METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

The search for a reliable means to identify the untrustworthy is as

ancient as man. Some techniques were founded in superstitions and/or the
religious belief that “God would in some way reveal the truth and disallow the
immorality”. Many of these attempts, in fact, had some psychological and
physiological basis; other methods relied solely on fear of continued pain and
torture.

Historically, early human beings have their own way of determining lie
or guilt on the part of the accused and accuser. Their common method is thru
the application of “ordeal.” An ordeal is a severe test of character or
endurance, trying course of experience, and a medieval form of judicial trial in
which the accused was subjected to physical tests, as carrying or walking over
burning objects or immersing the hand in scalding water, the result being
considered a divine judgment of guilt or innocence. It is also a term of varying
meaning closely related in the Medieval Latin “Dei Indicum” meaning
“Miraculous decision.”

The term “Trial by Ordeal” refers to the ancient method of trial in

which the accused was exposed to physical danger which was supposed to be
harmless if he was innocent. According to historians, Trial by Combat was the
earliest method of determining truthfulness and deception of a person or
persons suspected for the commission of an offense. It is the resolving of an
issue through strength of arms. For example, there are two men approach a
fallen victim, each claim he did not kill it, and asserts to be righteous and
innocent of the accusation. To prove their allegations, they engage in combat.
The ideal assumption is that the truthful individual will win through.
However, the most skilled in combat usually will become victorious and thus
made him as having the rightful claim and that the loser will be declared guilty
and will suffer the consequence thereafter.

The scenario changed very little by medieval times. The customs

knights engaged in mortal combat to decide whose lord had the right in any
controversy. While the practice was functionally the same as trial by combat,
the ethical premise was different. It was held -that the fighting skill of an
individual was not related to his truthfulness or lying. The knight representing
the truth would be victorious due to “Divine Intervention” that is, that a just
God would not allow injustice to prevail.

The next development in the search for truth was the so-called, “Trial
by Ordeal” (Keeler 1938). It was assumed once again that God would
intervene on. behalf of the innocent, that is, God would not allow any innocent
individual to be harmed. While these attempts to detect truth appeared to be
laden by religious beliefs, they were in fact based upon practical observations
 2

both psychological and physiological phenomena which play an important role

in the truth finding processes.

Hypnotism

This method was introduced by an Austrian Physician Franz

(Friedrich) Anton Mesmer in 1778. He believed in animal magnetism, by
which in his own personal electro - magnetism, therapeutic effect influenced
other persons. These effects produced were attributed to the state of mind of a
subject whereby he is set up, and thereby instructed to sit quietly and gazed at
flashing light or shiny object tangled in front of his eyes and to cooperate with
whatever the hypnotist would like him to do.

Detected deception through hypnosis was not admissible in court due to the
following:

1. It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis in

ascertaining the truth from falseness.
2. The possibility that the hypnotized subject will deliberately fabricate.
3. The prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility in which the
hypnotized subject is suspended will produce distortion of the fact rather than
the truth.
4. The state of the mind and professionalism of the examiner are too subjective
to permit admissibility of the expert testimony.

The Word Association Test

This method was introduced in 1879 by Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911 -

an English Scientist and Anthropometrist. His experiment was later
developed by Dr. Carl Gustav Jung (1875 ~ 1961) - a Swiss psychologist
and psychiatrist and the founder of Analytical Psychology.

This method is done by giving a subject a long list of carefully selected

stimulus words or objects with other pictures combined with other
irrelevant words, objects or pictures with the instruction to respond with
the very first word that may come to subject’s mind. Dr. Jung was able to
observe how the thinking reactions were linked into the emotional habit of
his subject. The theory behind this method is that, one word or idea is
reflective of another word or idea and the expression of their association
forms a meaningful picture.

The Truth Serum Method

This method was introduced by Dr. Edward Mandel House (1858-
1938), a U.S Physicist and diplomat and a confidential adviser to
former U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. The term “truth serum” is a

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 3

misnomer. The procedure does not make someone tell the truth and
the thing administered is not a serum but is actually a drug.

