A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development

Module
in
FORC 105

LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

College of Criminal Justice Education

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Module No. 1

POLYGRAPHY
Topic

2nd Semester 2021-2022

Ma. Diana F. Alcoseba

Instructor I

Leo L. Casilagan
Instructor I

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1. DEFINITION OF TERMS:
a. Polygraph- is a composition of two words, “poly” which means “many”
and “graph” which means “writing chart”. It is defined as a scientific
instrument especially designed to record psycho-physiological changes
that occur within the body especially of lying when questioned. This is not
an electrical device that detects lies or truth, but is an instrument used to
determine whether or not statements made by the subject taking the test
are deceptive.
b. Polygraphy- is a scientific method of detecting truth or deception
through the use of polygraph machine. Polygraph testing is often used to
confirm or exonerate person’s involvement in any suspected activity or
wrongdoing. In the absence of any other corroborative evidence, this is of
great significance.
c. Polygraph Test- is a series of relevant, irrelevant, and control questions
prepared by the examiner, for the matter under investigation, and asked of
the person being examined.
-Consist of 4 relevant, 4 irrelevant and 2 controlled questions
Proven Successful Usage of Polygraph

1. Eliminating Suspects
2. Recognizing false complainants
3. Testing informants to determine the veracity of information provided
4. Providing a new “key” to an investigation when all other standard
investigative techniques have been exhausted
5. Narrowing the focus of the inquiry
6. Gathering additional information and evidence
7. Assisting to focus the investigation on particular suspects

2. Common Polygraph Myths

a. Myth 1- The Polygraph is no good because it is not admissible in court,

right?

This is the most used excuse for not taking a polygraph examination. The fact
of the matter is that it is used in court in certain situations.

 Accuracy and Reliability

The Principle of Polygraph testing have been developed over the past 100
years and have been subjected to hundreds of scientifically validated studies.

Accuracy: 90%

Inconclusive: 10%

(Conducted by the Psychology Department University of Utah Funded by

the U.S Treasury Department)

Latest Study (1998) 98% accurate

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 Admissibility in Court

Many Countries all over the world have utilized polygraph technique as a
method of lie detection. It has been proven that it is valuable aid in investigation. In
some countries, polygraph results are admitted as evidence in courts. In the U.S.,
almost all courts utilized polygraph and more than one half of this court accepts it as
evidence in criminal prosecution.

 Frye v. U.S Federal Appeals Court 1923

 Picciononna v. U.S Federal Appeals Court 1989
 Dauber v. M. Dow U.S Supreme Court 1993
 Scheffer v. U.S Supreme Court 1998
Note: Please search for the case above, read and understand. This will be recorded as
your output. Send it on our Google Classroom.

Reasons why polygraph results are not admissible in court:

 It has not been standardized as to the instrumentation

 As to the test procedure
 As to the qualification of Polygraph Examiners.

b. Myth 2- if you are nervous you will fail the polygraph test.

Being nervous is common. If a person is not nervous when they take a

polygraph test, then that is unusual. Being nervous doesn’t cause a person
to fail a polygraph test, lying does

Here’s how a polygraph examiner looks at each person’s nervousness:

1. A truthful person maybe nervous because he is afraid of the unknown.
2. An untruthful person may be nervous because he is afraid of what he
knows to be true.
In addition, you must remember that:

1. Nervousness, on the polygraph recordings, does not look like deception

to the polygraph examiner.
2. Nervousness does not prevent the polygraph examiner from
distinguishing between truth and untruth.

c. Myth 3- I had a friend take a polygraph test and he failed it even though
he was telling the truth.

If you are telling the truth the chances of failing a polygraph examination
are very slim. The polygraph cannot “say” anything. It merely records on a
chart your bodily reactions to the question being asked. It is up to the
polygraph examiner to “read” the information your body provides, and he
does so with an extremely high degree of accuracy.

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d. Myth 4- “I’ve heard that machine can be beaten”

This is habitual expression made by the mislead and misinformed skeptics,
or the one who “got by” with something important to him during his
previous test. People cannot beat a polygraph test. They beat the
competency of the examiner conducting the test. A polygraph machine is
simply an instrument that records changes in autonomic reactivity when
confronting a given stimulus (question). The examiner is capable to
determine when the examinee engages in behaviors that are designed to
distort polygraph tracing and there is an attempt to influence the outcome
of examination. Truthful examinees are cooperative and follow instructions
whereas deceptive examinees will attempt to engage in certain behavior to
distort the normal tracings.

“BEAT” the Polygraph

Detects Indications Result

Nervousness Pulse Rate Talk, Release Tension
Drugs Pulse vs. Breathing Re-Schedule
Mind Control Straight Tracing Repeat Questions
Muscle Control Movements, Jerks Remind Examinee

e. Myth 5- “Does test hurt? Will I get electric shock?

No, the test NOT hurt. Also, there is no possibility of your getting an
electric shock. The only discomfort some people experience is the slight
pressure on the arm because of the standard blood pressure cuff.

f. Myth 6- “I have a high blood pressure. Won’t that look as though I’m
lying?

While blood pressure is the principal polygraph recording, high blood

pressure does not cause the characteristics pattern that results when a
person is untruthful. Characteristic pattern created by either high or low
blood pressure differs from deceptive tracings. A truthful pattern is readily
apparent even though a person has a blood pressure problem.

g. Myth 7- drugs and alcohol affect the results/accuracy of polygraph

examination.

Polygraph Examiners utilize certain procedures during a polygraph test to

ensure that each person taking a risk is responding naturally throughout the
testing procedure. If the subject is taking any medication, inform the
Polygraph Examiner prior to the test

h. Myth 8- I thought the examination would only take about 10 minutes.

A real polygraph examination will take anywhere between 1 ½ to 3 hours

under normal circumstances.

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Question: Can Someone Under the age of 18 Take a polygraph test?

Yes. A polygraph test can be conducted on any person under 18 years old,
provided that he has full discretion of what is right or wrong. Parent’s consent is
required prior to the test. No examination should be conducted on anyone under 12
years of age.

3. FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH

Human beings are conditioned to believe that lying is morally and biblically
crime. They do not like to lie but do so consciously or unconsciously while they are
under pressure. Lying produces uneasiness and anxiety. Those two conditions in turn
generate different physiological effects that are occasionally visible and most often
detectable in a lie detection device such as polygraph. The physiological effects of
lying are being recorded and measured by the following polygraph components:

a. Pneumograph Tubes- are fastened around the subject’s abdominal and

thoracic pat of the body to monitor the subjects breathing. As the subject’s
inhales and exhales, the tube, an accordion like, expands and contracts
causing changes of pressure inside the tube. These changes are transmitted
to the recording bellows causing a forward and backward movement to the
pivot shaft to which the recording bellows causing forward and backward
movement of the pivot shaft which the recording pe is connected. (There is
rise in breathing rate accompanied by a decrease in the depth of each
breath also well-known as the shallow breathing. The Pneumograph
aspects of the polygraph measure these.

b. Galvanograph- The Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) is measured by attaching

a set of electrodes to the surface of the hand, or to the fingers of the hand
which measures difference in the electrical resistance of the skin as the
question sweats under pressure. Electrical conductivity increases with a
rise in sweating due to the electrolyte concentration found in perspiration.
(There is a rise in sweating. The galvanograph aspect measures this sign).

c. Cardiosphymograph- A Blood pressure cuff, or the type used by

physicians, is fastened around one of the examinee’s arms. When cuff is
inflated, it monitors changes in the mean blood pressure and heart rate.
(There is a rise in blood pressure and pulse rate. The cardiograph aspects
measure these essential signs.)

d. Kymograph- An instrument for recording variations in pressure, as of

the blood, or in tension, as of a muscle, by means of a pen or stylus that
marks a rotating drum. This component moves the chart paper at a timed
rate of speed, 6 inches a minute on present instruments, so that the blood-
pulse pressure, respiration, and GSR can be continuously recorded all at
one time.

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The theory of polygraph Examination: “when a mentally

normal person tells lie, physiological changes occur within his
body that could be recorded by the instrument and evaluated
by the examiner.”

4. USES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

a. Criminal Investigation
1) It is an aid to the investigator.
2) It speeds up the process of investigation
3) It eliminates innocent subject.
4) The investigator can concentrate one subject to determine truth
or deception.
- It is valuable tool of criminal investigation. It provides fast
means of eliminating innocent suspects, give clue about the
identity of criminal suspects, verify statements of those who are
involved and save a lot of time and effort during the process of
investigation.
Prohibited Practices

1) The investigator should not subject the examinee to prolonged

interrogation immediately before polygraph examination.
2) The polygraph instrument must not be used as psychological
props in conducting interrogation.
3) A prospective examinee is never informed that his or her
innocence or guilt will be decided based on the results of the
polygraph examination.
4) The investigators do not request a mass screening of possible
suspects to produce real suspects. (This mass screening violates
the policy of investigation techniques and produces have not
been applied., leads exhausted, and normal investigative
functions)
5) The investigators do not make the final determination as to the
examinee’s fitness for polygraph examination.
b. Pre- Employment- the fastest and most accurate means of verifying
the statements of job applicant from derogatory remarks by a
previous employer who bears personal grudge against him
c. Periodic Screening- Tis is the best way for the company to
determine dishonest employees who are responsible for any loss.
d. Banking and Finance- ex. Cash Shortage, ATM Shortage
e. Insurance Investigation- ex. Insurance claims for dead members;
container vans were held-up etc.
f. Sexual Harassment/ Domestic Issues- A lie detector test may be
helpful in cases suspected violence in the family, molestation, sexual
harassment, and infidelity within a marriage.
g. Employee Theft/Fraud Industrial Espionage/Pilferage- Several
private investigation agencies make frequent use of polygraph test
findings during the course of private investigations in a wide range

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of subjects. Tests to question an employee suspected of theft or

embezzlement.
h. Sports and Competition – Occasionally, athletes are issued a
polygraph test to verify that they did not cheat in a contest. This is
more frequently done with winners, but is not limited to them.
Competitions with high rewards for winners create the most
incentive to gain unfair advantages, such as performance enhancing
drugs or illegal equipment. Many competitors are told at that they
will be subject to polygraph test upon completion of the event,
which deters some from participating if those individuals know they
will be caught.
5. LIMITATIONS OF POLYGRAPHY
a. The polygraph does not, and cannot, detect truth or deception. The
polygraph is limited in that only what the subject or witness believes
to be true can be verified or discredited, not the actual facts. This is
not an electrical device that detects lies or truth, but is an
instrument used to determine whether or not statements made by
the subject taking the test are deceptive.
b. It is a test where the accuracy is dependent upon the examiner. It
produces a chart record of the psychological changes caused by a
person’s emotional responses during the test. From the chart record
an examiner may form an opinion that an examinee was not
emotionally disturbed by the questions during the test and was
therefore, truthful. He may form an opinion than an examinee was
deceptive since physical responses were present as a result of the
emotional disturbance caused by the questions. Interpretation of
test charts depends upon the training, experience, capabilities, and
skills of the examiner.

The Role of the Investigator

a. He should make a thorough effort in interrogate any person

suspected of lying before submitting a polygraph request. To a
large measure, the success of any polygraph test will depend
upon the investigator. If the case has not been investigated
properly, the polygraph may not be contributed to its successful
conclusion. He must orient his investigation upon evidence
secured through skill and technique, rather than upon an
expected self-disclosure through the polygraph test; however, he
should never discount the polygraph.
b. He should inform the examiner of any unpublicized facts which
could be known only to the victim or the offender. This could
include the exact amount of money stolen, the caliber or make of
the weapons used, or the means entry. These will enable the
examiner to construct specific tests which may provide accurate
reactions and results.

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c. The investigators must obtain the authorization for the

examination from the authorizing representative. When this has
been approved, he presents a copy of the message of approval to
the examiner for the polygraph case file.
d. The investigator, with the examiner, should set the exact time,
date, and place of the test. He should brief the examinee on the
night prior to the test, emphasizing that he should get plenty of
sleep and not drink any alcohol or take any rugs. On the day of
the test, he should accompany the examinee to the place of the
test and introduce him to the examiner. During the test, the
investigator should remain there. If the room is equipped with
sound equipment or a two-way mirror, he should watch and
listen to the test. If required, he should arrange for the
examinee’s meals. If the examinee is a female, a female witness
must be present.
e. The investigator must be able to brief the examiner on minute
details.
General facts, theories, and suspicions are not enough; the
examiner must have detailed, verified facts. He should make
available to the examiner the personnel records of the person and
all statements, documents, and evidence.

Some of the information the examiner must have

include the;

1) Specific articles or exact amounts of money stolen.

2) Exact time the offence occurred.
3) Peculiar aspects of the offense or any strange or obscene act
committed at the scene.
4) Known facts about a suspect’s actions or movements.
5) Facts indicating a connection between suspects, victims, and
witnesses, especially when they deny any connection.
6) Exact type of firearm, weapon, or tool used.
7) Results of laboratory tests.
8) Background information pertaining to the person.
6. FORMS OF LYING
a. Deception- involves acting in such a way that leads another person
believe something which you, yourself do not believe to be true.
b. Perjury- is a legal term for the offense of lying under oath. It is
normally restricted to lies that are also false statement.
c. Bluffing- is an act of deception that is not usually seen as immoral
because it takes place in the context of a game.

Typical Verbal Interview

Truthful Deception
Direct and Spontaneous Evasive and frequent pauses

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Open and clear Story changes or doesn’t make

sense
Story doesn’t change Verbal and non-verbal is
inconsistent
Verbal and non-verbal are Denies factual information
consistent
Denies completely Argues legal issues
Few pauses outside baseline Overly polite
Denial becomes stronger if Memory too good or fails
accused
Offer excuses not facts
Complains excessively
Slips of the tongue

Kinds of Liars
a. Professional Liar
Facial Expression Postural Reaction
Paling, blushing or profuse Inability to maintain an ‘’eye to
sweating on forehead, eyebrows, eye’’ contact.
or chin.
Dilation of the eye, protrusions of Dryness of mouth and loud
eyeball, elevation of upper lid. clacking.
Twitching corner of the lips. Excessive activity of ‘’Adam’s
Apple’’.
Excessive winking. Fidgeting of fingers, trapping or
drumming of chair or table.
Movement of vein at temple. Swinging of one leg to another
Quivering nostrils. Exaggerated boldness and force
laughter
Incoherence trembling and
sweating
b. Pathological Liar
 The stories seem to be dramatic or unrealistic
 The lies seem to serve no purpose except to impress
people
 The lies be easily shown up
c. Psychopathic Liar
 Charming and seems bright.
 No symptoms observed that he is mentally ill.
 No nervousness that commonly seen in a neurotic
person.
 Threat of suicide when n trouble.
 Failure to follow a life plan.
Reasons to Lie:

 Defense mechanism used to avoid trouble with the

law, bosses, or authority

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 Sometimes you lie not to hurt someone’s feelings.

 They lie because they profit from it
 To avoid embarrassment
 For a good laugh.
So, may I ask you to assess yourself to know what category
you belong?

7. PHASES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

a. Initial interview with the investigator or the person requesting the

polygraph

Requisition of Polygraph Examination

 Four (4) copies of Letter Request
 Brief Facts of the Case/ Investigation Report
 Sworn Statement/ Affidavit of Complainant
 Sworn Statement/ Affidavit of Examinees/ Witness/es
 Sketch of Crime Scene, /witness/es, if available.
b. Pre-test interview with examinee
-this phase is normally the longest to complete and will take
anywhere between 45 minutes to 2 hours.

Purpose of the Pre-Test Interview

 To prepare the subject for polygraph examination.
 Informing the subject of his/her involvement with the case.
 To obtain subject consent for polygraph examination.
 Taking of subject’s or examinee’s personal data.
 To determine the suitability of the subject or the examinee.
 Evaluating the psychological preparation of the subject or
examinee.
‘’ The primary purpose of the Pre-test Interview is to condition the
subject’’

Purpose of Taking the Consent of the Examinee

 The examiner has a legal basis that no human rights violation is

committed.
 That the subject voluntarily submitted his/her self to undergo
polygraph examination.
 It is an armed against harassment
Question: Is Polygraphy examination n invasion of
privacy?

If you agree to be examined it cannot be termed as an invasion of

privacy, otherwise no examination will be administered.

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c. Analysis/ Interpretation of polygraph charts.

d. Post-Test interview
Preparation of the Examinee

 Examinee should take full rest before the examination day.

 Normal food should be consumed by the examinee.
 Subject should be physically fit for test.
 Examinee should not be under the influence of any drug or
intoxication on the examination day.
 No prolong interrogation prior to test.
 No third-degree practices, no physical abuse.
The best steps for a person to prepare for polygraph test are:

Step 1: Plan your polygraph examination at the beginning of the

day when you are still feeling fresh and alert. Do not schedule a
polygraph examination at the end of the day or when you are feeling
tired.

Step 2. Get a good night sleep. Don’t stay up late watching

television or reading. (Be on time in the morning to give you plenty
of time to prepare without rushing.)

Step 3. Eat breakfast if your schedule is in the morning. Follow

your normal habit. If you are a coffee drinker, drink coffee. If you
take any prescribed medications or vitamins, take it. (Coffee,
medications or vitamins will not affect the results of polygraph test.)

Step 4. Plan for polygraph examination that will take an about 2-3
hours. (This include pre-test interview which is the longest phase of
polygraph examination to ensure that you are comfortable during
polygraph examination).

Step 5. Know your legal rights. A polygraph examiner will not ask
questions about religion belief, opinions, ethnic or cultural matters,
politics belief or affiliations, affiliations with activities related to
parties and sexual activities.

COUNTER MEASURES

Those deliberate which a deceptive subject uses in an attempt to

appear non-deceptive when his physiological responses are being
monitored during a polygraph examination.

Forms:

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 PHYSICAL- ex. Use of thumbtacks under the soles of feet

 MENTAL- ex. Hypnosis
 PHARMACEUTICAL- ex. Use of drugs
However, polygraphist has developed an effective ‘’ counter-
countermeasures’’ for this tactic—they can simply instruct the
examinee to remove his shoes. Some polygraph chairs also come
equipped with pressure-sensitive strain gauge that will provide a
warning to the polygrapher if these polygraph countermeasures
are attempted.

8. IDEAL EXAMINATION ROOM

a. It must be spacious for two persons.
b. It must be well ventilated.
c. It must be well lighted.
d. It must not be decorated.
e. It must be 90% soundproof
9. GENERAL RULES IN QUESTION FORMULATION
a. Question must be simple and direct.
b. They must not involve legal terminology.
c. They must be answerable by ‘’yes’’ or ‘’no’’ only and should be as
short as possible.
d. The meaning must be clear and phrase in a language that the
subject can easily understand.
e. All questions must refer to one offense only.
f. Questions must never contain inference (opinion).
g. They must not contain inference to one’s religion, race or belief.
10. ERRORS IN POLYGRAPH TEST
a. Misinterpretation of data in the charts.
b. Lack of training and experience of the polygraph examiners.
c. Countermeasures from the examinee.
d. Equipment malfunction.
e. Failure to properly prepare the examinee for the examination.
f. Poorly worded test questions.
g. Improper assessment of the examinee’s emotional and physical
conditions.
h. Improper use of testing techniques.
CONCLUSION:

Detection of lies is not an easy task, but it does not mean that
detecting lies os impossible.

There is no technique superior or inferior. All the technique will

be used for detection of deception accordingly as per expert ability and
suspect’s behavior.

SUMMARY:

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Polygraph, Polygraphy and Polygraph Test

 Common Polygraph Myths

 4 Major Components of Polygraph
 Capabilities limitations of polygraph
 Phases of Polygraph Examination
 Know the Ideal Examination Room
 General Rules in Question Formulation
 Errors to prevent in Polygraph Test

General Concept of Deception Detection

What is Polygraphy?

It is the scientific method of detecting deception using a polygraph instrument.

This is the new name of Lie Detection.

What is a Polygraph?

The term “polygraph” simply means “many writings.” The name refers to
the manner in which selected physiological responses are simultaneously
recorded. It is a recorder of the psycho-physiological changes occurring within
the examinee’s body as the polygraph examiner asks series of questions.

Basically, the polygraph instrument is a combination of medical devices used

by physicians in monitoring and checking the physical conditions of their
patients. As an examinee is questioned about a certain event or incident, the
instrument records and monitors the relative changes in the examinee’s heart
rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and electrodermal activities.

Is polygraph a Lie Detector?

Lie detector is the popular but misleading name of the Polygraph. The
instrument was so named because it is commonly used in lie detection. During
the test, polygraph makes various recordings of a person’s physiological
responses which will be interpreted by the polygraphist to determine whether
the subject has been lying or not.

Consequently, the polygraph instrument does not detect lie itself but the
examiner. It only assists in detecting persons lying and or truthfulness through
its recorded physiological responses.

What is the other name of the Polygraph?

Polygraph in some instances is also called “Truth Verifier” for in vast

majority of the instances the instrument verifies a person’s truthfulness.

The purpose and Importance of polygraph Examination

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The get all the facts of the case regarding the offense under investigation and
the purpose of the polygraph test is determine whether the subject is telling the
truth or not based on the presence of emotional disturbance of the subject as
appearing on the recorded physiological responses to question relative to the
case under investigation.

What are the objectives of a Polygraph Examination?

Polygraph examination is conducted in order to:

1. Obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of the case/offenses.

2. Ascertain if a person is telling the truth.

3. Locate the fruits or tools of the crime and whereabouts of wanted persons.

4. Identify other persons involved (accomplices of crime).

5. Obtain valuable information from reluctant witnesses.

6. Identify the loyalty of individuals holding sensitive positions in a company;

and

7. Eliminate the innocent suspects.

What is the Ultimate Objective of Conducting Polygraph Examination?

The ultimate objective of polygraph examination is to obtain the subject’s

admission or confession to the offense committed.

Admission is a statement of fact by the accused, which do not directly involve

acknowledgement of guilt in committing or having participated in the
commission of an offense while Confession is a declaration made by a person
voluntarily, stating or acknowledging that has committed or participated in the
commission of a crime.

VALIDITY OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATIONS

The issue of whether or not polygraph testing can be considered valid and
admissible in court has long been a controversial issue not just among technical
experts but also among legal experts.

Since its invention and development almost 80 years ago, it has sparked
debates, especially among those who believe that it has no scientific basis and
those who believe that it can be a source of admissible court evidence. For the
latter group, polygraph testing is widely considered a reliable method by which
to qualitatively determine the guilt of a suspect, defend the rights of an innocent
suspect, protect national security, and in the employment setting, maintain
employee honesty.

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On the other end of the spectrum, there are those who believe that polygraph
testing is inaccurate and can only produce misleading information. In fact,
those who do not believe in its merits believe that polygraph testing can
interfere with the rights of private citizens and even reduce employee morale.

In the U.S., there have been many proposals to expand the use of polygraph
examination with the goal of protecting national security. Such efforts have
rekindled debates concerning the validity and appropriateness of polygraph
techniques and whether they can, indeed, detect deception.

In the Philippines

In the Philippines, the first case of using polygraph evidence in court occurred
in 1978 in People of the Philippines v Daniel (G.R. No. L-40330 Nov. 20, 1978).
Here, the defendant submitted polygraph test results proving his innocence of
the crime of rape. In 1999, the Supreme Court once again discussed the issue of
using polygraph evidence in People v Adoviso [309 SCRA 1 (1999)]

In that case, the defendant, Pablo Adoviso, was convicted of two counts of
murder by the Regional Trial Court of Camarines Sur on the bases of two
eyewitness accounts identifying him as the culprit. Although the NBI polygraph
examiner’s report proved that there were no particular physical reactions that
indicated deception in answers to questions relevant to the investigation, this
testimony was rejected and Adoviso was Still found guilty of the crime.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN THE EMPLOYMENT SETTING

In recent years, polygraph examinations have also expanded to the field of

corporate employment. At present, some employers Choose to use lie detector
tests in assessing their current and potential Employees. However, there are
many critics who say that this is a form of invasion of privacy

Moral Requirements

At least for those who support polygraph testing in the workplace the following
moral requirements are believed to be important enough to overrule the so-
called invasion of privacy:

(1) There is no other more accurate method through which the objective can be
achieved. In this case, polygraph testing is deemed moral if there is no other
option the employer can take in verifying a potential employee’s honesty. This
kind of procedure is actually very important, especially in companies dealing
with high-risk and high-security products and services.

(2) The information obtained through the polygraph test is strictly confidential.
Here, only the relevant authorities should be allowed to view the results so as

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not to heighten the likelihood of abuse and exploitation. Moreover, if there are
damaging or embarrassing information not related to the employment, then
such information should never be released in any other channel.

(3) Finally, the polygraph test is a moral option if the information. obtained is
“sufficiently relevant” to the job.

