectile , Elastic collision
with the incline , Projectile motion on two inclines , Resultant relative motion , Collision of
projectiles initiated without vertical separation , Collision of projectiles initiated without
horizontal separation , Collision of projectiles initiated from different horizontal and vertical
levels , Centripetal acceleration , Direction of velocity , Direction of position vector , Velocity ,
Relative speed , Nature of UCM , Description of circular motion , Relationship between linear (v)
and angular speed (ω) , Measurement of angular displacement , Angular speeds , Centripetal
acceleration , Path of motion , Nature of velocity and acceleration , Path of motion , Tangential
and normal accelerations , Nature of motion , Displacement in two dimensions , Addition and
subtraction to independent variable , Negation of independent variable , Tangential acceleration ,
Description of circular motion using vectors , Velocity , Average total acceleration , Total
acceleration , Sign of angular quantities , Angular velocity , Angular displacement , Nature of
angular motion , Time interval , Angular displacement
Q
question, Distance – time plot, Displacement and Position vector
R
r, Position Vector in component form , Displacement and Position vector , Interpreting change of
position , Few words of caution , Exercises, Nature of velocity , Position vector , Accelerated
motion in one dimension, Third equation , Equation of motion for one dimensional motion with
constant acceleration , Position of the particle , Linear and angular velocity relation in vector form
, Accelerated motion in two dimensions, Linear and angular acceleration relation in vector form ,
Description of circular motion using vectors , Exercises
S
s, Displacement and Position vector , Graphical interpretation of equations of motion
similarity / difference 1 : , Similarities and differences
similarity / difference 10 : , Similarities and differences
similarity / difference 11 : , Similarities and differences
similarity / difference 12 : , Similarities and differences
similarity / difference 2 : , Similarities and differences
similarity / difference 3 : , Similarities and differences
similarity / difference 4 : , Similarities and differences
similarity / difference 5 : , Similarities and differences
similarity / difference 6 : , Similarities and differences
similarity / difference 7 : , Similarities and differences
similarity / difference 8 : , Similarities and differences
similarity / difference 9 : , Similarities and differences
solution, Distance – time plot, Position , Position – time plot, Position Vector in component form ,
Displacement and Position vector , Position - time plot
solution : , Vector addition : Analytical method , Components of a vector , Planar components of a
vector , Values of scalar product, Component as scalar (dot) product , Attributes of scalar (dot)
product , Angle between two vectors , Condition of perpendicular vectors , Component as scalar
product , Nature of scalar product , Scalar product of a vector with itself , Evaluation of dot
product , Condition of parallel vectors , Unit vector of cross product , Nature of vector product ,
Evaluation of vector product , Area of parallelogram , Examples , Example , Average speed ,
Position - time plot , Position – time plot and average velocity , Exercises, Rectilinear motion,
Position vector , Interpretation of displacement - time plot , Displacement , Average velocity ,
Similarities and differences , Position vector , Displacement , Constrained motion , Nature of
velocity , Comparing velocities , Acceleration in terms of position vector, Velocity, acceleration
and force , External force and possible scenarios , Deceleration , Accelerated motion in one
dimension, Velocity – time plot , Understanding constant acceleration , Equations of motion in
component form , Equivalent scalar system of equations of motion , Average velocity ,
Differentiation and Integration methods , Components of acceleration , Rectilinear motion with
constant acceleration , Equations of motion , One dimensional motion with constant acceleration,
Equation of motion for one dimensional motion with constant acceleration , Additional equations
of motion , Displacement in a particular second , Average acceleration , , Example , Displacement
and distance , Position , Motion plots , Equal displacement , Equal time , Displacement in a
particular second , Twice in a position , Collision in air , Velocity and acceleration is expressed in
terms of time “t , Non-uniform acceleration, Velocity and acceleration is expressed in terms of
time “x” , Acceleration in terms of velocity , Velocity .vs. time , Acceleration .vs. time , Velocity
of the point object , Equation with reference to earth, Direction of relative velocities , Worked out
problems , Representative problems and their solutions , Velocity of the point object , Equation
with reference to earth, Evaluation of equation using analytical technique , Equation in component
form , Velocity of an individual object , Relative velocity , Closest approach , Shortest interval of
time to cross the stream , Motion of an object in a medium , Velocity of the object , Time to cross
the river , Multiple references , Minimum time, distance and speed , Time of flight , Velocity of
projectile , Direction of motion on return , Maximum height , Equation of projectile motion ,
Change in angles during motion , Kinetic energy of a projectile , Change in the direction of
velocity vector , Clearing posts of equal height , Hitting a specified target , Determining attributes
of projectile trajectory , Time of flight , Horizontal range , Maximum height , Height attained by a
projectile , Composition of motion , Projectile motion with wind/drag force , Projectile thrown in
horizontal direction , Projectile thrown up at an angle with horizontal direction , Time of flight ,
Range of flight , Initial velocity , Final velocity , Projection up the incline , Projection down the
incline , Range of the flight , Angle of projection , Final speed of the projectile , Elastic collision
with the incline , Projectile motion on two inclines , Resultant relative motion , Collision of
projectiles initiated without vertical separation , Collision of projectiles initiated without
horizontal separation , Collision of projectiles initiated from different horizontal and vertical
levels , Centripetal acceleration , Direction of velocity , Direction of position vector , Velocity ,
Relative speed , Nature of UCM , Description of circular motion , Relationship between linear (v)
and angular speed (ω) , Measurement of angular displacement , Angular speeds , Centripetal
acceleration , Path of motion , Nature of velocity and acceleration , Path of motion , Tangential
and normal accelerations , Nature of motion , Displacement in two dimensions , Addition and
subtraction to independent variable , Negation of independent variable , Tangential acceleration ,
Description of circular motion using vectors , Velocity , Average total acceleration , Total
acceleration , Sign of angular quantities , Angular velocity , Angular displacement , Nature of
angular motion , Time interval , Angular displacement
T
t, Tangential and normal accelerations in circular motion
triangle law of vector addition , Triangle law , Glossary
U
u, Equation of motion , Third equation , Average velocity , Equations of motion , Force(s) in
projectile motion
V
v, Description of motion , Why should we study vectors? , Cross product in component form, Few
words of caution , Exercises, Nature of velocity , External force and possible scenarios , Velocity
vector , Nature of acceleration in one dimensional motion , Equation of motion , Third equation ,
Exercises, Requirement of uniform circular motion , Linear and angular velocity relation in vector
form , Exercises, Accelerated motion in two dimensions, Tangential acceleration , Nature of
motion , Non-uniform circular motion, Angular acceleration , Description of circular motion using
vectors
vector , What is a vector?, Glossary
velocity, Velocity, Position vector and velocity , Instantaneous velocity , Glossary
W
we conclude that force and hence acceleration is independent of the velocity of the body, Velocity,
acceleration and force
X
x, Products of vectors , Meaning of scalar product
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Module: Rectilinear motion