This method is based on the theory that ‘’intervention’’ through

interrogation is made possible after dosage of drugs has been appropriately
administered, which depresses the cerebral activity to a point of
unconsciousness, an influence called as the “House Receptive Stage” or the
“Twilight Zone”. On this condition the subject is half asleep.

The objective of the test is to extract from the subconscious mind of the
subject the stored contents of the mind called “memory”. During the test, a
drug called Byosine Hydrobromide is usually administered hypodermically to
the subject in repeated doses until a state of delirium is induced. When the
proper point is reached, the questions were answered by the subject truthfully.
He forgets his acts or may even implicate others. Accordingly, he will disclose
everything without evasiveness.

Of all the deception detection methods, the “Truth Serum” test is

considered most favorable and effective if all the following conditions proper
to the conduct of the test will be observed:

- The test must be performed by skilled experimenter, operator, technician,

or physician.
- The subject expresses his consent to undergo the test.
- The dosage of drugs injected or administered is sufficient for acquiring
desired results.
- There is sufficient time during the test. e Assurance of result is acquired to
determine truth or deception.
Though statements taken from the subject under this process is not
admissible as evidence in court because its nature is involuntary, its
application to criminal investigation is very useful because of its psychological
effect, before, during, and after. Just ag well, a person not knowing the
misleading notion of the test may tell the truth to avoid pain of needles and
possible brain destruction even before the test is done.

Narco-Analysis or Narco-Synthesis

This method of detecting deception was practically the same as that of

administration of truth serum. The only difference is the drug used. The drug
Sodium Amytal or Sodium Pentothal is administered to the subject. When the
effects appear, questioning starts. It was claimed that the drug causes
depression of the inhibitory mechanism of the brain and the subject talks
freely. The administration of the drug. and subsequent interrogation must be
done by a psychiatrist. Like the administration of truth serum, the result of the
test was not admissible in court.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 4

Intoxication

This was practiced by means of drinking alcoholic beverages as stimuli

to obtain truth on the part of the subject. The subject for interrogation will be
allowed to take alcoholic beverages up to the point of intoxication.
Theoretically, when under the influence of alcohol, the power of control is said
to be diminished; thus, the subject will tend to tell everything he knows or
reveal all the relevant information. Interrogation is to be made during the
excitatory effect of alcohol.

Under this method, there is eventually lack of self-control of the subject

under intoxication. When the subject is already in the depressive state due to
excess alcohol intake, he will not be able to answer questions anymore, and
perhaps fell asleep. Confession made by the subject while intoxicated is
admissible if he is physically able to recollect the facts and state them truly
and exactly even after the influence or “spirit” of alcohol has disappeared. But
in most instances, the subject can recall his utterances or usually refuses to
admit the truth of the statement given.

What were the Methods of Detecting Deception through Regular

Police works?

The police methods sought to answer the legal investigative process are the so
called “Five Wives and One Husband” technique or the 5 W’s and 1H which
stands for WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY and HOW. These questions
are used to gain the so called “Three Eyes” (3 I’s) of investigation which refers
to the following:

1. Information gathering - Through record check, surveillance and

intelligence check.

2. Investigation - Through interrogation and/or interview to obtain

admission or confession.

3. Instrumentation - Through criminalistics processes with the use of the

different investigative forensic - sciences such as medico legal or forensic
medicine, forensic chemistry, forensic photography, forensic ballistics,
questioned documents examination, dactyloscopy, and polygraphy or
deceptography.

What is the scientifically accepted Method of Detecting Deception?

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 5

During the 19th century, Dr. Hans Gross, an Austrian - known as the
“Father of Criminalistics”, defined search for truth as the basis and goal of all
criminal investigations. He asserted that “a large part of the criminalist’s work
to nothing more than a battle against lies. He has to discover the truth and
must fight the opposite. He meets the opposite at every step”.

Throughout the centuries, man continued to experiment with more

scientific methods in determining truth and deception with the following
scientists who have contributed much in the development of the scientific
instrument known as the “Polygraph” thus, the polygraph technique was used
as the scientific means of detecting deception.

What is the Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE)?

Aside from polygraph instrument one of the modern gadgets in lie

detection is the PSE or Psychological Stress Evaluator. The instrument detects
lying by measuring the level of stress experienced by the subject through his
recorded voice. The interview and test are recorded by the computer or
cellphone.