Advantages of Using Polygraph Testing

In a nutshell, polygraph tests are used in the employment setting for two
reasons, which include the following: (1) to check the honesty of a job applicant
(thus helping the company avoid hiring employees who may steal from the
company), and (2) to verify whether the information provided by a job applicant
is accurate and truthful. However, there are some restrictions that should be
observed as well

Those who support the use of polygraph testing in this context argue that it is
justified as long as the following criteria are met:

-The test is reliable and accurate;

-The test only detects lying and nothing else;

-Very few people can control all three physiological functions at the same time,
hence, deception can be detected based on the physical reactions of the
subjects; and

-Polygraph examiners must run pre examination tests to measure a subject's

reactions when he is committing a deception (i.e., telling a lie). In terms of
detecting dishonesty among employees, an employer cannot resort to a
polygraph test unless there is an ongoing investigation into an actual loss with
corresponding value, for example, missing properties or equipment.

In terms of setting expectations, an employer can only conduct a polygraph test

as long as the employer or applicant is informed beforehand, and especially if
this is a legitimate company policy.

Disadvantages of Using Polygraph Testing

As with any available option, it is also bound to have disadvantages. In this case,
polygraph testing in the employment setting also has its disadvantages, which
are discussed below.

Inaccurate Results

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It is a known fact that polygraph testing may indeed produce mixed or

inaccurate results. We have learned in Chapter Four that polygraph tests can
produce false positives and false negatives. We have also learned that several
factors affect the results of polygraph tests. Thus, although they can be
considered reliable, the results are still not 100%. Hence, employers who make
decisions based on the results (e.g., firing an errant employee or not hiring an
otherwise excellent prospect) may prove to be detrimental to the employer and
the company.

Lack of Trust Between Employer and Employee

Perhaps one of the most damaging aspects of employing polygraph testing is

that it can generate lack of trust and even resentment on the Part of the
employees. For example, if an honest employee is suddenly Called on to
undergo a lie detector test, he or she may feel threatened and disappointed at
the thought of being considered a “suspect” by virtue of the fact that the lie
detector test is, for the layman, something that is done criminal investigations.

In turn, if there is a general atmosphere of resentment and distrust in the

company, then employee morale is reduced, output is minimized, and employee
turnover can also increase.

Invasion of Privacy

An important moral issue in the use of polygraph testing in the employment

setting is the issue of privacy of invasion. This is especially critical in areas of
pre-employment screening and periodic monitoring of employees. In pre-
employment screening, it is considered questionable to extract from applicant’s
information that have nothing to do with their application. Such questions
include those related to union activity, sexual] preference, history of family
problems, and so on. Meanwhile, in periodic monitoring of employees, subjects
who undergo lie detection tests should not be asked questions not related to the
case being considered. Such information may be used by the employer to
discriminate against the employee in the future. Such questions include their
opinions of the company, their job satisfaction level, intention to resign or
remain with the employer, and their knowledge of activities done by other
employees. In the U.S., the use of employee polygraph testing is allowed but
limited by pertinent laws. Many of these laws aim to protect employees from
exploitation and unnecessary polygraph examinations by their employers. As
we have learned earlier, there should be valid grounds upon which to base the
decision on whether or not polygraph testing can be considered a viable and
moral option.

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Is the Polygraph Technique Accurate?

Current polygraph research indicates that when a specific single-issue

polygraph exam, conducted by a qualified and competent polygraph examiner and
is properly administered the accuracy rate 1s between 95% and 98%. This
percentage is still higher than other forms of evidence, including Psychiatric
opinions, suspect identification as provided by victims and witnesses, and
fingerprint identification.

The polygraph is the most accurate tool available today for determining truth or
deception. The accuracy of the multi-issue exam drops in accuracy due to a number
of psychological factors. These statistics do not include “inconclusive” test results
in which no opinion of truth or deception can be made from the physiological data
collected on the polygraph charts.

The technique itself and the result of the polygraph examination has been a source
of unending question. However, practitioners Nave agreed that the accuracy of the
polygraph results is high depending upon the factors that affect it.

Admissibility of the Polygraph Test Results

The admissibility of polygraph test results is based on certain criteria, which are
as follows:

a. Judicial discretion- this means that the evidence is still subjects to the trial
court’s discretion.
b. Limited use by jury- this means that, at the time of polygraph testing, the
accused may or may not have been telling the truth.
c. Written stipulations- this means that all parties must sign a written
stipulation which shows agreement to the admission of the test results (the
parties must, however, take note of violating the privilege against self-
incrimination).
d. Right of cross-examination- if the opinion of the examiner is offered as
evidence, then the opposing party is accorded the right to cross-examine the
expert regarding his training and qualifications in providing such expert
testimony.
Effectiveness of The Polygraph
Recording the symptoms of deception is based on the well-established fact that
an individual’s conscious effort deceives or to lie causes involuntary
physiological changes, which are the body’s reaction to a perceived imminent
danger. Such changes are brought about by the stimulating effect of well-
prepared questions that, when answered truthfully, may lead to a punishment.
Thus, it is not the act of lying or the guilt involved, which alters a person’s
psychological response; rather, it is his fear of subsequent punishment when
the subject’s lie is exposed, that is, the greater the consequences of being
detected, the greater the fear of detection.

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LIMITATIONS OF THE POLYGRAPH

Attempts to use confessions, panel judgments, judicial outcomes, and other

criteria as indicators of truth have their own problems. Individuals may confess
to crimes which they did not commit. In addition, individuals are sometimes
falsely convicted. Panel decisions may be generalizable only to cases in which
sufficient investigative information is available to make a decision without the
addition of polygraph testing. One can never be certain that the panel decision
is indeed correct, and the panel and the polygraph examiner may have been
exposed to the Same prior information. Thus, while field studies provide the
most direct evidence about polygraph test validity, they have been criticized
because they do not adequately meet the standards of “ground truth” to
establish criterion validity.

Despite the fact that the polygraph can help examiners obtain crucial
information that can help solve a crime being investigated, it is also realistic to
know that the polygraph has several limitations. These are detailed below.

1. It is an invaluable investigative aid, but it can never be used as a substitute

for a thorough investigation.

2. It is not a lie detector; it is a scientific diagnostic instrument.

3. It does not determine facts. Rather, it records responses to questions with

answers that the subject knows to be true, and answers that can be verified or
discredited. It is a test where the accuracy depends on the examiner, and the
results are dependent on the thoroughness of the prior investigation.

4. It is only as accurate as the examiner who conducts the test.

In the proceeding infographic, although it states that polygraph results may not
be accepted in some US courts, we can still see how the Theory of Lie Detection
and its principles are applied. With a visual representation such as this one, we
can better appreciate how a polygraph examination is conducted.

What are the limitations of the Polygraph Technique?

1. It is an invaluable investigative aid, but never a substitute for investigation.

2. It is not a lie detector but only a scientific diagnostic instrument.

3. It does not determine facts, it record responses to that which the subject
knows to be true.

4. It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.

5. The test will not be given until enough facts have been established to permit
the examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable questions.

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6. The test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the subject.

7. No indication will be given to any person or placed in any report that a person
will be considered guilty because he refused to take the test.

8. A test will not be given until the accusations have been explained with the
subject.

9. No attempt to use Polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of any person.

10. No examination will be conducted on unfit subject.

THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

A. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Serving as the activator of the body system, the nervous system, thru the brain
and all the nerve tissues, receives, evaluates, integrates and stores any stimulus
brought to the body from the environment, and at the same rate, the system
sends out messages to the various part and organs for specific response.

To illustrate how nervous system operates in the body, here is a simple lay-out
of the chain – reaction process, thus;

A stimulus is given by way of pricking a needle into the finger. The brain, serving
as the highest headquarter for the system, is now activated and thus awakened.
As pricking start the finger, such stimulus is immediately received by the
‘receptor’. These receptors are the SENSES, which convert energy to receive
the transmit from

1. Sight (EYES)
2. Hearing (EARS)
3. Smell (Olfactory organs, including nose)
4. Taste (Gustatory organs, involving tounge)
5. Touch (through skin and muscles)
6. E.S.P. or Extra-Sensory perception, or the 6th sense (through mind and
memory)
7. Kinesthesis (A very important sense which gives information about the
movements of the parts of the body with respect to one another)
8. Equilibrium Sense (which informs other parts of the body movements of the
body head is space)
With our above, the pricking is then passed from the receptors to the so- called
‘’Effectors’’, which are composed of muscles and glands directly producing
observable behaviors. MUSCLES are bundles of fibrous cells, which contract of
relax upon neutral stimulations, while glands are the interdependent organic
body tissues which ay pump out chemicals directly unto the internal and
external organs to perform various regulatory functions. By then the pricking,
after it has been passed to the effectors, shall be transmitted thru ‘Connectors’

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called nerves and nerve Fibers. A NEURON is just a single nerve cell which has
all the characteristics of all living cells in general and in addition is specialized
fir excitability and conductivity. It has Dendrites (that enters the peripherical
nerves and transmit impulse to many fivers in the muscles) and the END –
brushes or End plates (which are responsible for affecting actions in the
muscle).

Two divisions of Neurons:

A. Long – Conducting Neurons-- that makes up the peripheral nerves and the
long pathways of the Central Nervous System and which have long single axon
or with dendrites that are usually the sensory and motor fibers;
B. Interior Neurons—which have a number of short dendrites and axons, with
the later often giving al branches called ‘COLLATERAL’ in order to provide
many connectors and alternative pathways to other neurons.
As pricking is now passed as an impulse to the neurons an Interneurons, the
inter-neurons can do four (4) things likewise to relay these impulses to many
parts of the blood:

1) They enable impulse from a single receptor to reach many muscles

2) They permit same muscles to use in different reflexes;
3) They permit stimulus of short duration to produce a long- lasting responses;
4) They cause impulses to be long- circuited to the brain.
And as the pricking impulse has just reached the brain this time, from there are
analyzed, diagnosed, assessed and stored, and finally the brain urgently sends
out messages that said impulses are painful, via the connectors once again. This
times the muscles and skin tissues where actually pricking took place given out
of the tissues. ‘’Synapses’’ also occurred. At least the whole body feels the
pricking pain and another emotion will transpire or flight (to withdraw the
finger from needle).

NOTES:

SYNAPSES mean the association with or without direct contact between the
end- brushes of one neuron and the dendrites of another. All the synapses of
the somatic component are located outside the Central Nervous System.

B.THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

As the name itself implies the circulatory system is responsible for the
movement of the blood in the veins and arteries throughout the body.

Giving life to the system is the HEART. It is a hollow muscle located inside the
chest cavity that pumps blood into those arteries by contracting -and relaxing

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process. It has four (4) major chambers of hollow bags. The upper two chamber
of which the ‘Auricles’ and the lower are the ‘Ventricles’. The Auricles receive
blood being returned to the heart by the veins, while the Ventricles received
blood from the Auricles and pump it out into the arteries. The back flow of the
blood in the heart is prevented by four (4) valves, corresponding to the four (4)
chambers.

The heart actions or the cardiac cycle consists of SYSTOLE and DIASTOLE. The
whole begins with the contradiction left Auricles. After a short pause, both
Ventricles and /or chambers contact. The contraction of each chamber is
followed by relaxation (Diastole) and then by a brief period of inactivity.

Acting as distributor of blood, the main purpose of the Circulatory system is

transport oxygen to the body tissue and remove carbon dioxide from them.
Because if this complexity, the whole system is divided into (2) circuits: (a.) the
greater circuit where blood is driven by the left side of the heart, is responsible
for bringing the oxygen to the cells of the body; while (b.) the lesser circuit,
where blood is driven by the right side of the heart, is responsible for bringing
the blood into contract with the atmosphere. Both circuits have Arteries,
Arterioles, Venules, and Veins, and Capillaries, ARTERIES refer to some of the
system’s branching tubes carrying blood from the heart to all parts of the body;
whereas, CAPILLARIES tiny blood vessels connecting the arteries with the
VEINS, on the hand, are those small branches of veins distributed in the
vascular and muscular parts of our body. The exchange of water, oxygen, and
food substance between the Circulatory System and other body tissue that
occurs in the capillaries.

As the process keeps going on and on, blood pressure is exerted on the walls of
the arteries. This pressure is dependent upon the energy of the heart actions,
the elasticity of the walls of the arteries, the resistance of the arterioles and the
blood volume.

We know very well that what activities increased heartbeats are the impulse
coming from the hypothalamus and other brain tissue which incite the adrenal
glands (on the upper part of the kidneys) to secret ADRENALINE to the blood
vessels. Adrenaline or Epinephrine is a type of hormone used to raised blood
pressure be affected by those impulse but also the SPLEEN and LIVER. The
spleen pours out more oxygen via the blood cells further causing the blood
volume to increase, the heart to rapid beating and blood pressure to rise. As this
goes on physiological changes such as the increase respiration and profuse
sweating simultaneously occur.

The pulse rate remains relatively constant from 25 to 60 years old, and then
increase as we grow in age, of course with the expectation of those who are
suffering from the heart defects, circulatory and cardiac diseases. Normally, in
females, the beat may be approximately 8- beats per minute faster that in males

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of the same age. Medical science attest that this difference is due to the body
height, the pulse rate in inverse proportion that is, the shorter the individual
the faster the beating per minute will be. Take notes that exercise the rate at an
average of 32- beats per minute. So, do with all those heavy- exerting muscular
efforts and manual works. And relax leading to normal body conditions.

To have comprehensive understanding of pulse rates per minute, it is necessary

to include herein the table for further reference, chart reading and
interpretations, thus;

(Average) Pulse rates per Minute

144-133 beat per minute--- at the end of fetal life;

140-123 beat per minute--- at birth and up to 1- year old;

96-76 beat per minute ---from 10-15 years old;

73-69 beat per minute ---from 20-25 years old;

Any increase in pulse rates/ min. -after age of 25, defends on the person’s
physical and cardiac conditions.

In the case of polygraph test, tracing in the Cardio-Sphymograph disclose an

upsweep of tracing pen movement following the contraction of the heart, this is the
Systolic. The down sweep tracing discloses the relaxation of the heart. This is
considered as Diastolic. The Diacrotic Notch tracing procedures by the blood
rebounding in the part which suddenly checked its flow back by the Semi- Lunar
Valves. The Semi- Lunar Valves are defining as those present- shape valves, one at
the junction of the right ventricle and pulmonary artery (called pulmonary valve)
which functions is to prevent blood flowing back into ventricle.

C. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system responsible for the taking of air into the lings and also
expelling carbon dioxide here from the rest of our body. This system, like the
Nervous and Circulatory, is equally important to lie detection. We know very
well that we can die within minutes without oxygen. Its function is automatic.
It consists of the following major parts:

a. The respiratory tract, which comprises the nose and mouth, pharynx, larynx,
bronchi and lungs;
b. The bony cage, which includes the thoracic vertebrate, the ribs, and the breast
bone or the sterum.

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As for inspiration breathing patterns, the chest capacity is increase form front and
back, from side to died, and in the vertical plane (that is, the forward direction, the
lateral direction and the downward direction).

Expiration is just the reverse of the inspiration. The diaphragm and intercoastal
muscle relax and the ribs fall back in place. The air then is forced out of the lung
once chest capacity deceases.

The Breathing Capacity

An adult as rest with normal inspiration many inhales about 500 cc of air. A
less similar amount is called exhales. The ebb and the flow of air is called ‘’TIDAL’’
air respiration. In addition to the tidal air, we can inhale another 1,500 cc of air
called ‘’COMPLEMENTARY’’ air. After normal expiration, a similar amount is
exhaled called the ‘’SUPPLEMENTARY’’ air. The combination of tidal, a
complemental and supplemental airs is called the ‘’VITAL CAPACITY’’ of human
life. In short, an average person can then breath in about 2,000 cc of air and can
expel about 3, 500 cc.

In the scientific analysis, the composition of air inspired within is about: 79%
Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, .04% Carbon Dioxide, and traces of other gases. If expired,
air is composed of about: 79% Nitrogen, 16% Oxygen, and 4% Carbon Dioxide and
other traces of gases. This indicates that about 4% of oxygen is removed from air
by breathing.

The breathing patterns or cycles is not constant, even if in good health, because
it is modified by all types of influences, both voluntary and involuntarily. Typical
examples of the influences affecting breathing pattern are coughing, clearing of
throat, sigh, sniffing, burping, laughing and yawning. As it has been pointed out,
temperature, humidity, altitude and posture also affect the respiration rates. In
polygraph recording, stooping may show less pronounced recorded breathing
pattern than erect posture. The respiration rates in female generally higher those
males of the same age.

For the purpose of reference and chart reading or interpretation, the following
table serves as the average breathing patterns for;

The newborns = 50 to 70 cycles per minute

Children (1 to 5 years old) = 20 to 30 cycle per minutes

Adult (without age consideration) = 15 to 20 cycle per minute

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As result, it should be noted that men are considered DEEP breather (they
breath up to their stomachs) while woman are shallow breather (for they breath up
to their chests).

D. THE SKIN (OR THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM)

The skin defined as the external covering of the body consisting essentials of the
body epidermis, dermis and the corium. The anatomical compositions of the
epidermis have four layers of stratified epithelium, while the corium is composed
of connective tissue containing lymphatic nerves and nerve ending, blood vessels,
sebaceous and sweat glands and elastic fibers.

The skin has the following basic functions:

a. Protection against injuries and parasitic invasion;

b. Regulation of body temperature; and
c. An aid in the elimination of bodily waste products.
Galvanic-skin-response/reflex (GSR) test record charges in the subjects increase
or decrease resistance to a constant electrical current generated through the
Amplifier, recording Galvanometer and Rectifier of the polygraph. Since recording
of these response comes from the stimuli causing a change in sweat glands activity,
the theory behind it is that applied the fingers, hands and palms, forehead, armpits,
anus area and the bottom of the feet as target areas. Sweat varies according to
different circumstances- such as muscular exercises, nausea, pain mental
excitement, nervousness, dyspnea (a sort of difficult of painful breathing), asthma.
Other disease, including certain drug which humidity affect the sweating activity.
Temperature and humidity affect the sweat glands. Cold environment decreases
sweating, enhances urination and dehydration.

A. EMOTIONS
In as much as the study of Lie- Detection involves PSYCHOLOGY, the
science of behavior, it is but imperative that we include the study of Emotions,
as such is a wide range process, almost affecting every organ or part of the body,
nearly all the Respiratory, Circulatory, Nervous and Excretory or the electrical
properties of the skin. Directly relating to Lie- Detection, consciousness of guilt
engenders a fear reaction (which is an emotional itself).
Therefore, if an individual is guilt, he will respond emotionally to
questions related to his crime. It is true and impossible that such an individual,
being aware of his emotion (his fear reaction, that is) can suppress the same by
inhabiting voluntary external responses indicative of guilt, such as paleness,
dryness of the mouth, nervousness, etc.) yet, he cannot control his fear reaction,
especially his blood pressure and heart reactions, his respiration rates and his
galvanic-skin-reflex (or the G.S.R) producing sweats and sweat skin resistance)

THREE ASPECTS OF EMOTIONS

1. Emotion as conscious experience: This concerns human feelings
in response to a wide variety of inner and outer stimuli, which are of
paramount importance to our personal and social adjustment. This

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involves every emotional experience of man such as: Anger, Elation,

Delight, Affection, Fear, Annoyance, Worry, Rejection, Jealousy,
Envy, Frustration and Shame.
2. Emotion as motives: This involves human behavior with motivating
factors, or a power directing one’s behavior towards (or facilitating)
or a way (or interfering) from objects and person in his environment.
a. Emotional Motive as Facilitating Behavior: Ex.: Destruction,
Attack, and Fight, Assault or Offend.
b. Emotional Motive as Interfering Behavior: Ex.: retreat, Flight,
Surrender, hide or Defend.
B. Emotions as responses: this concerns bodily reaction, usually muscular or
glandular process, which may either, be external or internal ones. It is in third
aspects that the polygraph examiner has to keep his eyes wide open to all the
information regarding emotional responses. The theory of Polygraphy is based
in primarily upon this aspect.
a) External Responses: these responses are very much observable even without
the aid of any emotions stress recording instruments.
b) Internal responses: scientifically known as ‘’visceral’’ responses, these are
the responses of the internal organs of the following systems and properties
of the human body:
b.1) the Nervous System -which controls the neural transmissions, including
glands, muscular tissues and the nerves connecting the brain and other
parts of the body;
b.2) the Respiratory System- which take cares of the breathing
b.3) the Circulatory System -which regulates the heart actions, blood-
pressure blood volumes, and pulse-rate.
b.4) the Excretory System- or the electrodermal properties of the skin which
facilitates the electrical phenomena of the Galvanic-Skin-Reflex (or the
GSR) including their resistance and brain potentials.

Early Development Modern Scientific Method of Detecting Deception

Early Publication of Polygraph

 Daniel Defoe (1730)- he wrote an essay entitled ‘’ An Effectual Scheme for the
Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies and Suppressing All other Disorders
of the Night’’ which recommends taking the pulse as a method of identifying a
criminal.
 Sir James Mackenzie (1906)- a famous heart specialist. It was said that
‘’polygraph’’ exist as early as 1906 but it is not being used to detect deception.
He first describes the instrument in an article entitled ‘’ The Ink Polygraph’’
which appeared in the British Medical Journal in 1908.
 Vittorio Benussi (1953)- he presented a paper before the second meeting of
the Italian Society of Psychology in Rome, on the subjects of his experiments
regarding respiratory symptoms of lying.

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 Richard O. Archer (1953)- he is the first polygraphist to record

simultaneously on regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns.
He was also the first one to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes.
- In 1966, he founded the Journal of Polygraph Science, the oldest of the
polygraph publications.
 Richard I. Golden (1969)- he presented a paper at the Annual Seminar of
Polygraph association at Houston, Texas regarding his experiments using
existing control questions techniques but requiring the subjects to answer each
question twice. The first time truthfully and the second time with lie, for the
purpose of requiring additional psycho physiological data from the examinee
by comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known lie to the same
question.

Development of Galvanograph

 Luigi Galvani (1791)- an Italian Physiologist who was accorded the distinction
for developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer, which
records electrical bodily resistance in terms of ohms (the lowest ever recorded).
The GSR reflected emotional changes in person skin resistance through
electricity.
 Sticker (1897)- he made the first suggestion for using Galvanograph for
detecting deception based on the works of several predecessors. He theorized
the galvanic skin reflex is influenced by existing mental impression and that it
will have no effect upon it.
 Veraguth (1907)- he was the first one to use the term ‘’psychogalvanic reflex’’.
He believed that the electrical phenomenon is due to the activity of sweat
glands.

Development of Pneumograph Component

 Vitorrio Benussi (1914)- he detected deception with Pneumograph, an

instrument that graphically measures inhalation. He demonstrated the changes
in breathing patterns by noting the changes in respiration-expiration ratio
during deception.
 Harold Burrtt (1918)- he determined that respiratory changes were
indication of deception. He found out that the changes in systolic blood
pressure were of greater value in determining deception that in changes in
respiration.

Development of Cardio- Spymograph

 Angelo Mosso (1895)- he studied fear and its influence on the heart. His
observation subsequently formed the basis for detecting lies. He also developed
the sphygmomanometer and ‘’scientific cradle’’, which was designed to measure
the flow of blood while a person lay on his back in a prone position.

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 Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909)- he developed the first scientific instrument

to detect deception, which is known as Hydrospymograph. This instrument
measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were asked about
their involvement or knowledge of specific crime.

-He was accorded the distinction of being the first person to utilize an
instrument for the purpose of detecting lies.

 William Moulton Marston (1915)- he was considered as the Father of

Modern Polygraph. He dealt with the sphygmomanometer and made
researches on the usefulness of sphygmomanometer in detecting lies, which
was used to obtain periodic discontinuous blood pressure reading during the
course of a test.

-He recorded the respiration and noted the time of subject’s verbal responses.
-He also experimented with galvanometer to record skin resistance change and
gripping devise to record tension.

 In 1915, Dr. William Marston, an American attorney and psychologist, is

credited with inventing an early form of the lie detector when he developed the
discontinuous systolic blood pressure test. This would later become one
component of the modern polygraph. Dr. Marston technique used a standard
blood pressure reading of a suspect during questioning for the purpose of
detecting deception.

 John Larson (1921)- he developed an instrument that continually and

simultaneously measures blood pressure pulse and perspiration. He designed
the ‘’first two recording channel polygraph’’ in the history. The first mechanical
form of detecting deception does not only have recording pen for
cardiosphymograph, pneumography and galvanograph but it also has the
mascular movement pen for the arms and thighs.

 In 1921, John A. Larson, a Canadian psychologist employed by the Berkeley

Police Department, in California, developed what many consider to be the
original modern polygraph instrument when he added the item of
respiration rate to that of blood pressure.