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URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13612/1.7/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Rectilinear motion (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14531/1.1/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Understanding motion

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14530/1.5/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Velocity (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14528/1.6/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/
Module: Acceleration

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13769/1.8/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Understanding acceleration

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13770/1.9/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Acceleration and deceleration

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13835/1.14/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Accelerated motion in one dimension

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13834/1.12/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Constant acceleration

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13781/1.12/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Constant acceleration (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14551/1.3/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: One dimensional motion with constant acceleration

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13815/1.13/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Graphs of motion with constant acceleration

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14554/1.2/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Vertical motion under gravity

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13833/1.12/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Vertical motion under gravity (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14550/1.2/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Non-uniform acceleration

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14547/1.2/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Relative velocity in one dimension

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13618/1.8/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Relative velocity in one dimension(application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14035/1.3/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Relative velocity in two dimensions

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14030/1.7/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Relative velocity in two dimensions (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14037/1.7/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Analysing motion in a medium

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14561/1.5/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Resultant motion (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14034/1.6/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Projectile motion

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13837/1.12/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Projectile motion (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13858/1.15/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Features of projectile motion

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13847/1.18/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Features of projectile motion (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13864/1.9/
Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Projectile motion types

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13856/1.14/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Projectile motion types (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13866/1.10/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Projectile motion on an incline

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14614/1.8/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Projectile motion on an incline (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14615/1.3/
Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Relative motion of projectiles

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14601/1.6/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Collision of projectiles

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14613/1.7/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Uniform circular motion

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m13871/1.16/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Uniform circular motion (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14015/1.7/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Circular motion and rotational kinematics

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14014/1.10/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Circular motion and rotational kinematics (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14027/1.4/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Accelerated motion in two dimensions

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14555/1.13/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Transformation of graphs

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14562/1.11/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Non-uniform circular motion

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14020/1.7/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Non – uniform circular motion(application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14021/1.5/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Circular motion with constant acceleration

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14022/1.7/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

Module: Circular motion with constant acceleration (application)

By: Sunil Singh

URL: http://cnx.org/content/m14024/1.3/

Copyright: Sunil Singh

License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/
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