It was scientifically found that, when a person speaks, there are audible
voice frequencies, and superimposed on these are the inaudible frequency
modulations which are products of minute fluctuation of the muscle of the
voice mechanism. Such fluctuations of the muscles or micro tremor occur at
the rate of 8 to 14 cycles per second and controlled by the central nervous
system.

When a person is under stress as when he is lying, the micro tremor in

the voice utterance is moderately or completely suppressed. The degree of
suppression varies inversely to the degree of psycho logic stress on the
speaker. The psychological stress evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and
graphically displays the voice modulations that we cannot hear.

When a person is relaxed and responding honestly to the question,

those inaudible frequencies are registered clearly on the instrument. But when
a person is under stress, as when he is lying, these frequencies tend to
disappear.

During the test, the PSE Examiner asks series of questions to the
subject and records his voice utterances. The instrument filters the vocal
answers create patterns and displays those patterns on the computer screen.
The examiner then evaluates the patterns for truth or deception.

Under this method, the following procedures are followed:

- The examiner meets the requesting party to determine the specific purpose
of the exanimation and to begin formulation of relevant questions.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 6

- A pre-test interview is conducted with the subject to help him or her feel at
ease with the examiner, to provide an opportunity to specify matters, to
eliminate outside issues, and to review questions that will be asked.
- An oral test of about 12 to 15 “yes” or “no” questions is given which is
recorded on a tape recorder. The questions are a mixture of relevant an
irrelevant question.
- Immediately following the test or are a late time, the tape is processed
through the Psychological Stress Evaluator for analysis of answer.
- If stress is indicated, the subject is given authority to provide additional
clarification. A re-test is given to verify correction and clarification.

The Psychological Stress Evaluator, like the polygraph cannot detect

deception per se’, rather, it also records reactions to a given situation, most
commonly a question and answer session. Those reactions may be charted,
and the interpretation of those reactions may lead the examiner to
conclude that the individual is lying.

B. The Observation Methods:

Through facial Expressions, such as:
a. Blushing, paling, or profuse sweating of forehead;
b. Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of eyeballs, and elevation of upper
eyelids;
c. Squinting of the eyes (showing envy, disdain, distrust, etc.);
d. Twitching of the lips;
e. Excessive winking of the eyes;
f. Failure to look the inquirer ‘’straight into the eye’’;
g. Excessive activity of the Adam’s apple and the vein at the temple due to
dryness of throat and mouth;
h. Quivering of Nose or Nostrils;
i. A peculiar monotone of the voice;
j. A forced laugh;
k. Rolling of eyeballs from one direction to another;
Through Postural Reactions, such as:

a. Fidgeting, tapping, or drumming of fingers on the chair or other

surfaces;
b. Swinging of legs, or of one leg over the other;
c. Unnecessary movement of hands and feet (like scratching, nail-biting,
thumb- or finger-sucking, etc.);
d. Pulsation of the carotid artery in the neck;
e. Incoherence, trembling and sweating of the whole body;
Through Cause-and-Effect Process, such as:

a. Stimulus- Reaction test;

b. Stimulus-response test;

What were the Early Methods of Detecting Lies?

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 7

1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal — Practiced on the hill tribe of Rajhmal in the
North Bengal. The accused placed his tongue to a red-hot iron nine times (9)
unless burned sooner. If burned, he is put to death as he is guilty. Not only
just licking the iron but also, he is made to carry the metal into his hands.

2. Ordeal by the Balance - An ordeal practiced in the Vishnu, India. The

scale of balance is used where the accused is placed in the other end while a
counter balance is made. If he were found to be lighter than before then he
will be acquitted.

3. Boiling Water Ordeal- Common in Africa. The method was that the
subject will be asked to - plunge their right arms into the boiling water to the
elbow and step into the other side of the fire. All are told to undergo the test
without a murmur. And when all are finished, they are told to return at the
same time the next afternoon. The one who showed blisters would prove the
thief (Point out who is the one who steal among his tribe mates).