-He named his instrument the polygraph -a word derived form the Greek
language meaning many writings- since it could read several psychological
responses at the same time and document these responses on a revolving drum
of smoked paper.

-Using his polygraph, John A. Larson was the first person to continually and
simultaneously measure changes in a subject’s pulse rate, blood pressure and
respiratory rate during an interrogation. His polygraph was used extensively,
and with much success, in criminal investigations.

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 Leonarde Keeler- in 1949, he invented the ‘’keeler polygraph’’ which is an

instrument of Larson’s apparatus. With components for recording blood
pressur, pulse rate and respiration changes. A galvanometer, also known as
galvanic skin reflex referred to GSR.
-he also devised a metal bellows and designed a kymograph that pulled a
constant speed, a chart paper under the recording from a role of chart paper
located inside the instrument.
- In 1925, Leonarde Keeler, who had gained firsthand experience in polygraph
interrogations while working with John A. Larson at the Berkeley Police
Department, worked to create a less cumbersome polygraph instrument that
used inked pens to record the relative changes in a subject’s blood pressure,
pulse rate and respiratory patterns.
- In 1938, Leonarde Keeler further refined the instrument when he added a
third physiological measuring component for the detection of deception- the
psycho galvanometer a component that measured, during questioning,
changes in subject’s skin electrical resistance. In doing so, it signaled the birth
of the polygraph as we know it today.

Development of Questioning Technique

 Keeler (1942)- He developed the ‘’relevant-irrelevant’’ test. The theory of this

test is the guilty subjects reacts only to relevant questions and innocent subject
shows no reaction.
-He also added the ‘’personally embarrassing question’’ (EPQ) to his relevant-
irrelevant technique, which was designed to elicit a reaction only from the
innocent subject.
 John E. Reid (1950)- he developed the ‘’review control question’’ consisting
of a known lie incorporated into relevant/irrelevant test.
- He also discovered the ‘’guilt-complex test’’ administered to the overly
responsive subject.
 Cleve Backster (1960)- he conceived the psychological set theory that forms
the basis of his zone of comparison technique that provides constant
monitoring of the subjects reactively and designed to disclose outside issue.
This is known as the ‘’Backster Zone Comparison Test’’ technique.

Other Pioneers in the Field of Deception Detection

 Francis Galton (1879)- he developed the machine acclaimed psychological

test known as the Word Association Test, whereby the patient is presented with
group of words sufficiently separated in time to allow the patient utter his first
thought generated by each word. Dr. Carl Gustav Jung later developed the work
and experiment of Galton.
 Allen Bell (1972)- he is an American inventor who developed the device called
psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE). This instrument detects slight trembling
in the voice; this may be interpreted to determine if the person is telling the
truth.

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 Anton Mesmer (1778)- he was the first one to introduce hypnotism as a

method of detecting lies or deception.

Modern Polygraph Component

 Leonarde Keeler (1925)- who has gained first hand experience in polygraph
interrogations as a result of working with John Larson at the Berkeley Police
Department to device a polygraph that used ink pens for recording the relative
changes in subjects blood pressure, pulse rate and respiratory patterns, thus
eliminating the need for smoking the paper and then preserving it with shellac.
He also device a metal bellow with a Rolled Chart Paper.
- In 1949 the Keeler Polygraph added a galvanometer for recording a psycho
galvanic skin reflex for electro dermal response. He also works as the
assistant of John Larson and Keeler was credited as a ‘’Father of Modern-
Day Polygraph’’ due to his great contribution in use of polygraph instrument
(Abrahams 1989)
 John E. Reid (1947)- a lawyer from Chicago, Illinois who developed the
Control Question Technique (CQT) a polygraph technique that incorporated
control questions. The Reid Control Question Technique was a major
breakthrough in polygraph methodology.

Other Important Dates and Place to Remember

 1937- Japan’s first reported use of psychophysiological detection. They

measured the skin conductance at Akamatsu Uchida and Togawa
 1948- the International Society for the Deception Detection began
issuing membership
 1950’s- Korea begin its use of Polygraph. Its first examiner was trained
by U.S Army polygraphers stationed there.
 1959- Ivan Babic, head of forensic laboratory in Zagreb, Croatia,
conducted the first experimental polygraph test in the Republic of
Croatia and Yugoslavia
 1945- the polygraph was first introduced in the Philippines at the Crime
Laboratory of the Military Police. They sent Mr. Jose Navarro and Mr.
Conrado Dumlao to the U.S for polygraph training
 1950- the National Bureau of Investigation sent Mr. Agustin Patricio to
train at the Keeler Polygraph Institute.

Modern Polygraph

Modern Polygraph is computer outfit with sensors. Sensors are used to measure and
record number of physical changes that are elated to the vegetative nervous system.
The reliability of the polygraph is directly related to number measured and recorded

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inputs; the more there are inputs, the more accurate is the result of decision making
based on all measurement taken and individual characteristics are also taken into
account.

The study of the used of computerized polygraph in the physiological detection of

deception has progressed through several phases.

METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

The search for a reliable means to identify the untrustworthy is as

ancient as man. Some techniques were founded in superstitions and/or the
religious belief that “God would in some way reveal the truth and disallow the
immorality”. Many of these attempts, in fact, had some psychological and
physiological basis; other methods relied solely on fear of continued pain and
torture.

Historically, early human beings have their own way of determining lie
or guilt on the part of the accused and accuser. Their common method is thru
the application of “ordeal.” An ordeal is a severe test of character or endurance,
trying course of experience, and a medieval form of judicial trial in which the
accused was subjected to physical tests, as carrying or walking over burning
objects or immersing the hand in scalding water, the result being considered a
divine judgment of guilt or innocence. It is also a term of varying meaning
closely related in the Medieval Latin “Dei Indicum” meaning “Miraculous
decision.”

The term “Trial by Ordeal” refers to the ancient method of trial in which
the accused was exposed to physical danger which was supposed to be harmless
if he was innocent. According to historians, Trial by Combat was the earliest
method of determining truthfulness and deception of a person or persons
suspected for the commission of an offense. It is the resolving of an issue
through strength of arms. For example, there are two men approach a fallen
victim, each claim he did not kill it, and asserts to be righteous and innocent of
the accusation. To prove their allegations, they engage in combat. The ideal
assumption is that the truthful individual will win through. However, the most
skilled in combat usually will become victorious and thus made him as having
the rightful claim and that the loser will be declared guilty and will suffer the
consequence thereafter.

The scenario changed very little by medieval times. The customs knights
engaged in mortal combat to decide whose lord had the right in any
controversy. While the practice was functionally the same as trial by combat,
the ethical premise was different. It was held -that the fighting skill of an
individual was not related to his truthfulness or lying. The knight representing
the truth would be victorious due to “Divine Intervention” that is, that a just
God would not allow injustice to prevail.

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The next development in the search for truth was the so-called, “Trial by
Ordeal” (Keeler 1938). It was assumed once again that God would intervene on.
behalf of the innocent, that is, God would not allow any innocent individual to
be harmed. While these attempts to detect truth appeared to be laden by
religious beliefs, they were in fact based upon practical observations both
psychological and physiological phenomena which play an important role in the
truth finding processes.

Hypnotism

This method was introduced by an Austrian Physician Franz (Friedrich)

Anton Mesmer in 1778. He believed in animal magnetism, by which in his own
personal electro - magnetism, therapeutic effect influenced other persons.
These effects produced were attributed to the state of mind of a subject whereby
he is set up, and thereby instructed to sit quietly and gazed at flashing light or
shiny object tangled in front of his eyes and to cooperate with whatever the
hypnotist would like him to do.

Detected deception through hypnosis was not admissible in court due to the
following:

1. It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis in

ascertaining the truth from falseness.
2. The possibility that the hypnotized subject will deliberately fabricate.
3. The prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility in which the hypnotized
subject is suspended will produce distortion of the fact rather than the truth.
4. The state of the mind and professionalism of the examiner are too subjective to
permit admissibility of the expert testimony.

The Word Association Test

This method was introduced in 1879 by Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911 -

an English Scientist and Anthropometrist. His experiment was later
developed by Dr. Carl Gustav Jung (1875 ~ 1961) - a Swiss psychologist and
psychiatrist and the founder of Analytical Psychology.

This method is done by giving a subject a long list of carefully selected

stimulus words or objects with other pictures combined with other
irrelevant words, objects or pictures with the instruction to respond with the
very first word that may come to subject’s mind. Dr. Jung was able to
observe how the thinking reactions were linked into the emotional habit of
his subject. The theory behind this method is that, one word or idea is
reflective of another word or idea and the expression of their association
forms a meaningful picture.

The Truth Serum Method

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This method was introduced by Dr. Edward Mandel House (1858-1938),

a U.S Physicist and diplomat and a confidential adviser to former U.S.
President Woodrow Wilson. The term “truth serum” is a misnomer. The
procedure does not make someone tell the truth and the thing
administered is not a serum but is actually a drug.

This method is based on the theory that ‘’intervention’’ through

interrogation is made possible after dosage of drugs has been appropriately
administered, which depresses the cerebral activity to a point of
unconsciousness, an influence called as the “House Receptive Stage” or the
“Twilight Zone”. On this condition the subject is half asleep.

The objective of the test is to extract from the subconscious mind of the
subject the stored contents of the mind called “memory”. During the test, a drug
called Byosine Hydrobromide is usually administered hypodermically to the
subject in repeated doses until a state of delirium is induced. When the proper
point is reached, the questions were answered by the subject truthfully. He
forgets his acts or may even implicate others. Accordingly, he will disclose
everything without evasiveness.

Of all the deception detection methods, the “Truth Serum” test is considered
most favorable and effective if all the following conditions proper to the conduct
of the test will be observed:

- The test must be performed by skilled experimenter, operator, technician,

or physician.
- The subject expresses his consent to undergo the test.
- The dosage of drugs injected or administered is sufficient for acquiring
desired results.
- There is sufficient time during the test. e Assurance of result is acquired to
determine truth or deception.
Though statements taken from the subject under this process is not
admissible as evidence in court because its nature is involuntary, its application
to criminal investigation is very useful because of its psychological effect,
before, during, and after. Just ag well, a person not knowing the misleading
notion of the test may tell the truth to avoid pain of needles and possible brain
destruction even before the test is done.

Narco-Analysis or Narco-Synthesis

This method of detecting deception was practically the same as that of

administration of truth serum. The only difference is the drug used. The drug
Sodium Amytal or Sodium Pentothal is administered to the subject. When the
effects appear, questioning starts. It was claimed that the drug causes
depression of the inhibitory mechanism of the brain and the subject talks freely.
The administration of the drug. and subsequent interrogation must be done by

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a psychiatrist. Like the administration of truth serum, the result of the test was
not admissible in court.

Intoxication

This was practiced by means of drinking alcoholic beverages as stimuli

to obtain truth on the part of the subject. The subject for interrogation will be
allowed to take alcoholic beverages up to the point of intoxication.
Theoretically, when under the influence of alcohol, the power of control is said
to be diminished; thus, the subject will tend to tell everything he knows or reveal
all the relevant information. Interrogation is to be made during the excitatory
effect of alcohol.

Under this method, there is eventually lack of self-control of the subject

under intoxication. When the subject is already in the depressive state due to
excess alcohol intake, he will not be able to answer questions anymore, and
perhaps fell asleep. Confession made by the subject while intoxicated is
admissible if he is physically able to recollect the facts and state them truly and
exactly even after the influence or “spirit” of alcohol has disappeared. But in
most instances, the subject can recall his utterances or usually refuses to admit
the truth of the statement given.

What were the Methods of Detecting Deception through Regular

Police works?

The police methods sought to answer the legal investigative process are the so
called “Five Wives and One Husband” technique or the 5 W’s and 1H which
stands for WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY and HOW. These questions
are used to gain the so called “Three Eyes” (3 I’s) of investigation which refers
to the following:

1. Information gathering - Through record check, surveillance and

intelligence check.

2. Investigation - Through interrogation and/or interview to obtain

admission or confession.

3. Instrumentation - Through criminalistics processes with the use of the

different investigative forensic - sciences such as medico legal or forensic
medicine, forensic chemistry, forensic photography, forensic ballistics,
questioned documents examination, dactyloscopy, and polygraphy or
deceptography.

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What is the scientifically accepted Method of Detecting Deception?

During the 19th century, Dr. Hans Gross, an Austrian - known as the
“Father of Criminalistics”, defined search for truth as the basis and goal of all
criminal investigations. He asserted that “a large part of the criminalist’s work
to nothing more than a battle against lies. He has to discover the truth and must
fight the opposite. He meets the opposite at every step”.

Throughout the centuries, man continued to experiment with more

scientific methods in determining truth and deception with the following
scientists who have contributed much in the development of the scientific
instrument known as the “Polygraph” thus, the polygraph technique was used
as the scientific means of detecting deception.

What is the Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE)?

Aside from polygraph instrument one of the modern gadgets in lie

detection is the PSE or Psychological Stress Evaluator. The instrument detects
lying by measuring the level of stress experienced by the subject through his
recorded voice. The interview and test are recorded by the computer or
cellphone.

It was scientifically found that, when a person speaks, there are audible
voice frequencies, and superimposed on these are the inaudible frequency
modulations which are products of minute fluctuation of the muscle of the voice
mechanism. Such fluctuations of the muscles or micro tremor occur at the rate
of 8 to 14 cycles per second and controlled by the central nervous system.

When a person is under stress as when he is lying, the micro tremor in

the voice utterance is moderately or completely suppressed. The degree of
suppression varies inversely to the degree of psycho logic stress on the speaker.
The psychological stress evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and graphically
displays the voice modulations that we cannot hear.

When a person is relaxed and responding honestly to the question, those

inaudible frequencies are registered clearly on the instrument. But when a
person is under stress, as when he is lying, these frequencies tend to disappear.

During the test, the PSE Examiner asks series of questions to the subject
and records his voice utterances. The instrument filters the vocal answers create
patterns and displays those patterns on the computer screen. The examiner
then evaluates the patterns for truth or deception.

Under this method, the following procedures are followed:

- The examiner meets the requesting party to determine the specific purpose
of the exanimation and to begin formulation of relevant questions.

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- A pre-test interview is conducted with the subject to help him or her feel at
ease with the examiner, to provide an opportunity to specify matters, to
eliminate outside issues, and to review questions that will be asked.
- An oral test of about 12 to 15 “yes” or “no” questions is given which is
recorded on a tape recorder. The questions are a mixture of relevant an
irrelevant question.
- Immediately following the test or are a late time, the tape is processed
through the Psychological Stress Evaluator for analysis of answer.
- If stress is indicated, the subject is given authority to provide additional
clarification. A re-test is given to verify correction and clarification.

The Psychological Stress Evaluator, like the polygraph cannot detect

deception per se’, rather, it also records reactions to a given situation, most
commonly a question and answer session. Those reactions may be charted,
and the interpretation of those reactions may lead the examiner to conclude
that the individual is lying.

B. The Observation Methods:

Through facial Expressions, such as:
a. Blushing, paling, or profuse sweating of forehead;
b. Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of eyeballs, and elevation of upper
eyelids;
c. Squinting of the eyes (showing envy, disdain, distrust, etc.);
d. Twitching of the lips;
e. Excessive winking of the eyes;
f. Failure to look the inquirer ‘’straight into the eye’’;
g. Excessive activity of the Adam’s apple and the vein at the temple due to
dryness of throat and mouth;
h. Quivering of Nose or Nostrils;
i. A peculiar monotone of the voice;
j. A forced laugh;
k. Rolling of eyeballs from one direction to another;
Through Postural Reactions, such as:

a. Fidgeting, tapping, or drumming of fingers on the chair or other

surfaces;
b. Swinging of legs, or of one leg over the other;
c. Unnecessary movement of hands and feet (like scratching, nail-biting,
thumb- or finger-sucking, etc.);
d. Pulsation of the carotid artery in the neck;
e. Incoherence, trembling and sweating of the whole body;
Through Cause-and-Effect Process, such as:

a. Stimulus- Reaction test;

b. Stimulus-response test;

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What were the Early Methods of Detecting Lies?

1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal — Practiced on the hill tribe of Rajhmal in the North
Bengal. The accused placed his tongue to a red-hot iron nine times (9) unless
burned sooner. If burned, he is put to death as he is guilty. Not only just licking
the iron but also, he is made to carry the metal into his hands.

2. Ordeal by the Balance - An ordeal practiced in the Vishnu, India. The

scale of balance is used where the accused is placed in the other end while a
counter balance is made. If he were found to be lighter than before then he will
be acquitted.

3. Boiling Water Ordeal- Common in Africa. The method was that the
subject will be asked to - plunge their right arms into the boiling water to the
elbow and step into the other side of the fire. All are told to undergo the test
without a murmur. And when all are finished, they are told to return at the same
time the next afternoon. The one who showed blisters would prove the thief
(Point out who is the one who steal among his tribe mates).

4. Ordeal by Rice Chewing - An ordeal practiced by the Indians. It is formed

with a kind of rice called sathee, prepared with various incantations. The person
on trial eats the rice then spits upon an eyeful leaf. If the saliva is mixed with
blood or the corner of his mouth swell or he trembles, he is declared then a liar.

5. Ordeal of the Red Water - Used in a wide region of Eastern Africa. The
ordeal of the “sassy bark” or red water was used where the accused is made to
fast for twelve hours then swallows a small amount of rice until he is imbibed
in dark colored water. This water is actually emetic and if the suspect ejects all
the rice, he is considered innocent; otherwise, the accused is guilty.

6. Combination of Drinks and Food Ordeal - An ordeal practiced by the

West African region where the accused first fasted for 12 hours and the given
small amount of rice to eat followed by large amount of black colored water. If
the concoction was vomited, the accused was pronounced innocent, otherwise,
guilty.

7. Trial by Combat - A fight between the accuser and the accused, whoever
lost the battle will be the adjudged guilty. Originated in India where an accuser
could hire somebody or bigger one to fight the accused. After the fight the loser
will be adjudged as guilty of crime. It became the legal ordeal in England during
the time of “King Henry III.”

8. Trial by Torture - The accused was put into a severe physical test. If the
accused can endure such torture, he will be considered innocent.

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9. Drinking Ordeal - The accused was given a decoction to drink by a priest -

if innocent; no harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die. Practiced in Nigeria and
India.

10. Trial of the Eucharist - This trial is reserved for the clergy, and
administered with pomp and ceremony. If the accused was guilty, it was
believed that Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent the accused
from swallowing the food given to him. Practiced in the European countries.

11. Ordeal by Heat and Fire - The accused was compelled to walk bare
footed through a fire, if he remains unhurt then he is_ innocent. Practiced in
East Germany, early Scandinavian countries and early England.

12. Ordeal of Boiling Oil or Water - The accused was forced to dip his hands
into the boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it. If he remains unhurt
then he is innocent. Practiced in Asian Countries.

13. Ordeal of Red-Hot Needle - A red hot needle was drawn through the
lips of the accused, if innocent, no blood will be seen flowing out. Practiced in
East Africa.

14. Ordeal of the Tiger - Accuser and accused were placed together in the
same and a tiger set loose upon them. If both were spared, further elimination
followed. Practiced in Thailand.

15. Test of the Cross Ordeal - The accuser and accused each were made to
stand with arms crossed on their breast. The one who endured the longest was
deemed to have told the truth, the other, is the liar. Practiced in Europe.

16. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal - A donkey was placed in one room alone and was
observed. If the donkey cried as judge of the guilty of crimes, then the accused
is guilty.

What were the known Countries that Practiced Ordeal?

1. Burma - The accuser and accused were given each identical candle and both
were lightened at the same time. The holder of the candle that consumed faster
was adjudged the liar.

2. Borneo - The accuser and accused were presented by shell fish placed on a
plate. An irritating fluid was then poured on the shell fish and the litigant whose
shell fish moved first was adjudged the winner. 3. Greece - A suspended axe was
spun at the center of a group of suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever was
in line with the blade was supposed to be guilty as pointed out by the divine
providence.

3. Nigeria - The priest greased a feather and pierced the tongue of the accused.
If the feather passed through the tongue easily, the accused was deemed

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innocent. If not, the accused is guilty. Another method in Nigeria was the
practice of pouring corrosive liquid into the eyes of the accused who was
supposed to remain unharmed if innocent. Pour boiling oil over the hand of the
accused with the usual requisites for guilt or innocence (if remain unharmed,
he is innocent).

4. Europe and Early United States (17th Century) - Trial by water was
commonly used on those accused of witchcraft. The accused was bound (hand
and foot) and then cast into the body of water. If the accused sank, he was
hauled to the surface half-drowned and deemed innocent. If he floated, he was
deemed guilty and burned to death.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LYING

Remember that lying person fears detection ang possible ostracism by

the offended community. He may feel that once detection, he could not but
accept the bitter results of being penalized, thus placing his whole life at stake.
Since fear reaction carries emotional responses due to detection, he may now
exhibit external and internal physical and physiological changes within him,
such that these changes occur beyond his defensive power to control or repress
them. These changes, on the other hand, are recorded by the polygraph
instrument and diagnosed by the Examiner.

But what is always driving a person to lie? What is behind all these?

The answer is the PSYCHOLOGY of a LYING PERSON. A person ’s fears,

anxieties and apprehensions are channeled toward the situation that evoke his
instinct of self-preservation to struggle out from the consequences of the wrong
he has already done. He may, once and for all, “erind-the axe” of his self-defense
mechanism come what may through lies, alibis and excuses. His conscience is
bothered so much on how to hide everything beyond his own senses. And his
will power and emotions are perplexed and varied.

In polygraphy, the psychological approach to all these lies or similar

situations are governed by the different types of test and control questions
prepared and formulated by the Examiner. The test contains relevant questions
which are designed to pose a threat to the security of the guilty (or lying)
Subject, and control questions designed to pose a threat to the security of the
innocent (or truthful) Subject. The equally truthful Subject, though accused, its
assured of the reactions he may exhibit during the whole polygraph
examination by the carefully formulate

Other factors psychologically taken into consideration are Subject’s basic

emotionality and intensity. of the offense. Normally, the innocent Subject’s
reaction potential is lower than that of the guilty Subject. A temporary

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heightening of his emotional state when the examination began registers this.
Then such reaction decreases as the test itself progresses.

In understanding more of the psychology of lying we are tempted to include the

study of the different kinds of LIES, which are as follows:

A. KINDS OF LIES

1. White Lie or Benign Lie

This is the kind of lie, the most common of all, which is intended to
protect or maintain harmony or friendship, at home, in the office or elsewhere.
Example: Peter’s Denial: The distorted formulation of rules and regulations in
some companies in order to protect and secure own products from any outside
competing forces.

2. Pathological Lie
This is a lie made by persons who cannot distinguish right from wrong. It
must be said that those persons are mentally sick, or of low mental caliber. In
Polygraphy, impairment of the mind must be established first before
conducting any lie-detector test; otherwise the whole test will be useless.
Pathological liars are among those classified as Barriers and Obstacles to Lie
Detection with the aid of the Polygraph.

3. Red Lie
This involves political interests and motives because this is part of
Communist propaganda strategy. This lie is prevalent in communist countries
of communist-infested nations. Lies of this sort purport to destroy other
ideologies by means of propaganda-brainwashing and black-mail via espionage
and treason.

4. Black Lie
A lie which accompanies pretensions and hypocrisies, intriguing can cause
dishonor or discredit one’s good image. (An example is the person who always
pretends what he thinks of himself, what kind of person he is, and what he is
doing).

5. Malicious or Judicious Lie

This is a very pure and unjustifiable kind of lie. This is intended purely to
mislead justice. The probable result would be “PERJURY” and pure dishonesty
to obstruct justice! Some liar lawyers and false witnesses fall under this
category.

B. TYPES OF LIE

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a. Direct Denial-this is the direct denial of the act in question that creates an
emotional sense of disturbance. This disturbance refers to the conflict between
what is true and the attempted deception that creates an internal battle in the
mind. Example: “I did not do it”. The vague response permits the person to
evade inner conflict while seeming to answer the question. The reply given to a
query must be evaluated in terms of what was asked to know if the answer is
proper.

b. Lie of Omission - this is a type of lie that people usually used because it is
simple to tell. Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the truth
while omitting details that could create possible troubles.

c. Lie of Fabrication - this is the most difficult type op lie that a subject could
use in an interview.

d. Lie of Minimization - in this type of lie individua) will accept that

something has occurred buy downplays the implication. Lie of minimization
could be used if a subject wanted to stay close to the truth; however, he covers
the truth for his or her own benefit.

Example: Mr. X is complaining because Mr. B boxed him and as a result the
nose of Mr. X is broken. If Mr. B used the lie of minimization, he will state that
he only slapped Mr. X.

e. Lie of Exaggeration - this is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the
hope of obtaining some advantage. This is also often found on resume, where
applicant exaggerates his or her experiences, knowledge, skills, salary and
length of service. The exaggerated claims can be verified by looking for
inconsistencies of the subject’s story.

C. TYPES OF LIAR

a. Panic Liar

- It is one who lies in order to avoid the consequences of a confession

- He/she is afraid of embarrassment to love ones and it is a serious blow to
his/her ego.
- He/ she believes that confession will just make the matter worst.
b. Occupational Liar

- Someone laid for spare years

- This person is a practical liar and lies when it has a higher ‘’pay off’’ than
telling the truth.
c. Tournament Liar

- Loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being detected.

- This person views an interview as another contest and wants win.

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- This person realizes that he or she will probably be convicted but will not
give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him or her confesses.
- He wants that people will believe that the law is punishing an innocent
person.

d. Psychopathic Liar

- The most difficult type

- This person has no conscience. He shows no regret for dishonestly and no
manifestation of guilt.
e. Ethnological Liar

- One who is taught not to be a squealer

- * squealer – to cry or to shrill voice
- Used by underworld gang in order for their member not to reveal any secret
of their organization.
f. Pathological Liar

- A person who cannot distinguish right from wrong (his mind is sick.)
- Is an insane person.
g. Black Liar

- A person who always pretends.

- (what he thinks of himself, what kind of a person he is, and what he is.)

D. UNDERSTANDING SUBJECT’S AGE CHARACTERISTICS

To further enhance the study of the psychology of the lying person, it is also
necessary to understand Subject’s age characteristics, which are as follows:

- 7 to 12 years......... Fantastic Subject.

- 13 to 19 years.......... Distinction of fantasy and reality. At this level, the
Subject is at age of limitation and idolatry. His/her ego my start to
develop.
- 20 to 25 years.......... His/ her ego begins to lessen because he/she is not
important person. Subjects like him are idealistic be principled. They can
be responsible and sometimes conscious of their neighbors. The girls
may begin to marry at this age, and they become sociable. The degree of
their exposure to the society depends on how they were brought up
socially, morally and spiritually, including family, friend and other
individual influence.

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- 26 to 60 years…………. They serve as the best witnesses. They often

possess materialism, maturity and responsibility. Intellect is fully
developed and intelligence is well coordinated with memory.
- 61 to Death……… Their memories are fading because some of their senses
are defective. They are no longer good witnesses. They are no longer
good witnesses. They need perspective because they may start to act like
children (senility). They are irritable and sensitive.

E. SOME SIGNS OF LIES AND DECEPTION

Generally, when a person becomes defensive due to fear of detection, one can
point out that any of the signs herein enumerated indicates lies, guilt or deceptive,
such as:

1. Stammering
2. Swearing to or before God that he did not commit the crime
3. Pointing his guilt to somebody else
4. Subject refuses to answer questions through alibis and excuses
5. He is all the time absent-minded
6. He is always requesting for repetition of questions
7. He often asks counter-question and counter-queries
8. He often asks permission to go to the comfort rooms, etc.

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What is Polygraphy?

It is the scientific method of detecting deception using a polygraph instrument.

This is the new name of Lie Detection.

What is a Polygraph?

The term “polygraph” simply means “many writings.” The name refers to
the manner in which selected physiological responses are simultaneously
recorded. It is a recorder of the psycho-physiological changes occurring within
the examinee’s body as the polygraph examiner asks series of questions.

Basically, the polygraph instrument is a combination of medical devices used

by physicians in monitoring and checking the physical conditions of their
patients. As an examinee is questioned about a certain event or incident, the
instrument records and monitors the relative changes in the examinee’s heart
rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and electrodermal activities.

Is polygraph a Lie Detector?

Lie detector is the popular but misleading name of the Polygraph. The
instrument was so named because it is commonly used in lie detection. During
the test, polygraph makes various recordings of a person’s physiological
responses which will be interpreted by the polygraphist to determine whether
the subject has been lying or not.

Consequently, the polygraph instrument does not detect lie itself but the
examiner. It only assists in detecting persons lying and or truthfulness through
its recorded physiological responses.

What is the other name of the Polygraph?

Polygraph in some instances is also called “Truth Verifier” for in vast

majority of the instances the instrument verifies a person’s truthfulness.

The purpose and Importance of polygraph Examination

The get all the facts of the case regarding the offense under investigation and
the purpose of the polygraph test is determine whether the subject is telling the
truth or not based on the presence of emotional disturbance of the subject as
appearing on the recorded physiological responses to question relative to the
case under investigation.

What are the objectives of a Polygraph Examination?

Polygraph examination is conducted in order to:

1. Obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of the case/offenses.

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2. Ascertain if a person is telling the truth.

3. Locate the fruits or tools of the crime and whereabouts of wanted persons.

4. Identify other persons involved (accomplices of crime).

5. Obtain valuable information from reluctant witnesses.

6. Identify the loyalty of individuals holding sensitive positions in a company;

and

7. Eliminate the innocent suspects.

What is the Ultimate Objective of Conducting Polygraph Examination?

The ultimate objective of polygraph examination is to obtain the subject’s

admission or confession to the offense committed.

Admission is a statement of fact by the accused, which do not directly involve

acknowledgement of guilt in committing or having participated in the
commission of an offense while Confession is a declaration made by a person
voluntarily, stating or acknowledging that has committed or participated in the
commission of a crime.

VALIDITY OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATIONS

The issue of whether or not polygraph testing can be considered valid and
admissible in court has long been a controversial issue not just among technical
experts but also among legal experts.

Since its invention and development almost 80 years ago, it has sparked
debates, especially among those who believe that it has no scientific basis and
those who believe that it can be a source of admissible court evidence. For the
latter group, polygraph testing is widely considered a reliable method by which
to qualitatively determine the guilt of a suspect, defend the rights of an innocent
suspect, protect national security, and in the employment setting, maintain
employee honesty.

On the other end of the spectrum, there are those who believe that polygraph
testing is inaccurate and can only produce misleading information. In fact,
those who do not believe in its merits believe that polygraph testing can
interfere with the rights of private citizens and even reduce employee morale.

In the U.S., there have been many proposals to expand the use of polygraph
examination with the goal of protecting national security. Such efforts have
rekindled debates concerning the validity and appropriateness of polygraph
techniques and whether they can, indeed, detect deception.

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In the Philippines

In the Philippines, the first case of using polygraph evidence in court occurred
in 1978 in People of the Philippines v Daniel (G.R. No. L-40330 Nov. 20, 1978).
Here, the defendant submitted polygraph test results proving his innocence of
the crime of rape. In 1999, the Supreme Court once again discussed the issue of
using polygraph evidence in People v Adoviso [309 SCRA 1 (1999)]

In that case, the defendant, Pablo Adoviso, was convicted of two counts of
murder by the Regional Trial Court of Camarines Sur on the bases of two
eyewitness accounts identifying him as the culprit. Although the NBI polygraph
examiner’s report proved that there were no particular physical reactions that
indicated deception in answers to questions relevant to the investigation, this
testimony was rejected and Adoviso was Still found guilty of the crime.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN THE EMPLOYMENT SETTING

In recent years, polygraph examinations have also expanded to the field of

corporate employment. At present, some employers Choose to use lie detector
tests in assessing their current and potential Employees. However, there are
many critics who say that this is a form of invasion of privacy

Moral Requirements

At least for those who support polygraph testing in the workplace the following
moral requirements are believed to be important enough to overrule the so-
called invasion of privacy:

(1) There is no other more accurate method through which the objective can be
achieved. In this case, polygraph testing is deemed moral if there is no other
option the employer can take in verifying a potential employee’s honesty. This
kind of procedure is actually very important, especially in companies dealing
with high-risk and high-security products and services.

(2) The information obtained through the polygraph test is strictly confidential.
Here, only the relevant authorities should be allowed to view the results so as
not to heighten the likelihood of abuse and exploitation. Moreover, if there are
damaging or embarrassing information not related to the employment, then
such information should never be released in any other channel.

(3) Finally, the polygraph test is a moral option if the information. obtained is
“sufficiently relevant” to the job.

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Advantages of Using Polygraph Testing

In a nutshell, polygraph tests are used in the employment setting for two
reasons, which include the following: (1) to check the honesty of a job applicant
(thus helping the company avoid hiring employees who may steal from the
company), and (2) to verify whether the information provided by a job applicant
is accurate and truthful. However, there are some restrictions that should be
observed as well

Those who support the use of polygraph testing in this context argue that it is
justified as long as the following criteria are met:

-The test is reliable and accurate;

-The test only detects lying and nothing else;

-Very few people can control all three physiological functions at the same time,
hence, deception can be detected based on the physical reactions of the
subjects; and

-Polygraph examiners must run pre examination tests to measure a subject's

reactions when he is committing a deception (i.e., telling a lie). In terms of
detecting dishonesty among employees, an employer cannot resort to a
polygraph test unless there is an ongoing investigation into an actual loss with
corresponding value, for example, missing properties or equipment.

In terms of setting expectations, an employer can only conduct a polygraph test

as long as the employer or applicant is informed beforehand, and especially if
this is a legitimate company policy.

Disadvantages of Using Polygraph Testing

As with any available option, it is also bound to have disadvantages. In this case,
polygraph testing in the employment setting also has its disadvantages, which
are discussed below.

Inaccurate Results

It is a known fact that polygraph testing may indeed produce mixed or

inaccurate results. We have learned in Chapter Four that polygraph tests can
produce false positives and false negatives. We have also learned that several
factors affect the results of polygraph tests. Thus, although they can be
considered reliable, the results are still not 100%. Hence, employers who make
decisions based on the results (e.g., firing an errant employee or not hiring an
otherwise excellent prospect) may prove to be detrimental to the employer and
the company.

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Lack of Trust Between Employer and Employee

Perhaps one of the most damaging aspects of employing polygraph testing is

that it can generate lack of trust and even resentment on the Part of the
employees. For example, if an honest employee is suddenly Called on to
undergo a lie detector test, he or she may feel threatened and disappointed at
the thought of being considered a “suspect” by virtue of the fact that the lie
detector test is, for the layman, something that is done criminal investigations.

In turn, if there is a general atmosphere of resentment and distrust in the

company, then employee morale is reduced, output is minimized, and employee
turnover can also increase.

Invasion of Privacy

An important moral issue in the use of polygraph testing in the employment

setting is the issue of privacy of invasion. This is especially critical in areas of
pre-employment screening and periodic monitoring of employees. In pre-
employment screening, it is considered questionable to extract from applicant’s
information that have nothing to do with their application. Such questions
include those related to union activity, sexual] preference, history of family
problems, and so on. Meanwhile, in periodic monitoring of employees, subjects
who undergo lie detection tests should not be asked questions not related to the
case being considered. Such information may be used by the employer to
discriminate against the employee in the future. Such questions include their
opinions of the company, their job satisfaction level, intention to resign or
remain with the employer, and their knowledge of activities done by other
employees. In the U.S., the use of employee polygraph testing is allowed but
limited by pertinent laws. Many of these laws aim to protect employees from
exploitation and unnecessary polygraph examinations by their employers. As
we have learned earlier, there should be valid grounds upon which to base the
decision on whether or not polygraph testing can be considered a viable and
moral option.

Is the Polygraph Technique Accurate?

Current polygraph research indicates that when a specific single-issue

polygraph exam, conducted by a qualified and competent polygraph examiner and
is properly administered the accuracy rate 1s between 95% and 98%. This
percentage is still higher than other forms of evidence, including Psychiatric
opinions, suspect identification as provided by victims and witnesses, and
fingerprint identification.

The polygraph is the most accurate tool available today for determining truth or
deception. The accuracy of the multi-issue exam drops in accuracy due to a number

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of psychological factors. These statistics do not include “inconclusive” test results

in which no opinion of truth or deception can be made from the physiological data
collected on the polygraph charts.

The technique itself and the result of the polygraph examination has been a source
of unending question. However, practitioners Nave agreed that the accuracy of the
polygraph results is high depending upon the factors that affect it.

Admissibility of the Polygraph Test Results

The admissibility of polygraph test results is based on certain criteria, which are
as follows:

a. Judicial discretion- this means that the evidence is still subjects to the trial
court’s discretion.
b. Limited use by jury- this means that, at the time of polygraph testing, the
accused may or may not have been telling the truth.
c. Written stipulations- this means that all parties must sign a written
stipulation which shows agreement to the admission of the test results (the
parties must, however, take note of violating the privilege against self-
incrimination).
d. Right of cross-examination- if the opinion of the examiner is offered as
evidence, then the opposing party is accorded the right to cross-examine the
expert regarding his training and qualifications in providing such expert
testimony.
Effectiveness of The Polygraph
Recording the symptoms of deception is based on the well-established fact that
an individual’s conscious effort deceives or to lie causes involuntary
physiological changes, which are the body’s reaction to a perceived imminent
danger. Such changes are brought about by the stimulating effect of well-
prepared questions that, when answered truthfully, may lead to a punishment.
Thus, it is not the act of lying or the guilt involved, which alters a person’s
psychological response; rather, it is his fear of subsequent punishment when
the subject’s lie is exposed, that is, the greater the consequences of being
detected, the greater the fear of detection.

LIMITATIONS OF THE POLYGRAPH

Attempts to use confessions, panel judgments, judicial outcomes, and other

criteria as indicators of truth have their own problems. Individuals may confess
to crimes which they did not commit. In addition, individuals are sometimes
falsely convicted. Panel decisions may be generalizable only to cases in which
sufficient investigative information is available to make a decision without the
addition of polygraph testing. One can never be certain that the panel decision
is indeed correct, and the panel and the polygraph examiner may have been
exposed to the Same prior information. Thus, while field studies provide the

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most direct evidence about polygraph test validity, they have been criticized
because they do not adequately meet the standards of “ground truth” to
establish criterion validity.

Despite the fact that the polygraph can help examiners obtain crucial
information that can help solve a crime being investigated, it is also realistic to
know that the polygraph has several limitations. These are detailed below.

1. It is an invaluable investigative aid, but it can never be used as a substitute

for a thorough investigation.

2. It is not a lie detector; it is a scientific diagnostic instrument.

3. It does not determine facts. Rather, it records responses to questions with

answers that the subject knows to be true, and answers that can be verified or
discredited. It is a test where the accuracy depends on the examiner, and the
results are dependent on the thoroughness of the prior investigation.

4. It is only as accurate as the examiner who conducts the test.

In the proceeding infographic, although it states that polygraph results may not
be accepted in some US courts, we can still see how the Theory of Lie Detection
and its principles are applied. With a visual representation such as this one, we
can better appreciate how a polygraph examination is conducted.

What are the limitations of the Polygraph Technique?

1. It is an invaluable investigative aid, but never a substitute for investigation.

2. It is not a lie detector but only a scientific diagnostic instrument.

3. It does not determine facts, it record responses to that which the subject
knows to be true.

4. It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.

5. The test will not be given until enough facts have been established to permit
the examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable questions.

6. The test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the subject.

7. No indication will be given to any person or placed in any report that a person
will be considered guilty because he refused to take the test.

8. A test will not be given until the accusations have been explained with the
subject.

9. No attempt to use Polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of any person.

10. No examination will be conducted on unfit subject.

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THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

A. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Serving as the activator of the body system, the nervous system, thru the brain
and all the nerve tissues, receives, evaluates, integrates and stores any stimulus
brought to the body from the environment, and at the same rate, the system
sends out messages to the various part and organs for specific response.

To illustrate how nervous system operates in the body, here is a simple lay-out
of the chain – reaction process, thus;

A stimulus is given by way of pricking a needle into the finger. The brain, serving
as the highest headquarter for the system, is now activated and thus awakened.
As pricking start the finger, such stimulus is immediately received by the
‘receptor’. These receptors are the SENSES, which convert energy to receive
the transmit from

1. Sight (EYES)
2. Hearing (EARS)
3. Smell (Olfactory organs, including nose)
4. Taste (Gustatory organs, involving tounge)
5. Touch (through skin and muscles)
6. E.S.P. or Extra-Sensory perception, or the 6th sense (through mind and
memory)
7. Kinesthesis (A very important sense which gives information about the
movements of the parts of the body with respect to one another)
8. Equilibrium Sense (which informs other parts of the body movements of the
body head is space)
With our above, the pricking is then passed from the receptors to the so- called
‘’Effectors’’, which are composed of muscles and glands directly producing
observable behaviors. MUSCLES are bundles of fibrous cells, which contract of
relax upon neutral stimulations, while glands are the interdependent organic
body tissues which ay pump out chemicals directly unto the internal and
external organs to perform various regulatory functions. By then the pricking,
after it has been passed to the effectors, shall be transmitted thru ‘Connectors’
called nerves and nerve Fibers. A NEURON is just a single nerve cell which has
all the characteristics of all living cells in general and in addition is specialized
fir excitability and conductivity. It has Dendrites (that enters the peripherical
nerves and transmit impulse to many fivers in the muscles) and the END –
brushes or End plates (which are responsible for affecting actions in the
muscle).

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Two divisions of Neurons:

A. Long – Conducting Neurons-- that makes up the peripheral nerves and the
long pathways of the Central Nervous System and which have long single axon
or with dendrites that are usually the sensory and motor fibers;
B. Interior Neurons—which have a number of short dendrites and axons, with
the later often giving al branches called ‘COLLATERAL’ in order to provide
many connectors and alternative pathways to other neurons.
As pricking is now passed as an impulse to the neurons an Interneurons, the
inter-neurons can do four (4) things likewise to relay these impulses to many
parts of the blood:

1) They enable impulse from a single receptor to reach many muscles

2) They permit same muscles to use in different reflexes;
3) They permit stimulus of short duration to produce a long- lasting responses;
4) They cause impulses to be long- circuited to the brain.
And as the pricking impulse has just reached the brain this time, from there are
analyzed, diagnosed, assessed and stored, and finally the brain urgently sends
out messages that said impulses are painful, via the connectors once again. This
times the muscles and skin tissues where actually pricking took place given out
of the tissues. ‘’Synapses’’ also occurred. At least the whole body feels the
pricking pain and another emotion will transpire or flight (to withdraw the
finger from needle).

NOTES:

SYNAPSES mean the association with or without direct contact between the
end- brushes of one neuron and the dendrites of another. All the synapses of
the somatic component are located outside the Central Nervous System.

B.THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

As the name itself implies the circulatory system is responsible for the
movement of the blood in the veins and arteries throughout the body.

Giving life to the system is the HEART. It is a hollow muscle located inside the
chest cavity that pumps blood into those arteries by contracting -and relaxing
process. It has four (4) major chambers of hollow bags. The upper two chamber
of which the ‘Auricles’ and the lower are the ‘Ventricles’. The Auricles receive
blood being returned to the heart by the veins, while the Ventricles received
blood from the Auricles and pump it out into the arteries. The back flow of the
blood in the heart is prevented by four (4) valves, corresponding to the four (4)
chambers.

The heart actions or the cardiac cycle consists of SYSTOLE and DIASTOLE. The
whole begins with the contradiction left Auricles. After a short pause, both

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Ventricles and /or chambers contact. The contraction of each chamber is

followed by relaxation (Diastole) and then by a brief period of inactivity.

Acting as distributor of blood, the main purpose of the Circulatory system is

transport oxygen to the body tissue and remove carbon dioxide from them.
Because if this complexity, the whole system is divided into (2) circuits: (a.) the
greater circuit where blood is driven by the left side of the heart, is responsible
for bringing the oxygen to the cells of the body; while (b.) the lesser circuit,
where blood is driven by the right side of the heart, is responsible for bringing
the blood into contract with the atmosphere. Both circuits have Arteries,
Arterioles, Venules, and Veins, and Capillaries, ARTERIES refer to some of the
system’s branching tubes carrying blood from the heart to all parts of the body;
whereas, CAPILLARIES tiny blood vessels connecting the arteries with the
VEINS, on the hand, are those small branches of veins distributed in the
vascular and muscular parts of our body. The exchange of water, oxygen, and
food substance between the Circulatory System and other body tissue that
occurs in the capillaries.

As the process keeps going on and on, blood pressure is exerted on the walls of
the arteries. This pressure is dependent upon the energy of the heart actions,
the elasticity of the walls of the arteries, the resistance of the arterioles and the
blood volume.

We know very well that what activities increased heartbeats are the impulse
coming from the hypothalamus and other brain tissue which incite the adrenal
glands (on the upper part of the kidneys) to secret ADRENALINE to the blood
vessels. Adrenaline or Epinephrine is a type of hormone used to raised blood
pressure be affected by those impulse but also the SPLEEN and LIVER. The
spleen pours out more oxygen via the blood cells further causing the blood
volume to increase, the heart to rapid beating and blood pressure to rise. As this
goes on physiological changes such as the increase respiration and profuse
sweating simultaneously occur.

The pulse rate remains relatively constant from 25 to 60 years old, and then
increase as we grow in age, of course with the expectation of those who are
suffering from the heart defects, circulatory and cardiac diseases. Normally, in
females, the beat may be approximately 8- beats per minute faster that in males
of the same age. Medical science attest that this difference is due to the body
height, the pulse rate in inverse proportion that is, the shorter the individual
the faster the beating per minute will be. Take notes that exercise the rate at an
average of 32- beats per minute. So, do with all those heavy- exerting muscular
efforts and manual works. And relax leading to normal body conditions.

To have comprehensive understanding of pulse rates per minute, it is necessary

to include herein the table for further reference, chart reading and
interpretations, thus;

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(Average) Pulse rates per Minute

144-133 beat per minute--- at the end of fetal life;

140-123 beat per minute--- at birth and up to 1- year old;

96-76 beat per minute ---from 10-15 years old;

73-69 beat per minute ---from 20-25 years old;

Any increase in pulse rates/ min. -after age of 25, defends on the person’s
physical and cardiac conditions.

In the case of polygraph test, tracing in the Cardio-Sphymograph disclose an

upsweep of tracing pen movement following the contraction of the heart, this is the
Systolic. The down sweep tracing discloses the relaxation of the heart. This is
considered as Diastolic. The Diacrotic Notch tracing procedures by the blood
rebounding in the part which suddenly checked its flow back by the Semi- Lunar
Valves. The Semi- Lunar Valves are defining as those present- shape valves, one at
the junction of the right ventricle and pulmonary artery (called pulmonary valve)
which functions is to prevent blood flowing back into ventricle.

C. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system responsible for the taking of air into the lings and also
expelling carbon dioxide here from the rest of our body. This system, like the
Nervous and Circulatory, is equally important to lie detection. We know very
well that we can die within minutes without oxygen. Its function is automatic.
It consists of the following major parts:

a. The respiratory tract, which comprises the nose and mouth, pharynx, larynx,
bronchi and lungs;
b. The bony cage, which includes the thoracic vertebrate, the ribs, and the breast
bone or the sterum.
As for inspiration breathing patterns, the chest capacity is increase form front and
back, from side to died, and in the vertical plane (that is, the forward direction, the
lateral direction and the downward direction).

Expiration is just the reverse of the inspiration. The diaphragm and intercoastal
muscle relax and the ribs fall back in place. The air then is forced out of the lung
once chest capacity deceases.

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The Breathing Capacity

An adult as rest with normal inspiration many inhales about 500 cc of air. A
less similar amount is called exhales. The ebb and the flow of air is called ‘’TIDAL’’
air respiration. In addition to the tidal air, we can inhale another 1,500 cc of air
called ‘’COMPLEMENTARY’’ air. After normal expiration, a similar amount is
exhaled called the ‘’SUPPLEMENTARY’’ air. The combination of tidal, a
complemental and supplemental airs is called the ‘’VITAL CAPACITY’’ of human
life. In short, an average person can then breath in about 2,000 cc of air and can
expel about 3, 500 cc.

In the scientific analysis, the composition of air inspired within is about: 79%
Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, .04% Carbon Dioxide, and traces of other gases. If expired,
air is composed of about: 79% Nitrogen, 16% Oxygen, and 4% Carbon Dioxide and
other traces of gases. This indicates that about 4% of oxygen is removed from air
by breathing.

The breathing patterns or cycles is not constant, even if in good health, because
it is modified by all types of influences, both voluntary and involuntarily. Typical
examples of the influences affecting breathing pattern are coughing, clearing of
throat, sigh, sniffing, burping, laughing and yawning. As it has been pointed out,
temperature, humidity, altitude and posture also affect the respiration rates. In
polygraph recording, stooping may show less pronounced recorded breathing
pattern than erect posture. The respiration rates in female generally higher those
males of the same age.

For the purpose of reference and chart reading or interpretation, the following
table serves as the average breathing patterns for;

The newborns = 50 to 70 cycles per minute

Children (1 to 5 years old) = 20 to 30 cycle per minutes

Adult (without age consideration) = 15 to 20 cycle per minute

As result, it should be noted that men are considered DEEP breather (they
breath up to their stomachs) while woman are shallow breather (for they breath up
to their chests).

D. THE SKIN (OR THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM)

The skin defined as the external covering of the body consisting essentials of the
body epidermis, dermis and the corium. The anatomical compositions of the
epidermis have four layers of stratified epithelium, while the corium is composed
of connective tissue containing lymphatic nerves and nerve ending, blood vessels,
sebaceous and sweat glands and elastic fibers.

The skin has the following basic functions:

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a. Protection against injuries and parasitic invasion;

b. Regulation of body temperature; and
c. An aid in the elimination of bodily waste products.
Galvanic-skin-response/reflex (GSR) test record charges in the subjects increase
or decrease resistance to a constant electrical current generated through the
Amplifier, recording Galvanometer and Rectifier of the polygraph. Since recording
of these response comes from the stimuli causing a change in sweat glands activity,
the theory behind it is that applied the fingers, hands and palms, forehead, armpits,
anus area and the bottom of the feet as target areas. Sweat varies according to
different circumstances- such as muscular exercises, nausea, pain mental
excitement, nervousness, dyspnea (a sort of difficult of painful breathing), asthma.
Other disease, including certain drug which humidity affect the sweating activity.
Temperature and humidity affect the sweat glands. Cold environment decreases
sweating, enhances urination and dehydration.

A. EMOTIONS
In as much as the study of Lie- Detection involves PSYCHOLOGY, the
science of behavior, it is but imperative that we include the study of Emotions,
as such is a wide range process, almost affecting every organ or part of the body,
nearly all the Respiratory, Circulatory, Nervous and Excretory or the electrical
properties of the skin. Directly relating to Lie- Detection, consciousness of guilt
engenders a fear reaction (which is an emotional itself).
Therefore, if an individual is guilt, he will respond emotionally to
questions related to his crime. It is true and impossible that such an individual,
being aware of his emotion (his fear reaction, that is) can suppress the same by
inhabiting voluntary external responses indicative of guilt, such as paleness,
dryness of the mouth, nervousness, etc.) yet, he cannot control his fear reaction,
especially his blood pressure and heart reactions, his respiration rates and his
galvanic-skin-reflex (or the G.S.R) producing sweats and sweat skin resistance)

THREE ASPECTS OF EMOTIONS

1. Emotion as conscious experience: This concerns human feelings
in response to a wide variety of inner and outer stimuli, which are of
paramount importance to our personal and social adjustment. This
involves every emotional experience of man such as: Anger, Elation,
Delight, Affection, Fear, Annoyance, Worry, Rejection, Jealousy,
Envy, Frustration and Shame.
2. Emotion as motives: This involves human behavior with motivating
factors, or a power directing one’s behavior towards (or facilitating)
or a way (or interfering) from objects and person in his environment.
a. Emotional Motive as Facilitating Behavior: Ex.: Destruction,
Attack, and Fight, Assault or Offend.
b. Emotional Motive as Interfering Behavior: Ex.: retreat, Flight,
Surrender, hide or Defend.
B. Emotions as responses: this concerns bodily reaction, usually muscular or
glandular process, which may either, be external or internal ones. It is in third
aspects that the polygraph examiner has to keep his eyes wide open to all the

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information regarding emotional responses. The theory of Polygraphy is based

in primarily upon this aspect.
a) External Responses: these responses are very much observable even without
the aid of any emotions stress recording instruments.
b) Internal responses: scientifically known as ‘’visceral’’ responses, these are
the responses of the internal organs of the following systems and properties
of the human body:
b.1) the Nervous System -which controls the neural transmissions, including
glands, muscular tissues and the nerves connecting the brain and other
parts of the body;
b.2) the Respiratory System- which take cares of the breathing
b.3) the Circulatory System -which regulates the heart actions, blood-
pressure blood volumes, and pulse-rate.
b.4) the Excretory System- or the electrodermal properties of the skin which
facilitates the electrical phenomena of the Galvanic-Skin-Reflex (or the
GSR) including their resistance and brain potentials.

Early Development Modern Scientific Method of Detecting Deception

Early Publication of Polygraph

➢ Daniel Defoe (1730)- he wrote an essay entitled ‘’ An Effectual Scheme for the
Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies and Suppressing All other Disorders
of the Night’’ which recommends taking the pulse as a method of identifying a
criminal.
➢ Sir James Mackenzie (1906)- a famous heart specialist. It was said that
‘’polygraph’’ exist as early as 1906 but it is not being used to detect deception.
He first describes the instrument in an article entitled ‘’ The Ink Polygraph’’
which appeared in the British Medical Journal in 1908.
➢ Vittorio Benussi (1953)- he presented a paper before the second meeting of
the Italian Society of Psychology in Rome, on the subjects of his experiments
regarding respiratory symptoms of lying.
➢ Richard O. Archer (1953)- he is the first polygraphist to record
simultaneously on regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns.
He was also the first one to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes.
- In 1966, he founded the Journal of Polygraph Science, the oldest of the
polygraph publications.
➢ Richard I. Golden (1969)- he presented a paper at the Annual Seminar of
Polygraph association at Houston, Texas regarding his experiments using
existing control questions techniques but requiring the subjects to answer each
question twice. The first time truthfully and the second time with lie, for the
purpose of requiring additional psycho physiological data from the examinee
by comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known lie to the same
question.

Development of Galvanograph

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➢ Luigi Galvani (1791)- an Italian Physiologist who was accorded the distinction
for developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer, which
records electrical bodily resistance in terms of ohms (the lowest ever recorded).
The GSR reflected emotional changes in person skin resistance through
electricity.
➢ Sticker (1897)- he made the first suggestion for using Galvanograph for
detecting deception based on the works of several predecessors. He theorized
the galvanic skin reflex is influenced by existing mental impression and that it
will have no effect upon it.
➢ Veraguth (1907)- he was the first one to use the term ‘’psychogalvanic reflex’’.
He believed that the electrical phenomenon is due to the activity of sweat
glands.

Development of Pneumograph Component

➢ Vitorrio Benussi (1914)- he detected deception with Pneumograph, an

instrument that graphically measures inhalation. He demonstrated the changes
in breathing patterns by noting the changes in respiration-expiration ratio
during deception.
➢ Harold Burrtt (1918)- he determined that respiratory changes were
indication of deception. He found out that the changes in systolic blood
pressure were of greater value in determining deception that in changes in
respiration.

Development of Cardio- Spymograph

➢ Angelo Mosso (1895)- he studied fear and its influence on the heart. His
observation subsequently formed the basis for detecting lies. He also developed
the sphygmomanometer and ‘’scientific cradle’’, which was designed to measure
the flow of blood while a person lay on his back in a prone position.
➢ Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909)- he developed the first scientific instrument
to detect deception, which is known as Hydrospymograph. This instrument
measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were asked about
their involvement or knowledge of specific crime.

-He was accorded the distinction of being the first person to utilize an
instrument for the purpose of detecting lies.

➢ William Moulton Marston (1915)- he was considered as the Father of

Modern Polygraph. He dealt with the sphygmomanometer and made
researches on the usefulness of sphygmomanometer in detecting lies, which
was used to obtain periodic discontinuous blood pressure reading during the
course of a test.

-He recorded the respiration and noted the time of subject’s verbal responses.
-He also experimented with galvanometer to record skin resistance change and
gripping devise to record tension.

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➢ In 1915, Dr. William Marston, an American attorney and psychologist, is

credited with inventing an early form of the lie detector when he developed the
discontinuous systolic blood pressure test. This would later become one
component of the modern polygraph. Dr. Marston technique used a standard
blood pressure reading of a suspect during questioning for the purpose of
detecting deception.

➢ John Larson (1921)- he developed an instrument that continually and

simultaneously measures blood pressure pulse and perspiration. He designed
the ‘’first two recording channel polygraph’’ in the history. The first mechanical
form of detecting deception does not only have recording pen for
cardiosphymograph, pneumography and galvanograph but it also has the
mascular movement pen for the arms and thighs.

➢ In 1921, John A. Larson, a Canadian psychologist employed by the Berkeley

Police Department, in California, developed what many consider to be the
original modern polygraph instrument when he added the item of
respiration rate to that of blood pressure.

-He named his instrument the polygraph -a word derived form the Greek
language meaning many writings- since it could read several psychological
responses at the same time and document these responses on a revolving drum
of smoked paper.

-Using his polygraph, John A. Larson was the first person to continually and
simultaneously measure changes in a subject’s pulse rate, blood pressure and
respiratory rate during an interrogation. His polygraph was used extensively,
and with much success, in criminal investigations.

➢ Leonarde Keeler- in 1949, he invented the ‘’keeler polygraph’’ which is an

instrument of Larson’s apparatus. With components for recording blood
pressur, pulse rate and respiration changes. A galvanometer, also known as
galvanic skin reflex referred to GSR.
-he also devised a metal bellows and designed a kymograph that pulled a
constant speed, a chart paper under the recording from a role of chart paper
located inside the instrument.
- In 1925, Leonarde Keeler, who had gained firsthand experience in polygraph
interrogations while working with John A. Larson at the Berkeley Police
Department, worked to create a less cumbersome polygraph instrument that
used inked pens to record the relative changes in a subject’s blood pressure,
pulse rate and respiratory patterns.
- In 1938, Leonarde Keeler further refined the instrument when he added a
third physiological measuring component for the detection of deception- the
psycho galvanometer a component that measured, during questioning,
changes in subject’s skin electrical resistance. In doing so, it signaled the birth
of the polygraph as we know it today.

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Development of Questioning Technique

➢ Keeler (1942)- He developed the ‘’relevant-irrelevant’’ test. The theory of this

test is the guilty subjects reacts only to relevant questions and innocent subject
shows no reaction.
-He also added the ‘’personally embarrassing question’’ (EPQ) to his relevant-
irrelevant technique, which was designed to elicit a reaction only from the
innocent subject.
➢ John E. Reid (1950)- he developed the ‘’review control question’’ consisting
of a known lie incorporated into relevant/irrelevant test.
- He also discovered the ‘’guilt-complex test’’ administered to the overly
responsive subject.
➢ Cleve Backster (1960)- he conceived the psychological set theory that forms
the basis of his zone of comparison technique that provides constant
monitoring of the subjects reactively and designed to disclose outside issue.
This is known as the ‘’Backster Zone Comparison Test’’ technique.

Other Pioneers in the Field of Deception Detection

➢ Francis Galton (1879)- he developed the machine acclaimed psychological

test known as the Word Association Test, whereby the patient is presented with
group of words sufficiently separated in time to allow the patient utter his first
thought generated by each word. Dr. Carl Gustav Jung later developed the work
and experiment of Galton.
➢ Allen Bell (1972)- he is an American inventor who developed the device called
psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE). This instrument detects slight trembling
in the voice; this may be interpreted to determine if the person is telling the
truth.
➢ Anton Mesmer (1778)- he was the first one to introduce hypnotism as a
method of detecting lies or deception.

Modern Polygraph Component

➢ Leonarde Keeler (1925)- who has gained first hand experience in polygraph
interrogations as a result of working with John Larson at the Berkeley Police
Department to device a polygraph that used ink pens for recording the relative
changes in subjects blood pressure, pulse rate and respiratory patterns, thus
eliminating the need for smoking the paper and then preserving it with shellac.
He also device a metal bellow with a Rolled Chart Paper.
- In 1949 the Keeler Polygraph added a galvanometer for recording a psycho
galvanic skin reflex for electro dermal response. He also works as the
assistant of John Larson and Keeler was credited as a ‘’Father of Modern-

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Day Polygraph’’ due to his great contribution in use of polygraph instrument

(Abrahams 1989)
➢ John E. Reid (1947)- a lawyer from Chicago, Illinois who developed the
Control Question Technique (CQT) a polygraph technique that incorporated
control questions. The Reid Control Question Technique was a major
breakthrough in polygraph methodology.

Other Important Dates and Place to Remember

❖ 1937- Japan’s first reported use of psychophysiological detection. They

measured the skin conductance at Akamatsu Uchida and Togawa
❖ 1948- the International Society for the Deception Detection began
issuing membership
❖ 1950’s- Korea begin its use of Polygraph. Its first examiner was trained
by U.S Army polygraphers stationed there.
❖ 1959- Ivan Babic, head of forensic laboratory in Zagreb, Croatia,
conducted the first experimental polygraph test in the Republic of
Croatia and Yugoslavia
❖ 1945- the polygraph was first introduced in the Philippines at the Crime
Laboratory of the Military Police. They sent Mr. Jose Navarro and Mr.
Conrado Dumlao to the U.S for polygraph training
❖ 1950- the National Bureau of Investigation sent Mr. Agustin Patricio to
train at the Keeler Polygraph Institute.

Modern Polygraph

Modern Polygraph is computer outfit with sensors. Sensors are used to measure and
record number of physical changes that are elated to the vegetative nervous system.
The reliability of the polygraph is directly related to number measured and recorded
inputs; the more there are inputs, the more accurate is the result of decision making
based on all measurement taken and individual characteristics are also taken into
account.

The study of the used of computerized polygraph in the physiological detection of

deception has progressed through several phases.

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 METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

The search for a reliable means to identify the untrustworthy is as

ancient as man. Some techniques were founded in superstitions and/or the
religious belief that “God would in some way reveal the truth and disallow the
immorality”. Many of these attempts, in fact, had some psychological and
physiological basis; other methods relied solely on fear of continued pain and
torture.

Historically, early human beings have their own way of determining lie
or guilt on the part of the accused and accuser. Their common method is thru
the application of “ordeal.” An ordeal is a severe test of character or endurance,
trying course of experience, and a medieval form of judicial trial in which the
accused was subjected to physical tests, as carrying or walking over burning
objects or immersing the hand in scalding water, the result being considered a
divine judgment of guilt or innocence. It is also a term of varying meaning
closely related in the Medieval Latin “Dei Indicum” meaning “Miraculous
decision.”

The term “Trial by Ordeal” refers to the ancient method of trial in which
the accused was exposed to physical danger which was supposed to be harmless
if he was innocent. According to historians, Trial by Combat was the earliest
method of determining truthfulness and deception of a person or persons
suspected for the commission of an offense. It is the resolving of an issue
through strength of arms. For example, there are two men approach a fallen
victim, each claim he did not kill it, and asserts to be righteous and innocent of
the accusation. To prove their allegations, they engage in combat. The ideal
assumption is that the truthful individual will win through. However, the most
skilled in combat usually will become victorious and thus made him as having
the rightful claim and that the loser will be declared guilty and will suffer the
consequence thereafter.

The scenario changed very little by medieval times. The customs knights
engaged in mortal combat to decide whose lord had the right in any
controversy. While the practice was functionally the same as trial by combat,
the ethical premise was different. It was held -that the fighting skill of an
individual was not related to his truthfulness or lying. The knight representing
the truth would be victorious due to “Divine Intervention” that is, that a just
God would not allow injustice to prevail.

The next development in the search for truth was the so-called, “Trial by
Ordeal” (Keeler 1938). It was assumed once again that God would intervene on.
behalf of the innocent, that is, God would not allow any innocent individual to
be harmed. While these attempts to detect truth appeared to be laden by
religious beliefs, they were in fact based upon practical observations both
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psychological and physiological phenomena which play an important role in the

truth finding processes.

Hypnotism

This method was introduced by an Austrian Physician Franz (Friedrich)

Anton Mesmer in 1778. He believed in animal magnetism, by which in his own
personal electro - magnetism, therapeutic effect influenced other persons.
These effects produced were attributed to the state of mind of a subject whereby
he is set up, and thereby instructed to sit quietly and gazed at flashing light or
shiny object tangled in front of his eyes and to cooperate with whatever the
hypnotist would like him to do.

Detected deception through hypnosis was not admissible in court due to the
following:

1. It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis in

ascertaining the truth from falseness.
2. The possibility that the hypnotized subject will deliberately fabricate.
3. The prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility in which the hypnotized
subject is suspended will produce distortion of the fact rather than the truth.
4. The state of the mind and professionalism of the examiner are too subjective to
permit admissibility of the expert testimony.

The Word Association Test

This method was introduced in 1879 by Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911 -

an English Scientist and Anthropometrist. His experiment was later
developed by Dr. Carl Gustav Jung (1875 ~ 1961) - a Swiss psychologist and
psychiatrist and the founder of Analytical Psychology.

This method is done by giving a subject a long list of carefully selected

stimulus words or objects with other pictures combined with other
irrelevant words, objects or pictures with the instruction to respond with the
very first word that may come to subject’s mind. Dr. Jung was able to
observe how the thinking reactions were linked into the emotional habit of
his subject. The theory behind this method is that, one word or idea is
reflective of another word or idea and the expression of their association
forms a meaningful picture.

The Truth Serum Method

This method was introduced by Dr. Edward Mandel House (1858-1938),
a U.S Physicist and diplomat and a confidential adviser to former U.S.
President Woodrow Wilson. The term “truth serum” is a misnomer. The
procedure does not make someone tell the truth and the thing
administered is not a serum but is actually a drug.

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This method is based on the theory that ‘’intervention’’ through

interrogation is made possible after dosage of drugs has been appropriately
administered, which depresses the cerebral activity to a point of
unconsciousness, an influence called as the “House Receptive Stage” or the
“Twilight Zone”. On this condition the subject is half asleep.

The objective of the test is to extract from the subconscious mind of the
subject the stored contents of the mind called “memory”. During the test, a drug
called Byosine Hydrobromide is usually administered hypodermically to the
subject in repeated doses until a state of delirium is induced. When the proper
point is reached, the questions were answered by the subject truthfully. He
forgets his acts or may even implicate others. Accordingly, he will disclose
everything without evasiveness.

Of all the deception detection methods, the “Truth Serum” test is considered
most favorable and effective if all the following conditions proper to the conduct
of the test will be observed:

- The test must be performed by skilled experimenter, operator, technician,

or physician.
- The subject expresses his consent to undergo the test.
- The dosage of drugs injected or administered is sufficient for acquiring
desired results.
- There is sufficient time during the test. e Assurance of result is acquired to
determine truth or deception.
Though statements taken from the subject under this process is not
admissible as evidence in court because its nature is involuntary, its application
to criminal investigation is very useful because of its psychological effect,
before, during, and after. Just ag well, a person not knowing the misleading
notion of the test may tell the truth to avoid pain of needles and possible brain
destruction even before the test is done.

Narco-Analysis or Narco-Synthesis

This method of detecting deception was practically the same as that of

administration of truth serum. The only difference is the drug used. The drug
Sodium Amytal or Sodium Pentothal is administered to the subject. When the
effects appear, questioning starts. It was claimed that the drug causes
depression of the inhibitory mechanism of the brain and the subject talks freely.
The administration of the drug. and subsequent interrogation must be done by
a psychiatrist. Like the administration of truth serum, the result of the test was
not admissible in court.

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Intoxication

This was practiced by means of drinking alcoholic beverages as stimuli

to obtain truth on the part of the subject. The subject for interrogation will be
allowed to take alcoholic beverages up to the point of intoxication.
Theoretically, when under the influence of alcohol, the power of control is said
to be diminished; thus, the subject will tend to tell everything he knows or reveal
all the relevant information. Interrogation is to be made during the excitatory
effect of alcohol.

Under this method, there is eventually lack of self-control of the subject

under intoxication. When the subject is already in the depressive state due to
excess alcohol intake, he will not be able to answer questions anymore, and
perhaps fell asleep. Confession made by the subject while intoxicated is
admissible if he is physically able to recollect the facts and state them truly and
exactly even after the influence or “spirit” of alcohol has disappeared. But in
most instances, the subject can recall his utterances or usually refuses to admit
the truth of the statement given.

What were the Methods of Detecting Deception through Regular

Police works?

The police methods sought to answer the legal investigative process are the so
called “Five Wives and One Husband” technique or the 5 W’s and 1H which
stands for WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY and HOW. These questions
are used to gain the so called “Three Eyes” (3 I’s) of investigation which refers
to the following:

1. Information gathering - Through record check, surveillance and

intelligence check.

2. Investigation - Through interrogation and/or interview to obtain

admission or confession.

3. Instrumentation - Through criminalistics processes with the use of the

different investigative forensic - sciences such as medico legal or forensic
medicine, forensic chemistry, forensic photography, forensic ballistics,
questioned documents examination, dactyloscopy, and polygraphy or
deceptography.

What is the scientifically accepted Method of Detecting Deception?

During the 19th century, Dr. Hans Gross, an Austrian - known as the
“Father of Criminalistics”, defined search for truth as the basis and goal of all
criminal investigations. He asserted that “a large part of the criminalist’s work

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to nothing more than a battle against lies. He has to discover the truth and must
fight the opposite. He meets the opposite at every step”.

Throughout the centuries, man continued to experiment with more

scientific methods in determining truth and deception with the following
scientists who have contributed much in the development of the scientific
instrument known as the “Polygraph” thus, the polygraph technique was used
as the scientific means of detecting deception.

What is the Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE)?

Aside from polygraph instrument one of the modern gadgets in lie

detection is the PSE or Psychological Stress Evaluator. The instrument detects
lying by measuring the level of stress experienced by the subject through his
recorded voice. The interview and test are recorded by the computer or
cellphone.

It was scientifically found that, when a person speaks, there are audible
voice frequencies, and superimposed on these are the inaudible frequency
modulations which are products of minute fluctuation of the muscle of the voice
mechanism. Such fluctuations of the muscles or micro tremor occur at the rate
of 8 to 14 cycles per second and controlled by the central nervous system.

When a person is under stress as when he is lying, the micro tremor in

the voice utterance is moderately or completely suppressed. The degree of
suppression varies inversely to the degree of psycho logic stress on the speaker.
The psychological stress evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and graphically
displays the voice modulations that we cannot hear.

When a person is relaxed and responding honestly to the question, those

inaudible frequencies are registered clearly on the instrument. But when a
person is under stress, as when he is lying, these frequencies tend to disappear.

During the test, the PSE Examiner asks series of questions to the subject
and records his voice utterances. The instrument filters the vocal answers create
patterns and displays those patterns on the computer screen. The examiner
then evaluates the patterns for truth or deception.

Under this method, the following procedures are followed:

- The examiner meets the requesting party to determine the specific purpose
of the exanimation and to begin formulation of relevant questions.
- A pre-test interview is conducted with the subject to help him or her feel at
ease with the examiner, to provide an opportunity to specify matters, to
eliminate outside issues, and to review questions that will be asked.
- An oral test of about 12 to 15 “yes” or “no” questions is given which is
recorded on a tape recorder. The questions are a mixture of relevant an
irrelevant question.

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- Immediately following the test or are a late time, the tape is processed
through the Psychological Stress Evaluator for analysis of answer.
- If stress is indicated, the subject is given authority to provide additional
clarification. A re-test is given to verify correction and clarification.

The Psychological Stress Evaluator, like the polygraph cannot detect

deception per se’, rather, it also records reactions to a given situation, most
commonly a question and answer session. Those reactions may be charted,
and the interpretation of those reactions may lead the examiner to conclude
that the individual is lying.

B. The Observation Methods:

Through facial Expressions, such as:
a. Blushing, paling, or profuse sweating of forehead;
b. Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of eyeballs, and elevation of upper
eyelids;
c. Squinting of the eyes (showing envy, disdain, distrust, etc.);
d. Twitching of the lips;
e. Excessive winking of the eyes;
f. Failure to look the inquirer ‘’straight into the eye’’;
g. Excessive activity of the Adam’s apple and the vein at the temple due to
dryness of throat and mouth;
h. Quivering of Nose or Nostrils;
i. A peculiar monotone of the voice;
j. A forced laugh;
k. Rolling of eyeballs from one direction to another;
Through Postural Reactions, such as:

a. Fidgeting, tapping, or drumming of fingers on the chair or other

surfaces;
b. Swinging of legs, or of one leg over the other;
c. Unnecessary movement of hands and feet (like scratching, nail-biting,
thumb- or finger-sucking, etc.);
d. Pulsation of the carotid artery in the neck;
e. Incoherence, trembling and sweating of the whole body;
Through Cause-and-Effect Process, such as:

a. Stimulus- Reaction test;

b. Stimulus-response test;

What were the Early Methods of Detecting Lies?

1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal — Practiced on the hill tribe of Rajhmal in the North
Bengal. The accused placed his tongue to a red-hot iron nine times (9) unless
burned sooner. If burned, he is put to death as he is guilty. Not only just licking
the iron but also, he is made to carry the metal into his hands.

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2. Ordeal by the Balance - An ordeal practiced in the Vishnu, India. The

scale of balance is used where the accused is placed in the other end while a
counter balance is made. If he were found to be lighter than before then he will
be acquitted.

3. Boiling Water Ordeal- Common in Africa. The method was that the
subject will be asked to - plunge their right arms into the boiling water to the
elbow and step into the other side of the fire. All are told to undergo the test
without a murmur. And when all are finished, they are told to return at the same
time the next afternoon. The one who showed blisters would prove the thief
(Point out who is the one who steal among his tribe mates).

4. Ordeal by Rice Chewing - An ordeal practiced by the Indians. It is formed

with a kind of rice called sathee, prepared with various incantations. The person
on trial eats the rice then spits upon an eyeful leaf. If the saliva is mixed with
blood or the corner of his mouth swell or he trembles, he is declared then a liar.

5. Ordeal of the Red Water - Used in a wide region of Eastern Africa. The
ordeal of the “sassy bark” or red water was used where the accused is made to
fast for twelve hours then swallows a small amount of rice until he is imbibed
in dark colored water. This water is actually emetic and if the suspect ejects all
the rice, he is considered innocent; otherwise, the accused is guilty.

6. Combination of Drinks and Food Ordeal - An ordeal practiced by the

West African region where the accused first fasted for 12 hours and the given
small amount of rice to eat followed by large amount of black colored water. If
the concoction was vomited, the accused was pronounced innocent, otherwise,
guilty.

7. Trial by Combat - A fight between the accuser and the accused, whoever
lost the battle will be the adjudged guilty. Originated in India where an accuser
could hire somebody or bigger one to fight the accused. After the fight the loser
will be adjudged as guilty of crime. It became the legal ordeal in England during
the time of “King Henry III.”

8. Trial by Torture - The accused was put into a severe physical test. If the
accused can endure such torture, he will be considered innocent.

9. Drinking Ordeal - The accused was given a decoction to drink by a priest -

if innocent; no harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die. Practiced in Nigeria and
India.

10. Trial of the Eucharist - This trial is reserved for the clergy, and
administered with pomp and ceremony. If the accused was guilty, it was
believed that Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent the accused
from swallowing the food given to him. Practiced in the European countries.

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11. Ordeal by Heat and Fire - The accused was compelled to walk bare
footed through a fire, if he remains unhurt then he is_ innocent. Practiced in
East Germany, early Scandinavian countries and early England.

12. Ordeal of Boiling Oil or Water - The accused was forced to dip his hands
into the boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it. If he remains unhurt
then he is innocent. Practiced in Asian Countries.

13. Ordeal of Red-Hot Needle - A red hot needle was drawn through the
lips of the accused, if innocent, no blood will be seen flowing out. Practiced in
East Africa.

14. Ordeal of the Tiger - Accuser and accused were placed together in the
same and a tiger set loose upon them. If both were spared, further elimination
followed. Practiced in Thailand.

15. Test of the Cross Ordeal - The accuser and accused each were made to
stand with arms crossed on their breast. The one who endured the longest was
deemed to have told the truth, the other, is the liar. Practiced in Europe.

16. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal - A donkey was placed in one room alone and was
observed. If the donkey cried as judge of the guilty of crimes, then the accused
is guilty.

What were the known Countries that Practiced Ordeal?

1. Burma - The accuser and accused were given each identical candle and both
were lightened at the same time. The holder of the candle that consumed faster
was adjudged the liar.

2. Borneo - The accuser and accused were presented by shell fish placed on a
plate. An irritating fluid was then poured on the shell fish and the litigant whose
shell fish moved first was adjudged the winner. 3. Greece - A suspended axe was
spun at the center of a group of suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever was
in line with the blade was supposed to be guilty as pointed out by the divine
providence.

3. Nigeria - The priest greased a feather and pierced the tongue of the accused.
If the feather passed through the tongue easily, the accused was deemed
innocent. If not, the accused is guilty. Another method in Nigeria was the
practice of pouring corrosive liquid into the eyes of the accused who was
supposed to remain unharmed if innocent. Pour boiling oil over the hand of the
accused with the usual requisites for guilt or innocence (if remain unharmed,
he is innocent).

4. Europe and Early United States (17th Century) - Trial by water was
commonly used on those accused of witchcraft. The accused was bound (hand
and foot) and then cast into the body of water. If the accused sank, he was

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hauled to the surface half-drowned and deemed innocent. If he floated, he was

deemed guilty and burned to death.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LYING

Remember that lying person fears detection ang possible ostracism by

the offended community. He may feel that once detection, he could not but
accept the bitter results of being penalized, thus placing his whole life at stake.
Since fear reaction carries emotional responses due to detection, he may now
exhibit external and internal physical and physiological changes within him,
such that these changes occur beyond his defensive power to control or repress
them. These changes, on the other hand, are recorded by the polygraph
instrument and diagnosed by the Examiner.

But what is always driving a person to lie? What is behind all these?

The answer is the PSYCHOLOGY of a LYING PERSON. A person ’s fears,

anxieties and apprehensions are channeled toward the situation that evoke his
instinct of self-preservation to struggle out from the consequences of the wrong
he has already done. He may, once and for all, “erind-the axe” of his self-defense
mechanism come what may through lies, alibis and excuses. His conscience is
bothered so much on how to hide everything beyond his own senses. And his
will power and emotions are perplexed and varied.

In polygraphy, the psychological approach to all these lies or similar

situations are governed by the different types of test and control questions
prepared and formulated by the Examiner. The test contains relevant questions
which are designed to pose a threat to the security of the guilty (or lying)
Subject, and control questions designed to pose a threat to the security of the
innocent (or truthful) Subject. The equally truthful Subject, though accused, its
assured of the reactions he may exhibit during the whole polygraph
examination by the carefully formulate

Other factors psychologically taken into consideration are Subject’s basic

emotionality and intensity. of the offense. Normally, the innocent Subject’s
reaction potential is lower than that of the guilty Subject. A temporary
heightening of his emotional state when the examination began registers this.
Then such reaction decreases as the test itself progresses.

In understanding more of the psychology of lying we are tempted to include the

study of the different kinds of LIES, which are as follows:

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A. KINDS OF LIES

1. White Lie or Benign Lie

This is the kind of lie, the most common of all, which is intended to
protect or maintain harmony or friendship, at home, in the office or elsewhere.
Example: Peter’s Denial: The distorted formulation of rules and regulations in
some companies in order to protect and secure own products from any outside
competing forces.

2. Pathological Lie
This is a lie made by persons who cannot distinguish right from wrong. It
must be said that those persons are mentally sick, or of low mental caliber. In
Polygraphy, impairment of the mind must be established first before
conducting any lie-detector test; otherwise the whole test will be useless.
Pathological liars are among those classified as Barriers and Obstacles to Lie
Detection with the aid of the Polygraph.

3. Red Lie
This involves political interests and motives because this is part of
Communist propaganda strategy. This lie is prevalent in communist countries
of communist-infested nations. Lies of this sort purport to destroy other
ideologies by means of propaganda-brainwashing and black-mail via espionage
and treason.

4. Black Lie
A lie which accompanies pretensions and hypocrisies, intriguing can cause
dishonor or discredit one’s good image. (An example is the person who always
pretends what he thinks of himself, what kind of person he is, and what he is
doing).

5. Malicious or Judicious Lie

This is a very pure and unjustifiable kind of lie. This is intended purely to
mislead justice. The probable result would be “PERJURY” and pure dishonesty
to obstruct justice! Some liar lawyers and false witnesses fall under this
category.

B. TYPES OF LIE

a. Direct Denial-this is the direct denial of the act in question that creates an
emotional sense of disturbance. This disturbance refers to the conflict between
what is true and the attempted deception that creates an internal battle in the
mind. Example: “I did not do it”. The vague response permits the person to
evade inner conflict while seeming to answer the question. The reply given to a
query must be evaluated in terms of what was asked to know if the answer is
proper.

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b. Lie of Omission - this is a type of lie that people usually used because it is
simple to tell. Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the truth
while omitting details that could create possible troubles.

c. Lie of Fabrication - this is the most difficult type op lie that a subject could
use in an interview.

d. Lie of Minimization - in this type of lie individua) will accept that

something has occurred buy downplays the implication. Lie of minimization
could be used if a subject wanted to stay close to the truth; however, he covers
the truth for his or her own benefit.

Example: Mr. X is complaining because Mr. B boxed him and as a result the
nose of Mr. X is broken. If Mr. B used the lie of minimization, he will state that
he only slapped Mr. X.

e. Lie of Exaggeration - this is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the
hope of obtaining some advantage. This is also often found on resume, where
applicant exaggerates his or her experiences, knowledge, skills, salary and
length of service. The exaggerated claims can be verified by looking for
inconsistencies of the subject’s story.

C. TYPES OF LIAR

a. Panic Liar

- It is one who lies in order to avoid the consequences of a confession

- He/she is afraid of embarrassment to love ones and it is a serious blow to
his/her ego.
- He/ she believes that confession will just make the matter worst.
b. Occupational Liar

- Someone laid for spare years

- This person is a practical liar and lies when it has a higher ‘’pay off’’ than
telling the truth.
c. Tournament Liar

- Loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being detected.

- This person views an interview as another contest and wants win.
- This person realizes that he or she will probably be convicted but will not
give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him or her confesses.
- He wants that people will believe that the law is punishing an innocent
person.

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d. Psychopathic Liar

- The most difficult type

- This person has no conscience. He shows no regret for dishonestly and no
manifestation of guilt.
e. Ethnological Liar

- One who is taught not to be a squealer

- * squealer – to cry or to shrill voice
- Used by underworld gang in order for their member not to reveal any secret
of their organization.
f. Pathological Liar

- A person who cannot distinguish right from wrong (his mind is sick.)
- Is an insane person.
g. Black Liar

- A person who always pretends.

- (what he thinks of himself, what kind of a person he is, and what he is.)

D. UNDERSTANDING SUBJECT’S AGE CHARACTERISTICS

To further enhance the study of the psychology of the lying person, it is also
necessary to understand Subject’s age characteristics, which are as follows:

- 7 to 12 years......... Fantastic Subject.

- 13 to 19 years.......... Distinction of fantasy and reality. At this level, the
Subject is at age of limitation and idolatry. His/her ego my start to
develop.
- 20 to 25 years.......... His/ her ego begins to lessen because he/she is not
important person. Subjects like him are idealistic be principled. They can
be responsible and sometimes conscious of their neighbors. The girls
may begin to marry at this age, and they become sociable. The degree of
their exposure to the society depends on how they were brought up
socially, morally and spiritually, including family, friend and other
individual influence.
- 26 to 60 years…………. They serve as the best witnesses. They often
possess materialism, maturity and responsibility. Intellect is fully
developed and intelligence is well coordinated with memory.
- 61 to Death……… Their memories are fading because some of their senses
are defective. They are no longer good witnesses. They are no longer
good witnesses. They need perspective because they may start to act like
children (senility). They are irritable and sensitive.

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E. SOME SIGNS OF LIES AND DECEPTION

Generally, when a person becomes defensive due to fear of detection, one can
point out that any of the signs herein enumerated indicates lies, guilt or deceptive,
such as:

1. Stammering
2. Swearing to or before God that he did not commit the crime
3. Pointing his guilt to somebody else
4. Subject refuses to answer questions through alibis and excuses
5. He is all the time absent-minded
6. He is always requesting for repetition of questions
7. He often asks counter-question and counter-queries
8. He often asks permission to go to the comfort rooms, etc.

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THE INSTRUMENT

The instrument used in Polygraph Examination is often called as

Polygraph. It was defined as an instrument or device capable of producing
recordings of physiological phenomena that may be used as the basis for the
application of reliable technique for diagnosing truth or deception. The
instrument itself does not detect lies or deception; it only records the
physiological changes that occur when the subject tells a lie or deception. It is
the Examiner who determines deception through the use or aid of the polygraph
instrument.

STOELTING
DECEPTOGRAPH
(‘ULTRASCRIBED”)

A. THE PNEUMOGRAPH COMPONENT

A device that records respiration and one of the three traditional
channels of the modern polygraph used in PDD. Most contemporary
polygraphs use two Pneumograph recordings: abdominal and thoracic. The
sensors are the traditional convoluted rubber tube, the mercury strain gauge,
or the newer piezoelectric. Krapohl and Sturm Polygraph, 2002, 31(3) 205

Figure 2

This Component records changes occurring in the Respiratory or Breathing

system

#1. The Pneumographic Tube - is a corrugated and stretchable rubberized

tube or apparatus that is to be attached to the Subject’s chest or stomach (or

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both). Inhalation will cause the tube to stretch and subsequently create an
upward tracing or movement of the pneumo-pen unto the polygraph chart.
Exhalations are the downward tracings, thereof.

#2. The Beaded Chain - is a freewheeling string of stainless beads with a

hook which fastens the pneumographic tube unto Subject’s chest or stomach.

Figure 3

The Pneumograph Tube

B. THE CARDIOGRAPH COMPONENT

The Cardiographic Component records the changes occurring in the
human circulatory system, such as the blood pressure and pulse rates.

Cardiograph - General term for any recording of heart activity. In PDD the
use of a blood pressure cuff to monitor relative arterial blood pressure changes
and pulse wave is more precisely described as sphygmography (recording of the
arterial pulse) or occlusion plethysmography (partial blockage of circulation to
measure volume changes in a body part). While cardiograph is not incorrect in
this context, it lacks precision in denoting the actual phenomenon being
recorded in PDD. The term cardiograph in the psychophysiological and
medical literature most often refers to the electrocardiograph. Terminology
Reference Polygraph, 2002, 31(3)166

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Figure 5, 6 and Figure 7

The Arm Cuff — shall be attached to the Subject’s arm.

The Hand Pump Bulb - causes the arm cuff to inflate in order to produce _
blood pressure and pulse rates.
The Aneroid Blood Pressure Meter Gauge — measures and monitors B/P
reading while the polygraphic testing is going on.

The attachment of the cuff to the Subjects arm must be centered so we can have
a normal recorded pattern of the blood. As to produce clearer and precise pressure.

C. The Galvanograph Component

The Galvanographic Component, sometimes called the Galvanic-Skin-Reflex
(GSR) Component, records’ the changes occurring in the Nervous-Excretory
systems. It has been studied that brain’s activities and electrical charges have been
recorded thru the epidermal skin reflexes passed through the different nerves of
the human body.

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Figure 10

The Finger Electrodes - are special types of sensitive metal plates to be attached
to the Subject’s end-joints of both the Index and Ring Fingers for the recording of the
electrical charges (ohms from the brain through the skin.

Figure 11 and figure 12 shows the proper attachment procedure using both the
Index and Ring fingers for the recording of the Galvanic Skin Reflex responses.

D. THE KYMOGRAPH COMPONENT

Motorized mechanism that moves strip chart paper at a specified rate. The
current standard in PDD is 6 inches per minute, though historically there have
been other speeds.

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Figure 13

INKING PROCESS
1. Completely remove cap and capillary tube from bottle
2. Using filler pipette/dropper provided extract ink from supply bottle.
3. Fill ink container to approximately ¼ % full. Do not overfill. Overfilling the ink
bottles will increase the possibility of spillage during transit.
4. Grasp the bottle by the cap and tighten by rotating bottle with your free hand.
5. Squeeze the bottle until the ink is forced to the end of the pen.
6. Loosen the caps open ¼ % again by rotating the bottle.
7. Release the pressure on the bottle.

Resuming Capillary Ink after Storage

1. Loosen bottle cap to relieve any pressure build-up in bottle.
2. Remove protective pen cap/s.
3. Start chart drive and check for proper ink flow.
4. Adjust bottle height as required.
Adjusting Ink Flow
In order to maintain a constant flow of ink through the capillary tube,
the level of ink in the bottle must be kept at a higher level than the pen for
proper siphoning. The ink bottle can be adjusted by pulling it upward in the

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well. The bottle should “cling” to the sides of the well, allowing for adjustment
of the flow.
To Clean the Pens, Follow the Steps Listed Below:
1. Remove the pen together with capillary tube and ink bottle. Do not
disconnect the total inking system. Doing so will eventually stretch the
capillary tube seal or the seal of the ink bottle.
2. Remove the ink bottle cap and pour all excess ink from the bottle.
3. Fill and rinse the bottle cap and pour excess ink from the bottle.
4. from the bottle. Fill with clear water and apply pressure using the same
procedure as for inking pens, until clear water flows from the pen tip. Flush for
several seconds.
5. If the tap water in your area has a high mineral content, flush the pens a final
time with distilled water or alcohol.

Figure 14

The STEPS (Plug in the Unit to a 110-Volt Power outlet; Put Inks in the Ink-
Containers)

1. The Upper Pneumograph - attach the Pneumograph Tube to Subject’s chest;

lock the Beaded Chain; close the Vent; adjust Sensitivity and Pen-Centering Controls;
align Pen-Cradle and Pen to the Chart; finally check the GREEN Ink tracing

2. The Lower Pneumograph - attach the Pneumograph Tube to Subject’s stomach;

lock the Beaded Chain; close the Vent; adjust Sensitivity and Pen-Centering Controls;
align Pen-Cradle and Pen to the Chart; finally check the GREEN Ink tracing.

3. The Cardiograph-wrap the Arm Cuff around Subject’s right or left arm; close the
vent; pump the Hand-pump bulb to inflate Arm Cuff; check the B/P reading at the
Aneroid B/P Meter Gauge; clip Pinch-Clamp to close pneumatic pressure; adjust
sensitivity and Pen- Centering Controls; align Pen-Cradle and pen to the Chart; finally
check the RED Ink Tracing.

4. The Galvanograph/GSR- attach the Fingers Electrodes to the Subject’s right or

left Index and Ring Fingers; adjust Sensitivity and Pen-Centering Controls; align Pen-
Cradle and pen to the Chart; finally check the BLUE Ink Tracing.

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(NOTE: When Polygraph Testing is over, please return all knob-controls to Off
Positions; detach accessories ad apparatus form subject’s body; Plug OFF the whole
Instruments.)

B. THE SIMULTANEOUS RECORDINGS

The Attachments

Figure 15

Figure 16

Figure 17

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The LX4000 computer polygraph system records, stores and analyzes

physiological changes during a polygraph examination. The LX4000 system combines
conventional polygraph procedures with a sophisticated state of the art computer.
Results are derived from the following traditional computer. Results are derived from
the following traditional physiological parameters:

Pneumo -Two Respiration Input Channels

EDA-Galvanic Skin Response
Cardio-Blood Volume/Pulse Rate
Charts are recorded in much the same manner as conventional polygraph
instrumentation with smooth scrolling display moving from right to left. The
tracings recorded are in real-time and are truly rectilinear, so charts can be easily
interpreted.

See polygraph software page for a sample can be operated using a mouse/pointing
device or the keyboard.

A. CHART MARKINGS
Mankind has used signs and symbols since the beginning of time. The
absence of sign can cause a great deal of confusion. As an illustration, a stranger
on a crossroad without any sign will not know the right road to take in order
that he will reach his destination. By the simple experience of adding signs and
markings to indicate the location, will eliminate confusion. The same situation
confronts the polygraph examiner. Without marking of any kind, it is
impossible to evaluate the chart and arrive at any conclusion.
Chart marking is a very important part of the polygraph technique. The
examiner may have the best training, used the most advance method and run
miles of chart tracing yet the value if his endeavor is not without proper chart
markings. One or two seconds that he is off on chart marking can easily create
misinterpretation. To facilitate evaluation and interpretation of test charts,
markings are made with the use of signs and symbols to enable the examiner to
determine the following:
1. Exact time the test commenced and terminated;
2. Initial and final blood pressure and galvanograph readings;
3. Particular point where each question asked started and ended.
Corresponding identification of the question, and the type and time of
answer given by the subject;
4. Duration and amplitude of reaction patterns.
5. Any instruction given or repetition of question made;
6. Any movement, cough tracing by the suspect or outside distractions
that occurred;
7. Mechanical adjustment or re-adjustment made;
8. Extraneous factors affecting test chart such as paper jams;
9. Time Interval Between questions; and
10. Chart number. Name of subject, time, date, and place taken and the
name and signature of the examiner.

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B. SIGNS AND SYMBOLS (COMMONLY USED)

X/ 60 /1.5 A First marking of the examiner on the
chart
XX / 60 / 1.5 A Examiner’s mark after the test
X Start of the test
XX End of the test
60 Millimeter of mercury shown in
sphygmomanometer dial
1.5 Ohms of the skin electrical resistance
A or M Refers to the automatic or manual
galvo amplifier used.
|| Particular point where each question
begins and end (also called stimulus
mark)
+ Yes, answer to the question
No, answer to the question
A Adjustment
T Subject talked instead of answering
with single Yes or No
R Subject request for repetition of
question
C Coughing
N Noise
S Sigh by the Subject
PJ Paper Jam
SN Subject Sniffed
BI Breathing Instruction
OS Tracing change caused by outside
stimulus
M Movement
IM Movement Instruction
L Laugh
B Used to signify belch
C+ Increase in galvo Sensitivity
C- Decrease in galvo sensitivity
Y Yawn
IS Ink stop
CT Clearing of throat

CHART INTERPRETATION

The most important single factor in polygraph testing is chart interpretation.

The accuracy of instrument detection of deception is dependent upon the examiners
ability to diagnose truth or deception by reading ang interpretation of subject’s chart.

The changes or deviation from the normal recording of the pneumo, cardio and
galvo tracings which appears as the subject answers at test question is referred to as
response, A “response” constitutes a deviation from the subject norm. The most

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significant and dependable indicator of deception is a stimulus response and when

such response occurs in two or more charts, these responses are referred to as “specific
response”.

“THE GENERAL RULE IN CHART INTERPRETATION”

1. There must be specific response.
2. To be specific, it must form a deviation from the norm.
3. The specific response must appear in at least two (2) test charts.
4. The best indication of deception is the simultaneously specific in the three (3)
tracings of the chart.
“WHAT IS THE RELEVANCE OF THE TEST CHARTS?”

It is the basis of the examiner’s findings. It contains the reaction of the

subject during the tests.

A. CHANGE IN PNEUMO TRACING

Changes in the Pneumo Tracing which may fall into the category of
specific response when accompanied by a response in the cardio or even the
galvo tracing are as follows.

1. Change in Rhythm or Regularity

The rate normal breathing is 18 cycle per minute. Usually a change in
rate will be either a decrease with increase amplitude causing an irregularity in
the respiration pattern of varying duration. These rate volume changes are due
to the need for oxygen to compensate for an accelerated heart action or for
previous suppression of breathing.
2. Change in Amplitude or Volume
In normal respiration, an average of about one point of air is inhaled and
exhaled during a single cycle known as tidal air. But the lungs are not
completely deflated during normal exhalation, there still remaining the residual
air. In what is known as a sigh, there is an increase in the residual volume
causing the recorded inspiration stroke to go higher and the expiration stroke
lower than the normal breathing.

3. Change in Inspiration, Expiration Rate

In normal respiration, the time consumed in inspiration and expiration has a

ratio of three to five which means the inspiration takes only 3/5 as long as the
expiration. Researcher especially Benussi and Burt established that this change
with emotion, the simplest method for determining such changes is the vertical line
through the apex of the pneumo cycle before and after question stimuli and then
measure the distance between the vertical lines. Actual measurement may not
necessary, however, as the changes are usually rendered discernible by the drawing
of the line.

4. Notch or Serrated Inspiration or Expiration Stroke

These are frequent occurrence; serration may record in the case of the
subject in an intense nervous state as a result of tremendous breathing. A notch

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on either stroke may indicate catching of the breath when surprised or shocked,
talking, coughing, crying, swallowing may affect the tracing. The customary
“YES” OR “NO” answer may be rendered as a small notch in the expiration,
seldom in the inspiration stroke for the reason that we do not normally speak
during inspiration. This is easily discernable when the base of the inspiration
tracing represented the guideline. The baseline may either fall below or rise
above this line during or after — relevant question. The rate and volume may or
may not be altered. This part caused by the subjects sensing of the importance
of the stimulus and braced the body not to exhibit any external manifestation.

5. Hyperventilation
The subject usually attempts to befuddle the examiner from making an
interpretatlo pneumo pattern, he resorts to a regular deep breathing in an
attempt to beat the test. Hyperventilation may appear when stimulus is of
which an impact upon the plight mechanism of the body, which it stores up
oxygen, it may be caused by prolonged suppression of the breathing such that
the deficit oxygen has to be compensated when the danger has passed.
6. Suppression
Suppression or shallow breathing may a sort of bracing against
anticipated shock on an attempt to control the reaction to a shock just received.
When suppression of breathing correlates closely with the crucial question, it
became highly significant particularly when accompanied by similar in the
blood pressure tracing.
7. Respiratory Block
Respiratory block is easily identified of the respiratory changes. It is an
exaggerated form of suppression in which there is a usual shortening of both
the inspiration and expiration stroke that appears as straight line. Respiratory
block or holding of breath through more than or two cycles usually indicates an
attempt to beat the test.

B. THE GALVO TRACING

Two galvo tracing which may be indicative of deception are the vertical
rise point of deception only, double saddle responses, long duration and or
degree of response following the point of deception and the plunging of the
galvanograph tracing. In most cases, the galvo tracing which is a measure
of increase or decrease of the subject’s skin resistance, rise and falls with
each stimulus. The highest or the lowest or absence of such rise or fall in
the crucial question may also be indicative.
GALVANOGRAPH DECEPTION RESPONSES

1. Double Saddle Response

2. Rise from the Baseline
3. Vertical Rise Point
4. Long Duration
5. Plunging of the Tracing

C. THE CARDIO TRACING

The Cardio which takes the Form of Specific Response and Considered
Indication of Deception.

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1. Increase and Decrease of the Blood Pressure

This easily learned by the trend of the cardio tracing an increase in blood
pressure is indicative by a rise in the cardio tracing and a decrease by a fall. With
every stimulus, the blood pressure tracing tends to have a slight increase and
decrease of the Magnitude and duration of the rise and fall of the cardio tracing
that is taken into consideration in comparison most particularly between the
relevant and control question.

2. Increase in Blood Pressure Only

This indicated by a sustain rise in the blood pressure tracing during a
crucial question and return to the norm when the subject is released from that
stimulus by the introduction of irrelevant question.
3. Decrease Only in Blood Pressure
When there is a fall of the cardio tracing or after a crucial question from
a level of smooth tracing, a decrease in blood pressure is indicated, this
necessitate mechanical adjustment when the tracing fails to return to its former
level.
4. An Increase or Decrease Pulse Rate
Increase in pulse rate is easily recognize c and with a cardio pattern becomes
close together, decrease in pulse rate result, the cardio pattern becomes far
apart.

5. Increase or Decrease of Amplitude

When the cardio pattern becomes taller, there is an increase in
amplitude; a decrease in height in the pattern is a decrease of amplitude.

6. Change in the Position or Disappearance of Diacrotic Notch

The diacritic notch tends to change position depending upon the blood
pressure in the system. Too much air will have the notch at the bottom, and too
little air will place it at the top of the diastolic stroke during rise in blood
pressure. The diacrotic notch tends to go top of the diastolic and upon return of
the tracing to its original level, the diacrotic notch may change its position, at
times it disappeared entirely.
7. Extra Systole
The premature contraction s of an auricle or ventricle while fundamental
rhythm of the heart is maintaining cause of extra systole to appear, this is highly
indicative of deception, except when the entire cardiac tracing has it, which may
indicative of cardiac trouble.

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 Module No. 5

The Polygraph Examiner, Subject and

Examination Room
Topic

2nd Semester 2021-2022

Ma. Diana F. Alcoseba

Instructor I

Leo L. Casilagan
Instructor I
The Polygraph Examiner

A polygraph examiner is one who is skilled and capable to detect deception or

verify truth of statement through instrumentation or the use of the mechanical device.
The instrument or device. The instrument or device utilized to detect deception or
verify truthfulness of the statements must meet the basic instrumentation
requirements of being capable or recording simultaneously on a moving chart the
physiological responses.

a. The Following are qualifications and qualities expected of a polygraph

examiner:
1. He must remember that he is an impartial seeker of the truth, conducts his
examination in a professional and ethical manner, and never allow his
personal feelings, sympathies, or prejudice influence the result of the
examination
2. He should constantly bear in his mind his primary responsibility to his
subject to give them all possible safeguards against error and must never
accept for polygraph examination, any subject whose physical or mental
health or state makes him unfit.
3. Technically he must have a complete knowledge of the instrument and its
potentials and limitations, the most modern polygraph technique,
proficiency in the conduct of the polygraph examination, test construction
and chart interpretation.
4. Morally, he must have sincere desire to be a polygraph examiner in its
strictest sense by devoting himself to the polygraph profession through
maintenance of a high personal integrity and increasing personal
proficiency through constant study and research.

Responsibility of the Polygraph Examiner to the subject

In conducting polygraph examination, the examiner should be reminded

of his responsibilities to his subject:
1. The polygraph examiner recognizes the fact that his primary responsibility
must be to the person who has voluntarily submitted himself to a polygraph
examination.
2. He should never conduct examination on person without first that appraisal of
the subject’s constitutional rights and the right to self-incrimination.
3. He should never perform examination to any person unless the instrument he
is going to utilize is in good working condition and makes a continuous
permanent recording on a moving chart analysis without having administered
at least two or more charts.
4. He should never render certain or conclusive verbal or written opinion based
on the chart analysis without having administered at least two or more charts.
5. He should not suggest testimony concerning the charts or conclusions
presented by another examiner unless he is methodically familiar with the
techniques and procedures employed.

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6. Make sure that the subject signed a letter of consent.

Responsibilities of the Investigator to the examiner

In asking polygraph assistance, the investigator must always confer first with
the examiner on the requirements for the test:

1. Do not ask the test and hold the evidence submitted in the report. This is a
display of doubt as to his investigative finding of guilt on the part of the
accused such about always accumulate to the benefit of the accused in a
numerous instance the opinion of the examiner is accepted by the court in
favor of the defense rather in prosecution.
2. Do not depend on the mass screening of possible suspects to produce the
quality party except will know a reasonable amount of investigation to
produce suspect or materially narrow down the number of possible
suspects.
3. Do not to wait the last minutes after all investigative method and technique
have failed the test should never be used as a last resort.
4. Do not stop the investigation when polygraph test is deferred or temporarily
delayed.
5. Do not think investigation is over if the test indicates that the subject lies in
the test. Evidence and testimonies should be gathered to prove the facts of
the offense and the allegation against the subject.
6. Do not use the polygraph as abrupt or use to serve confession or admission.
7. Never tell anyone that the polygraph will decide whether the subject or
suspect is innocent or guilty, the court makes the decision.
8. Do not fail to investigate the case for seeking assistance of polygraph; the
examination does not establish whether the crime has been committed or
not.
9. Observe or at least be available during polygraph examination and
10. Do not be afraid to say I do not know the examiner and never mislead or
deceit the examiner.
Responsibilities of the Investigator to the Subject

1. Learn enough about the polygraph so that he can talk openly and freely to
the person about the test. The subject may know very little or may have been
misinformed.
2. Do not reveal the test of the offense, in which maybe utilize in the
application at Peak of Tension test.
3. Suggest that the test as a means for the subject to indicate his/her innocent.
4. Stress the test capability for indicating through the recorded responses
whether a person is telling the truth.
5. Avoid any claim for the instrument r examination that is not backed up by
facts (Geronimo 2007).

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Limitation of the subject who will undergo Polygraph Examination

1. The subject must have a goodnight sleep at least (5) hour prior to the test
2. He must refrain from smoking for at least (2) hours.
3. He should not undergo prolonged interrogation prior to the test.
4. The subject must not have been subjected to physical abuse or body contact
5. He must refrain from drinking alcohol beverages, taking sedatives, or
capsule or syrup for at least twelve (12) hour prior to the test.
6. He must not be suffering from any temporary illness like headache,
toothache, stomachache, fever, menstruation (for female), severe colds and
coughs.
7. He must not be hungry; and
8. He must not have sex indulgence prior to the test.

A. Specific objectives of Polygraph Examination

 To ascertain if person is telling the truth
 To verify and compare conflicting statements
 To obtain additional facts of an offense, location, of the stolen goods and
whereabouts of wanted person/s.
 To identify other person/s involved in the case
 Gain valuable information from unwilling subject

B. Principal Uses of Polygraph Examination in Criminal Investigation

 It is an investigative aid for the investigator to:
a. Confirm the statement of the victims
b. Ascertain the credibility of witnesses
c. Assess truthfulness of suspects
 It speeds the process of investigation
 It eliminates innocent subject/s
 The investigator can concentrate/ focus to one subject to determine truth
or deception

C. Uses of Polygraph
 Criminal Investigation
It is valuable tool of criminal investigation. It provides fast means of
eliminating innocent suspect/s, gives clue about the identity of
criminal suspect/s, verifies statement of those who are involved and
save a lot of time and effort during the process of investigation
(Geronimo 2007).
 Pre- Employment Test (A Screening)
It is the fastest and more accurate means of verifying statement of a
job applicant from derogatory remarks by a previous employer who
bears personal grudge against him.
 Periodic Personnel Check (For Integrity)
It is the best way of the company to determine dishonest employees
who are responsible for company losses and to determine the honesty
of the employees assigned to sensitive position.

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  Claim Verification Test (For Insurance Compensation/Benefits)
For the insurance company, for them to know if there’s fraud
manipulation.
 Loyalty Test (For Intelligence and Honesty Check)
This is mostly conducted in organization like PNP, Phil. Air Force.
Army, Phil Navy and the likes.
 Promotion
There are instances wherein the company has difficulty in deciding
between two or more candidates to be promoted, polygraph test helps
to determine who is the most qualified as well as employee’s future
intent against the company (Geronimo 2007).

Test Question Formulation

It has been previously mentioned that the questioned should be well

formulated following some strict guidelines. Generally, test question formulation must
follow three simple criteria.

Short- the questions should be short as possible to prevent the subject from losing
focus, minimize their impact upon the subject, and to avoid long questions that can
confuse the subject. In other words, formulated questions must be answerable by a
simple ‘’yes’’ or ‘’no’’.

Simple- the question must not contain any legal terminologies and technical terms.
Furthermore, their meanings must eb clear and unmistakable and have reference to
only one element of an offense or fact.

Direct- the questions must be able to stand alone and not depend on some other
question. They should focus on factual information not based on opinion. The relevant
questions should be limited to a single case investigation. The polygraph technique is
not effective for simultaneous testing involving two or more unrelated occurrences.

There are also isolated cases, wherein the examiner must use the subject’s own dialect
to facilitate better understanding. For example, if the subject does not know any dialect
other than what he has grown up with, the examiner must certainly adjust to the
situation. Aside from knowing the simple vocabulary, the examiner must also study
the intonation or request a competent interpreter is the one to read the question in the
subject’s native dialect.

Based on the authors experience, I once handled a rape case involving Vietnamese
subject at a Bataan refugee camp. We were fortunate enough to have an investigator
who can facilitate better understanding between the subject and the examiner. The
author also handled the case wherein the subject was Cebuano to whom the
expression., ‘’sugod na ta’’ means ‘’mag umpisa na tayo’’. Such cases involve
misunderstanding that can affect the test outcomes. With improved understanding,
the examiner can ensure that the subject will display the right kinds of ‘’reactions’’
throughout the test procedure.

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General Guidelines

As can be gleaned from the previous section, the phraseology of the test
questions is an extremely important aspect of the examination. In order to ensure a
successful outcome, the formulated questions must have several characteristics as
described below.

1. The Question must be clear

In other words, the questions that must be used in the test should be
thoroughly understandable to the subject. One example would be a
robbery case wherein the subject is a helper who knows little Tagalog. In
this case, the examiner cannot use a question like ‘’ Ikaw ba ay kasabwat
sa nakawan sa bahay ni mrs. Angeles?” because the subject would not
have a clear understanding of the word ‘’kasabwat’’. Instead, the
examiner can use the local term for ‘’kasabwat’’ in their local language,
such as ‘’kamplot’’ a Visayan colloquial term that is derived from the
English word, ‘complot’, which means collaboration.
2. The question must be simply stated
The question must be stated as simple as possible. This means that the
question must have only one possible meaning. The sentence must
completely avoid having a double meaning. For example, ‘’did you shoot
him then run into the house?’’ is a question that combines two sets of
acts or occurrence, one of which might be truthfully answerable by ‘’yes’’
and the other by ‘’no’’.
3. Avoid lengthy questions
Asking a long question is not only time consuming but also confusing for
the subject as well. Such a question can also result in a loss of impact on
a lying subject.
4. The test questions should focus on facts
The polygraph test questions should concern factual information, and
should not be based upon opinions. Opinion question responses cannot
be relied upon in evaluating truth or deception. For example, the
question ‘’were you drunk on September 11? Requires a subject’s
personal interpretation of his condition and his conclusion may be vastly
different from what the examiner has in mind when he uses the word
‘’drunk’’.

The Test Questions

Within a set of test questions there must be relevant, irrelevant, and control
questions. Details are provided below.

Relevant Question

Relevant question are direct questions that have an intense and specific
relation to the crime being investigated, including some secondary element,
such as guilty knowledge or partial involvement. These types of questions are
designed specifically to produced an emotional response in subjects who
attempts a deception. Relevant questions must be able to stand alone and be

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 independent from other questions to complete their meaning. They must be
confined to a single investigation and must be direct and concise.

Sample: a case involving a shooting incident

Weak Relevant: are you involved in the plan to shoot Pedro Dela Rosa?

Strong Relevant: where you the one who shoot Pedro Dela Rosa?

Evidence Connecting: was the gun used to shoot Pedro Dela Rosa yours?

Knowledge Question: do you know for sure who shot Pedro Dela Rosa?

Control Questions

Control questions are those that requires about an act of wrongdoing of the
same general nature as the main incident being investigated and to which the subject
is likely to die. This control question should be as broad as possible. Basically, control
questions must serve as the agitating factors of an innocent subject.

Sample: a case involving robbery or theft

Question 1: before reaching the age of (3 years prior to the incident) have you ever
stolen anything?

Question 2: have you ever stolen anything from your place of work?

Irrelevant Questions

These are questions that are irrelevant to the crime being investigated. The
primary purpose of asking irrelevant question is to achieve the following:

1. Determine the subject’s norm under test conditions;

2. Terminate the lingering type of reaction that may appear on either the relevant
and control question answer;
3. Nullify or terminate shock reactions due to noises occurring outside of the
examination room;
4. Provide subjects an outlet for a relief response after answering relevant
questions;
5. Accentuate a deceptive response to relevant questions;
6. Separate the subject’s reaction pertinent questions using an irrelevant question
between;
7. Invite the scheming type subjects to cause false or fraudulent reactions on
irrelevant questions so as mislead the examiner into believing that these
reactions to the relevant questions; and
8. Deal with a known fact and not with a situation based solely on probability,
which the examiner assumes to be true.

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 SPECIFIC GUIDELINES IN FRAMING/ USING QUESTIONS

It is important to frame and employ the right kinds of questions in conducting

a polygraph test. This is because the results of the test depend on the physiological
manifestation of a subject’s reaction to the question asked of him.

Below are some specific guidelines in framing questions while considering the
type of test for which the question are to be used.

Relevant Questions

As mentioned earlier, relevant questions have a direct and specific relation to

the crime being investigated. These questions must be able to stand alone and be
independent from other questions.

Aside from the above, relevant question must:

 Avoid using legal or technical jargon

 Solve a central problem in the investigation
 Be answerable by ‘’yes’’ or ‘’no’’
 Use qualifiers, such as ‘’aside from…’’ at the beginning of the question
 Avoid emotional words that can produce strong reactions
 Be fully understood to mean the same thing by the examiner and subject
 Avoid the use of words and expressions that are obscene, profane,
derogatory, or insulting to the subject.
 Feature more facts than conjectures
 Not presume the guilt of the subject
 Not imply that the examiner does not believe the subject
 Avoid asking the opinion of the subject and only focus on the facts at hand
 Contain facts that are known to be correct by the perpetrator
 Focus on truthfulness and not the act being investigated, when the victim is
the subject
Comparison Questions

There are also specific guidelines for framing comparison questions. Of these,
the most important reminder is to discuss the questions with the examinee. The
following guidelines indicate that the comparison question must:

 Be carefully worded so that the answer will always be ‘’no’’

 Be broader in scope than a relevant question
 Be about the same topic as the case being investigated, although the offense
must be slightly less severe
 Avoid sex-related topics, except in cases where the issue revolves around a
sexual behavior

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  Cover topic wherein the subject is likely to lie or show serious doubts
concerning the truthfulness of his reply
 Avoid questions related to religion, politics, race or other personal information
that may humiliate the subject
Irrelevant Questions

From the name itself, irrelevant questions are those that have nothing to do
with the crime being investigated. In other words, an obvious irrelevant question is
not related to the crime being investigated. Furthermore, when answered truthfully,
an irrelevant question should not provoke emotions.

At the same time, subjects are not expected to lie when answering irrelevant
questions. They must be so framed such that they can eb answered by a ‘’yes’’. In using
this kind of test questions, the examiner must:

 Discuss the question with the subject

 If needed, group items of similar emotional content
 Use five to seven items in a set as a rule of thumb
 Verify whether the subject is knowledgeable about the topics to be covered by
the questions (e.g., gun caliber, model, etc.)
 Ensure that the key is the correct item in the set
 Check that the other items in the list cannot be correct (when answered
truthfully)
 Ensure that the innocent subject would not know the correct item from the set
 Ensure that the guilty or involved would recognize the correct item
 Conceal recognition of the key, which is an important aspect of the test
 Group all items with similar length
 Avoid using an illogical or absurd item in the set
Peak of Tension Tests (Type B)

As mentioned earlier, PTB is theoretically designed to determine specific details

(e.g., location, disposition, modus operandi, and amount involved) from a list of
‘’possibilities’’. In this kind of test, the typical number should be five to seven items
that are duplicated on the same chart.

In designing test question for this kind of test, the examiner must ensure the
following:

 The items in the list are discussed in detail

 The order of the items is varied with each new presentation
 The order of items is announced or posted, in other words, fully known to the
subject
 Maps or diagrams must feature fully readable letters, numbers, and names for
each designated area as well as clearly mark boundaries
 The most and least probable items are placed in the middle and in the beginning
of the list, respectively, during the first presentation

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  The final item in the list is a question on any other possibility
The Examination Room

The choice of the examination room is very important in the conduct of an

examination. Whenever feasible, a specially equipped and furnished room should be
set aside for an ideal examination room. The room must be semi-soundproof. (to avoid
false reaction on individual with claustrophobia). The room must also be free from any
outside noise and distracting influences, such as a telephone, intercom, bell buzzer,
etc.

At the same time, the room must be painted with white walls, must have limited
furnishings, and should be devoid of any decorations (posters, paintings, blinds and
other ornaments that can distract the attention of the subject). It should have a
specially-built subject’s chair with concave armrest, a table where the machine rests
(easily seen by the subject), must be spacious enough so that the examiner will have a
small space to write while conducting the pre-test interview, a place for the charts, and
a chair for the examiner. Lie- detector test should be conducted in a quiet private room.
1. Select a room with none of the usual police surroundings and with no
distraction within the subject’s view.
2. Select a room without any windows at all.
3. The interrogation room should contain no ornaments, pictures or other objects
which would distract the attention of the person being tested or interviewed.
4. This suggestion refers to the presence within the subject’s reach of small loose
objects such as papers, clips or pencils that he may be inclined to pick up and
further distract during the course of the interrogation.
(EFFECT) – tension relieving activities of this sort detract from the
effectiveness of this interrogation, especially during the critical phase when
guilty subject may be trying desperately to suppress an urge to confess.
5. Strange noise such as the ringing of a telephone or the conversation of persons
outside the examination room, of the presence of the arresting officers or other
spectators in the room itself, may produce disturbances and distractions which
will interfere with a satisfactory diagnosis of deception.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS when conducting the polygraph

examination:
1. In order to conduct a satisfactory lie- detector test, kit is advisable for
the examiner to obtain from the investigators interested in the case, all
the available facts and circumstances forming the basis of the accusation
directed against the person to be examined.
2. This will include, of course, the details of the case itself. Such
information is essential to the examiner so that he will be in position to
know the questions should be asked of the subject during the test.
3. The subject who is about to be tested should be informed of the nature
of the test and purpose of it. The instrument should be pointed out to
him as one which is capable of determining whether or not a person is
telling the truth about a given matter. He should be informed that it

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 records certain bodily changes and the instrument will not cause any
discomfort occasioned by the blood pressure cuff.
4. The writer made it practice, at this point in the proceeding to tell to the
subject somewhat as follows: ‘’if you are telling the truth you have
nothing to worry about, this instrument will indicate you are who
requested me to make the test. That is fair enough, isn’t it? And you don’t
mind taking the test, do you?’’
5. Experience has indicated that such statement tends to relieve the
emotional tensions in person who is telling the truth, and at the same
time they offer no relief to the liar, moreover, the asking of as regarding
the subject’s consent has proved worthwhile in those cases where the
criminal confessions are obtained as a result of the test.

The room must also be properly lighted as to avoid glaring effects to the subject, and
must be sufficiently ventilated (if air conditioned) so that a comfortable temperature
is ensured. It is ideal for an examination room to have an adjoining “observation room”
with a one-way mirror for the following reasons:

a. observers, such as the subject's lawyer and family, may want to witness the
examination procedure;

b. this eliminates the possibility that the subject accuses the examiner of taking
advantage during the examination proper.

c. provides security and protection to the examiner in case a subject becomes agitated
and resorts to physical harm;

d. to prevent the subject from escaping;

e. to protect the machine from any damage inflicted by the subject to thwart the results
of the examination; and

f. to provide other examiners the chance to observe the proceedings, just like in
medical school where they allow students to observe the actual procedure.

The room should also have a remote sound system or video tape amplifier so that
authorized audience or observers, including the investigators, can monitor the test
proceedings.

If an examination must be conducted away from the examination room (also known
as “Field Laboratory Work”), the examiner and the investigator both scout for the most
conducive place where the examination can be conducted. There are valid reasons as
to why a polygraph test must be conducted in the field. These are enumerated below.

a. The subject is at a high risk — When the subject cannot travel due to security
reasons, as in some high-profile cases and confidential situations, where death
threats are involved.

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One example would be a bombing incident somewhere in Region V. Here, the
examiner was requested to conduct a polygraph test on a subject accused of
conniving with the NPA, who can give information about the movements of troops
inside the camp. After an operation with the enemy camp and on their way back to
their camp, the troops were ambushed by the rebels though they took a different
route. Thus, many of the troops perished.

Another example would be a case in Region III wherein the troops of the regional
director were ambushed while on their way to conduct an investigation an offshoot
of a shooting incident during a rally at Mariveles, Bataan, wherein one died and
scores were hurt. The director was travelling with his team of experts, including a
ballistician and a chemist who were supposed to conduct bullet comparison and
paraffin tests at the crime scene. After a thorough analysis of case, the investigators
concluded that an insider might have tipped off the leftists as to the movement of
troops, due to the ambush that occurred.

In both cases, the investigators were able to narrow down their suspects and
requested that all of them undergo polygraph tests.

b. Cost considerations — When it is more expensive to bring the subject to the

examination room than for the examiners to go to the subject, then a field work is
necessary. This is especially true when the crime scene is bigger (e.g., a factory or
department store), such that everyone can come and go and have access to the
room where the crime has been committed. Thus, examiners would need to test all
the possible suspects.

c. When the work of the subject is affected —In this case, it would better for the
examiners to conduct a test on site, because when a subject has other things in
mind (e.g., having to go back to work or missing work together), then this can affect
the results of the examination.

d. Long travel time — If a subject has to travel for a long time, hich can affect his
health, then a field work is necessary. Rather than wasting precious time, money
and efforts, thus increasing the likelihood of an inconclusive result, the examiner
should just go to where the subject is located. In our present situation, this problem
had already been addressed by the PNP by procuring more polygraph machines
and by training qualified polygraph examination to be assigned to strategic places
and provinces.

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 Four Phases of Polygraph Examination

1. Preliminary preparations- Initials Interviews with the investigator

handling the case or person requesting it.

The Groups Involved in the Case:

a. Victim/Complainant
b. Suspects
c. Witnesses
‘’the three groups in the case are all liars’’

This phase includes;

A. Obtaining and Evaluating facts
b. determining the areas, the subject needs to be asked
c. the investigator must furnish the examiner of the following:
a. Sworn Statement of the suspect/witnesses/ victim/ complainant.
b. Incident or Spot report
c. B.I of the suspect, witnesses, and victim/ complainants.
d. rough sketch or pictures of the crime scene and other facts such as;
1) Specific article and exact amount of money stolen.
2) peculiar aspect of the offense or any strange set.
3) exact time the offense was committed.
4) known facts about the suspect’s action or movement.
5) facts indicating any connection between the suspects, victim and
witnesses.
6) exact type of weapon, tool or firearms used.
7) result of laboratory test.
8) unpublished facts of the offense known only by the victim, suspects and
the investigator.

2. Pre- Test Interview with the Subject- the primary purpose of the pre-test
interview is to prepare or condition the subject for the test.
a. The appraisal of subject’s constitutional right.
b. Obtain subject’s consent to undergo polygraph test by signing a
statement of consent.
c. The taking of personal data of the subject.
d. Determining his/ her suitability as a subject
e. Evaluating the psychological preparation of the subject.
f. Informing the subject of his involvement with the case.
Four rights of the Subject;

1. The right to remain silent

2. Anything you say may be used in favor or against you
3. The right to have a lawyer of his/her own choice
4. Right to refuse
‘’When the blood pressure rises up to 150 over 100 do not conduct examination’’

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Persons or subjects will not be scheduled for examination when
they:

a. Are obviously fatigued or in ill health.

b. Are physically injured or in pain.
c. Their judgment is obviously influenced by or impaired by drugs or
alcohol.
d. Have just suffered emotional trauma.
The examiner’s interview with the subject prior to the test is of considerable
importance, both of the purpose:

(1) Conditioning the subject for the examination and also

(2) In order to provoke and observe the helpful indications of guilt and
innocence which are often forthcoming at this time.
Following is the detailed outline of the pre-test interview which has been found
to be effective. (We are assuming in the case illustrated that the subject has
already been advised of the fact that he is to be given a lie- director test.)

a. As the examiner enters the waiting room to request the subject to

accompany him into the examination room, the greeting which the
examiner extends should be cordial, but firm.
b. Upon entering the examination room, the subject should be
requested to sit down in a chair alongside the instrument, and
immediately thereafter the examiner should proceed to the taking of
the consent of the subject.
c. Then fill up the necessary data asked in the interrogation log.
d. Afterwards inquire from the subject whether he has been on a lie
detector test before. No further comment should be made by the
examiner but he should listen carefully to whatever the subject
himself may say.
e. If the subject has not told of the purpose of his appearance in the
testing laboratories, the examiner should explain that a lie detector
test is desired of him as part of the investigation regarding the case.
Much time should be spent in the preliminary interview as the
circumstances reasonably warrants.
The Examination/ instrumental test – the conduct of
instrumentation and actual test.

After the pre-test interview, the examiner should proceed to place

the attachment on the subject. The first to be attached is Pneumograph,
then the Cardiosphymograph and the Galvanograph. Review all the
questions with the subject before the actual examination is made. The
examiner should discourage any comments or statement by the subject.
Test instrument must be given to the subject.

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 a. Upon completion of the necessary preliminary preparation, the
transducers are attached to the body of the subject.
b. The blood pressure pulse cuff is wrapped around snugly around the
subjects upper arm and the pneumograph tube adjusted around the
chest.
c. If female subject/s or around the body, if male subject/s or around
the torso of male
d. The cuff is then inflated to a point approximate midway between the
systolic and diastolic blood pressure. That is midway between the
pressure produced by the output action of the heart and that
maintained at time of the hearts intake action.
e. The synchronous motor carrying the paper upon are made is then set
in motion, the motor being so timid that the paper moves along at the
rate of an out six inches per minute, then ten to fifteen seconds after
the instrument has been set in motion, the inked filled pens of the
instruments are permitted to make their blood pressure pulse
respiration tracings before the question are asked of the subject.
f. During the test period the subject is informed that he answered by
either yes or no answer, and that they are so brief and to the point.
g. Approximately five to ten seconds after this instruction first
question is asked and then the other questions follows after or at the
interval of fifteen or twenty seconds.

5. Post interview/ interrogation

This includes all consideration that bears on the examination.
This is done just after the instrument is turned off. If the
polygraph test result indicates deception, the examiner will then
proceed to conduct short interrogation. The purpose of which is
to obtain confession. However, if the polygraph indicates that the
subject is innocent; the examiner will just release the subject
cordially and thanks him/her for his/her cooperation.

The purpose of further questioning after the test are:

a. To clarify the findings;
b. To learn of there are any other reasons for the subject’s
responding to a relevant question, other than the knowledge
of the crime; and
c. To obtain additional information and an admission for law
enforcement purposes, if the results suggest deception.
General and Specific Rules to be followed in the formulation of
questions:

1. Questions must be simple and direct.

2. They must not involve legal terminology such as rape, murder, etc.
3. They must be answerable by yes or no only.
4. Must be short as possible.

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5. Their meaning must be clear and unmistakable phrase in a language that
the subject can easily understand.
6. They must not be in the form of accusation.
7. Question must never contain an inference which presupposes knowledge on
the part of the subject.
8. All questions must refer to one offense only.
9. All questions must refer to only one element of an offense.
10. They must not contain interference to one’s religion races or belief.

A. Test Question
The phraseology of the test question is an extremely important
aspect of the examination. The questions, and every word used in the
questions must be unambiguous, unequivocal, and thoroughly
understandable by the subject.
The questions must be states as simple as possible, and with a
complete avoidance of such double inquiries as ‘’did you shoot him and
then run into the house’’?
All questions must have only a single, unambiguous meaning.
There should be an avoidance of lengthy questions.
Simplify questions. Avoid legal terms such as rape, murder,
embezzlement, etc.

Different Types of Questions

1. Irrelevant Questions- these questions are formulated without any

specific relationship with the case under investigation. They are
assigned to established subject’s physiological norm and to reduce
excitement level created by a relevant question, in this question by
the examiner usually refer to dates, names of place, subjects’ position
etc.
2. Relevant Questions- these are the primary or key questions asked
by the examiner in order to resolve a specific subject matter. Its
purpose is to detect deception, as a result of this type of question in
the polygraph examination via between chart probing and
interrogation.

Relevant questions are further classified as to their stimulation effect.

This strong or primary or crucial question is a relevant question
having and intense and specific relationship with the crime or
problem being considered. It is designed and constructed to test for
direct involvement for direct involvement only and specifically
designed to produce emotional response in guilty subjects.
Secondary or weak questions concern some secondary element of the
crime or problem and deal mostly on guilty knowledge and partial
involvement. The different types of weak relevant questions, some of
which are capable of becoming strong relevant are further classified
as follows.

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a. Sacrifice or DYAT Questions
This is designed to absorb the responses generally generated by
the introduction of the first relevant question in the series. It
reveals the subject norm plus stimulus and excitement level.
Construction of this question is regarding the matter under
investigation, as ‘’Do you intent to answer truthfully all the
questions about them’’.
Example: regarding the stolen wristwatch, you intend truthfully
to answer each question about that?

b. Knowledge Questions
This is the question designed to prove whether the subject
possess information regarding the identity of the offender,
or as to the location of the evidence or other secondary
elements of the case under investigation. The knowledge
question is framed ‘’Do you know who committed the
offense’’ in the formulation of the question and review.

Example: do you know for sure who stole the wristwatch of

Hazel?

c. Evidence Connecting Questions

This is designed to stimulate the guilty subject and focus
his attention on the probability of incriminating proof that
would tend to establish his guilt. In formulating the
questions, the examiner must secure information from the
investigator as to whether or not fingerprints, footprints,
tools or other evidences where collected from the crime
scene. The examiners proceed in asking the question ‘’Was
the evidence found in (crime scene) yours?’’

d. Control Question (Probable Lie)

This is a question designed to produce a response in the
innocent subject and serve as a basis for evaluating the
subject perceptual set. Control questions would either be a
primary or secondary. the primary control question is
based on a known lie. It must concern about events that
transpired within three to five years period before the case
under investigation (present) occurred, in example of the
question is ‘’before reaching the age of 20, have you stolen
anything’’
The secondary control question is of more specific in
nature and is based upon another experience or wrong
doing which will enhance the opportunity for
responsiveness. Its scope covers up to the present period.
The question of responsiveness must not be related to the
case under investigation for example, ‘’have you ever
committed any crime in your community or have you ever
stolen anything?’’
e. Sympathetic Questions

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 These questions are designed to detect and evaluate the
presence of the outside issue factor is neither a case which
he is involved, but is nor a subject matter under
investigation. An example of this is ‘’Are you now
convinced that I will not ask you any questions aside from
those which we have reviewed? Or ‘’Are you afraid that I
will ask you about something which I told you I would
not’’?
f. SKY Questions
These three questions grouped together by Backster
confirm the previous charts and may detect indirect
involvement or guilty knowledge. The ‘’S’’ stands for
suspect; ‘’K’’ stands for know; and the ‘’Y’’ stands for you.
The ‘’Y’’ question is the same as the strong relevant
question.

Example: do you suspect anyone in particular of stealing

Hazel’s wristwatch?

B. Test Procedures
The polygraph test consists of asking the subject/person through the
transducer of the instrument, a list of prepared questions in a planned
sequence; comprising of not more than twelve. At least 3 test charts are
taken, each lasting not more than four (4) minutes with a rest interval of
five (5) to ten (10) minutes between charts.

‘’What Takes Place on a Polygraph Chart During the Test?’’

During the test, the examiner asks questions, this question
becomes verbal stimulus, and the message is received by the air and
transmitted to the brain. The brain analysis the question, if the question
is not a threat to the well-being of the subject the thought central center
discards it and the body continue to function normally. However, chain
reaction takes place within his/her body, which is recorded by the
polygraph instrument and can be evaluated by the polygraph examiner.

Test Construction Applied is of Two (2) main Types:

1. General Question test – most commonly applied.
2. Peak-of- tension test - usually used as supplementary test.
TYPES OF TESTS TO BE APPLIED:

General Question Test:

This test is about the case under investigation. These are sequence or
relevant, irrelevant, and control question asked is a designed order. The
questions are arranged in order to contrast the subject’s responses
between relevant questions and control questions. The answer to the
questions is restricted to yes or no only.

The sequence and sample of general question test are as follows:

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1Q- Irrelevant-Is your first name Raine?

2Q- Irrelevant- Do you know that today is Thursday?

3Q- Weak relevant -between 7:30 Am to 10:30 Am of October 25, 2002,

did you open the table drawer of Mr. Reynaldo Suave?

4Q- Irrelevant- Are you married?

5Q - Strong Relevant — Were you the one who actually Stole the missing
P50, 000.00 cash money of Mr. Reynaldo Suave?

6Q - Control - Before attaining the age of 25 have you ever stolen

anything?

7Q - Irrelevant - Do you know how to read?

8Q - Evidence Connecting - Were the bunch of keys recovered under the

table of Mr. Reynaldo Suave, yours?

9Q - Knowledge = Do you know who stole the cash of Reynaldo Suave?

10Q - Secondary Control -Have you ever stolen anything from your
current employment?

Purpose:

1. To get the standard tracing of the subject.

2. To establish a truth telling pattern for the initial part of the record.

THE GENERAL QUESTION TEST (General Series)

- This consists of a series of Relevant & Irrelevant Questions asked in a

planned order. Questions are so arranged as to make possible a
comparison of responses to relevant questions with a subject’s norm
made during the answering of irrelevant questions

OTHER TYPES OF QUESTIONS ASKED IN THE GENERAL

QUESTION TEST

Weak Relevant Question - it concerns some secondary element of the

crime or problem and deals with mostly in guilty knowledge and partial
involvement.

Strong Relevant Question - it is defined as verbal stimulus of

primary important projected in the form of 4 question which overcome
a psychological excitement level and causes changes from the subject’s
physiological norms.

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Evidence Connecting question - it is designed to stimulate the guilty
subject and focus his attention on the probability of incriminating proof
that would tend to establish his guilt.

knowledge question — this question is designed or begun to probe

whether the subject possess information regarding the identity of the
offender, the location of evidences or items of secondary element of the
case.

Number Test (Psychological Test):

Upon finishing of the first test, here is another part of the test, the
examiner will show to the subject (7) variously numbered cards, face
down. The cards are set in such a way the examiner will right away know
which card has been chosen by the subject. The numbers 7, 11, and 13
should need to be used because other subjects are too superstitious and
numbers 6 and 9 should not be included to avoid confusion on the part
of the subject. The cards with numbers 15, 8, 5, 3, 4, 14, and 12 are used.

The subject is given an instruction to get a card, look at it and memorize

the number of the card that was chosen and return it without showing it
to the examiner or telling the number. After the selection is finished, the
examiner shuffles the cards and will instruct the subject to answer “no”
to each question regarding cards, even if the number of the card he has
chosen is asked. In short one of the subject’s answers to the question will
be lie.

The verification test is intended to assure the innocent examinee, the

accurateness of the test, and of the competency of the polygraphist. It
further serves to arouse the guilty examinee.

Purpose:

1. To check the possible deliberate distortion when the chosen number is

asked.

2. To obtain a chart wherein the subject is not under stress.

Spot Responder:

This test contains question previously asked questions in General

Question Test (GQT). With the same number of the same question on
the earlier test, the sequence would be:

1Q-Irrelevant- Is your first name Raine?

3Q - Weak Relevant — Between 7:30 AM to 10:30 AM or October 25,

2002, did you open the table drawer of Mr. Reynaldo Suave?

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2Q — Irrelevant — Do you know that today is Thursday?

5Q —Strong Relevant — Were you the one who actually Stole the missing
P50, 000.00 cash money of Mr. Reynaldo Suave?

4Q —Irrelevant — Are you married?

6Q — Control — Before attaining the age of 25 have you ever stolen

anything?

7Q — Irrelevant — Do you know how to read?

8Q -Evidence Connecting — Were the bunch of keys recovered under

the table of Mr. Reynaldo Suave, yours?

9Q — Knowledge — Do you know who stole the cash of Reynaldo Suave?

10Q — Secondary Control — Have you ever stolen anything from your
current employment?

Purpose:

1. To determine the responsiveness of the subject to crucial/critical

questions and also serve as a check on possibility of spot responses.

Mix Question:

The test is the same with test III but question of GOT is again
mixed and the sequences of the question are as follows:

4Q — Irrelevant — Are you married

1Q— Irrelevant — Is your first name Raine?
9Q — Knowledge — Do you know who stole the cash of Reynaldo Suave?
6Q — Control — Before attaining the age of 25 have you ever stolen
anything?
2Q — Irrelevant — Do you know that today is Thursday?
3Q- Weak Relevant — Between 7:30 AM to 10:30 AM of October 25,
2002, did you open the table drawer of Mr. Reynalldo Suave?

10Q - Secondary Control — Have you ever stolen anything from your
current employment?

5Q - Strong Relevant - Were you the one who actually stole the missing
P50, 000.00 cash money of Mr. Reynaldo Suave?

6Q- Control — Before attaining the age of 25 have you were stolen
anything?

2Q - Irrelevant — Do you know that today is Thursday?

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 8Q - Evidence Connecting — Were the bunch of keys recovered under
the table of Mr. Reynaldo Suave, yours?

10Q - Secondary Control — Have you ever stolen anything from your
current employment?

Purpose:

To compare the degree of reaction between control and relevant

question.

Silence Answer Test (SAT):

In this test the subject is instructed by the examiner to avoid from giving
any verbal answer to the questions that are to be asked of him during the
test. The subject is instructed to pay attention of each question only to
himself, silently. In short, the subject should “sub vocalize” his answer,
in addition he should think of the truthful answer and give the truthful
answer silently to himself.

Two important points was found to be essential in order to achieve the

outmost benefits from the test: First, the subject should understand
clearly that on the Silent Answer Test (SAT) he will be asked of the same
question just like on his previous test and exactly in the order they were
asked before. Secondly, it is significant for the subject to understand that
though he is not to answer Verbally the test question, he should answer
all test questions silently in his mind with truthful answer only.

Purpose: it is a confirmatory test or affirmative check with the silence

answer test.

Other Questions Asked:

1. Check Question -last question asked in the lie teat. It is direct

question that relates to the fact that the subject has told the truth to all
questions asked in the he test.

2. Fishing Expedition Test Question —Used to vagrants or loiters

for routine interrogation. No idea about what offense has been
committed. Examples:

a. Have you ever been arrested before?

b. Are you wanted anywhere now by the police?

c. Have you stolen anything since you have been in tour?

C. SUPPLEMENTARY TESTS Aside from the standard tests described

above, the following special tests may be performed and incorporated as part of

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the procedure or may be used as supplementary tests depending upon the result
of the standard test in order to draw a better conclusion.

Peak-of-Tension Test:

The subject may be given this test if he is not yet informed of the details of the
offense for which he is being interrogated by the investigator, or by other
persons or from other sources like the print media.

This valid test is only made possible when there is no widespread publicity
about a crime where intimate details as to the methods of commission or certain
facts of the case is known from the victim and investigator.

The questions formulated are similar in nature and construction, only one of
which is true and the perpetrator who would naturally be in possession of such
unpublicized; knowledge will usually exhibit a rise in the tracing up to that
particular question followed by a decline thereafter, caused by the relief of
knowing that a dreaded question dangerous to his well-being, is past.

Examples of Peak-of-Tension Test:

a. Do you know whether the stolen watch from Allan is a Seiko? (This is an
introductory phrase plus padding question)

b. Is it an Omega? (Padding)

c. Is it a Rolex? (Padding)

d. Is it Timex? (Relevant question)

e. Is it Alba quartz? (Padding)

f. Is it a Citizen? (Padding)

Guilt Complex Test:

This test is applied when the response to relevant and control questions which
are similar in degree and in consistency and in a way that the examiner cannot
determine whether the subject is telling the truth or not.

The subject asked questions aside from the irrelevant, relevant and control
questions, a new series of relevant questions dealing with a real incident and
that which the subject could not have committed.

If the subject does not respond to the added relevant questions, it indicates that
the subject was being deceptive to the primary issue under investigation.

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However, no conclusion can be drawn if the response to added guilt complex is
similar to the real issue questions.

Silent Answer Test (SAT): This test is conducted in the same manner as
when relevant and control questions are asked but the subject is instructed to
answer the questions silently, to himself, without making any verbal response
causes distortion in the tracing such as sniff or clearing the throat.

D. KINDS OF SPECIFIC TESTING

Known Solution Peak of Tension
This is administered when a fact relating to the event is known only to the
perpetrator of the offense and the victim, police and client. This material
fact, whether it be particular sum of money, a particular make of weapon,
etc. is inserted into test comprising a list of similar items, the examinee is
tested to determine his guilty knowledge.

Proving Peak of Tension

This is administered to obtain information that might prove valuable to an
investigation. It is designed to determine the location, disposition, modus
operandi and amounts on the list of possibilities.

Pre-employment Test
This test seeks to verify information contained in a job application and
develop relevant information deliberately committed by the subject.

Periodic Testing
This is conducted for the purpose of determining the honesty of employees
assigned to sensitive position. It also acts as a constant deterrent to
employees’ dishonesty.

Characteristics of a Good Polygraph Examination Room

1. Lie detector test should be conducted in quiet private room.

2. Select a room with none of the usual police surroundings and with no
distraction within the subject view.
3. Select a room without any windows at all.
4. The interrogation room should contain no ornaments, pictures or other
subject which would distract the attention of the person being tested or
interviewed.
5. This suggestion refers to the presence within the subject’s reach of small
loose objects such as papers, clips or pencils that he may be inclined to peck
up and further distract the course of the interrogation.
(EFFECT)- Tension relieving activities of this sort detract from the
effectiveness of this interrogation, especially during the critical phase when
a guilty subject may be trying desperately to suppress an urge to confess.
6. Estrange noise such as the ringing of a telephone or the conversation of
person outside the examination room, of the presence of the arresting
officers or other spectators in the room itself, may produce disturbances and
distractions which will interfere with a satisfactory diagnosis of deception.

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General Considerations
When conducting Polygraph examination:

1. In order to conduct a satisfactory lie-detector test, kit is advisable for the

examiner to obtain form the investigators interested in the case, all the
available facts and circumstances forming the basis of the accusation or
suspicion directed against the person to be examined.
2. This will include, of course, the case of the detail itself. Such information
is essential to the examiner so that he will be in a position to know
questions should be asked of the subject during the test.
3. The subject who is about to be tested should be informed of the nature
of the test and purpose of it. The instrument should be pointed out to
him as one which is capable of determining whether or not a person is
telling the truth about a given matter. He should be informed that it
records certain bodily changes and that the instrument will not cause any
physical pain except for a slight temporary discomfort occasioned by the
blood pressure cuff.
4. The writer made it practice, at this point in the proceeding to tell to the
subject somewhat as follows. ‘’ if you are telling the truth you have
nothing to worry about, this instrument will indicate you are telling the
truth, and I’ll report the fact to the officers who requested me to make
the test. The machine itself will show it; and I’ll tell you so, and then I’ll
ask you to let me hear the truth. That is fair enough, isn’t it? And you
don’t mind taking the test, do you?’’
5. Experienced has indicated that such statements tend to relieve the
emotional tension in a person who is telling the truth, and at the same
time they offer no relief to the liar. Moreover, the asking of as regarding
the subject’s consent has proved worthwhile in those cases where the
criminal confessions are obtained as a result of the test.

Important Reminders

1. Do not wait until the last minute to ask a person to take the test.
2. Do not tell the subject everything that you know about the offense or
about him.
3. Do not fail to investigate the case before you ask a person to take the test.
4. If for some reasons, it must be temporarily taken, the investigator must
continue investigating the case.
5. Do not depend on mass screening of possible suspects to produce a real
or the guilty one.
6. Do not tell anyone that the lie detector will decide whether one is
innocent or guilty. The court will make the decision.
7. If the test indicates that the person did not tell the truth or if the person
confesses after the test, do not think that the investigation is over.

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 What Law or Jurisprudence gives the Basis of Admissibility

Polygraph obtained during an examination is generally not admissible as evidence in

court or even if allowed cannot stand alone. However, statements and confessions
obtained through the use of polygraph instrument are admissible provided all other
requirements that the subject is appraise of his applicable right, and the presence of
counsel. In this respect no subject can be compelled to take the test. Expert testimony
on polygraph maybe admitted as evidence subject the discretion of the trial judge.
Although perfection in test results is not a prerequisite to the admissibility of evidence
obtainable by the used of scientific instrument or techniques, the practice has been
grant judicial recognition only after proponents of the unprecedented evidence have
shown that the instrument or techniques has a reasonable measure of precision in its
indication and that is accepted one in particular profession or field of science to which
belong. (Case of PP vs. CAPUNO 3565 SCRA 249 April 04, 2001).

The other means that the Polygraph result can be admissible in court aside from
stipulation and order from the court; during the presentation of the defense they
should establish the fact that the polygraph examiner upon request of the investigator
examined the accused and they would like to offer as evidence the technical report of
the examiner. The court will accept the evidence based on the presumption that the
polygraph report is suppressed evidence since the finding is against the finding of the
investigator.

The first major case dealings with the used of polygraph in criminal cases was tried in
1923. This case sets a precedent in

polygraph. Frye vs. United States, the courts ruled that polygraph is inadmissible
based on the general acceptance rule of scientific reliability. The Frye case involved a
man accused of murder. Even though Frye claimed that he was innocent a jury found
him guilty. Before his trial Frye was given a polygraph. A researcher by the name of
Marston gave the opinion that Frye was telling the truth. Marston used blood pressure
changes as indicators fro truthful or deceptive responses. After serving about three
years of his prison sentence another man confessed to the murder and fry was released.
(Trosville 2001)

July 1981, brought a legal change involving polygraph. Prior to July 1981, stipulation
between prosecution and defense was a vehicle for the admittance of polygraph.
However, the July 1981 ruling disallowed that stipulation. At present only statement
(confession) is admissible at trial level. Law Enforcement agencies today utilized
polygraph as an aid investigative tool (Kleiner 2001).

Many countries all over the world have utilized polygraph technique as a method of lie
detection. It has been proven that itis a valuable aid in investigation. In some countries
polygraph test results are admitted as evidence in courts. In the United States of

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America almost all courts utilized polygraph and more than one half of these courts
accept it as evidence in criminal prosecution.

Polygraph and expertise testimony thereto can be admissible upon stipulation to

corroborate with other evidence of a defendant’s participation in crime charged or to
corroborate to impeach of his owned testimony under the following Conditions:

a. The counsel of both parties and the subject all have signed written stipulation
providing for his admission to the polygraph and examiner’s opinion thereon in behalf
or either the defendant or the state.

b. That the admissibility of test result is subject to the discretion of the trial judge if
the trial judge is not convinced that the examiner is not qualified of the test was
conducted under improper condition, the judge may refuse to accept such evidences.

c. That if the graph and the examiner’s opinion are offered in evidence; the opposing
party shall have their right to cross examine the examiner respecting the following:

1. The qualification and training of the examiner

2. The condition under which the test is administered

3. At the discretion of the trial judge

4. The limitations and possibilities for error in the technique

That if such evidence as admitted by the examiners. testimony dos not tense to prove
any element of the crime that which the defendant is charge; that the test is only to
indicate that at the time of the examination subject was not telling the truth. It is the
trial judge who will determine the weight and effect of such testimony. (Ansley 1990).

Other Legal Issues on Polygraph examination

In 2007 polygraph testimony was admitted by stipulations in 19 states, and was subject
to the discretion of the trial judge in federal court. The used of polygraph in court
testimony remains controversial although it is used extensively in postconviction
supervision, particularly of sex offenders. In Daubert vs. Merrel Dow Pharmaceuticals
1993, the old Frye standard was lifted and all forensic evidence including polygraph
had to meet the new Daubert standard in which “underlying reasoning or methodology
is scientifically valid and properly can be applied to the facts at issue”. While polygraph
test is commonly used in the police investigation in the U.S. no dependant or witness
can be force to undergo polygraph test (Raskin, Barland et, al.2009).

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