4. Ordeal by Rice Chewing - An ordeal practiced by the Indians. It is

formed with a kind of rice called sathee, prepared with various incantations.
The person on trial eats the rice then spits upon an eyeful leaf. If the saliva is
mixed with blood or the corner of his mouth swell or he trembles, he is
declared then a liar.

5. Ordeal of the Red Water - Used in a wide region of Eastern Africa. The
ordeal of the “sassy bark” or red water was used where the accused is made to
fast for twelve hours then swallows a small amount of rice until he is imbibed
in dark colored water. This water is actually emetic and if the suspect ejects all
the rice, he is considered innocent; otherwise, the accused is guilty.

6. Combination of Drinks and Food Ordeal - An ordeal practiced by the

West African region where the accused first fasted for 12 hours and the given
small amount of rice to eat followed by large amount of black colored water. If
the concoction was vomited, the accused was pronounced innocent, otherwise,
guilty.

7. Trial by Combat - A fight between the accuser and the accused, whoever
lost the battle will be the adjudged guilty. Originated in India where an
accuser could hire somebody or bigger one to fight the accused. After the fight
the loser will be adjudged as guilty of crime. It became the legal ordeal in
England during the time of “King Henry III.”

8. Trial by Torture - The accused was put into a severe physical test. If the
accused can endure such torture, he will be considered innocent.

9. Drinking Ordeal - The accused was given a decoction to drink by a priest

-if innocent; no harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die. Practiced in Nigeria
and India.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 8

10. Trial of the Eucharist - This trial is reserved for the clergy, and
administered with pomp and ceremony. If the accused was guilty, it was
believed that Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent the accused
from swallowing the food given to him. Practiced in the European countries.

11. Ordeal by Heat and Fire - The accused was compelled to walk bare
footed through a fire, if he remains unhurt then he is_ innocent. Practiced in
East Germany, early Scandinavian countries and early England.

12. Ordeal of Boiling Oil or Water - The accused was forced to dip his
hands into the boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it. If he remains
unhurt then he is innocent. Practiced in Asian Countries.

13. Ordeal of Red-Hot Needle - A red hot needle was drawn through the
lips of the accused, if innocent, no blood will be seen flowing out. Practiced in
East Africa.

14. Ordeal of the Tiger - Accuser and accused were placed together in the
same and a tiger set loose upon them. If both were spared, further elimination
followed. Practiced in Thailand.

15. Test of the Cross Ordeal - The accuser and accused each were made to
stand with arms crossed on their breast. The one who endured the longest was
deemed to have told the truth, the other, is the liar. Practiced in Europe.

16. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal - A donkey was placed in one room alone and was
observed. If the donkey cried as judge of the guilty of crimes, then the accused
is guilty.

What were the known Countries that Practiced Ordeal?

1. Burma - The accuser and accused were given each identical candle and
both were lightened at the same time. The holder of the candle that consumed
faster was adjudged the liar.

2. Borneo - The accuser and accused were presented by shell fish placed on a
plate. An irritating fluid was then poured on the shell fish and the litigant
whose shell fish moved first was adjudged the winner. 3. Greece - A suspended
axe was spun at the center of a group of suspects. When the axe stopped,
whoever was in line with the blade was supposed to be guilty as pointed out by
the divine providence.

3. Nigeria - The priest greased a feather and pierced the tongue of the
accused. If the feather passed through the tongue easily, the accused was
deemed innocent. If not, the accused is guilty. Another method in Nigeria was
the practice of pouring corrosive liquid into the eyes of the accused who was
supposed to remain unharmed if innocent. Pour boiling oil over the hand of

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 9

the accused with the usual requisites for guilt or innocence (if remain
unharmed, he is innocent).

4. Europe and Early United States (17th Century) - Trial by water was
commonly used on those accused of witchcraft. The accused was bound (hand
and foot) and then cast into the body of water. If the accused sank, he was
hauled to the surface half-drowned and deemed innocent. If he floated, he was
deemed guilty and burned to death.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LYING

Remember that lying person fears detection ang possible ostracism by

the offended community. He may feel that once detection, he could not but
accept the bitter results of being penalized, thus placing his whole life at stake.
Since fear reaction carries emotional responses due to detection, he may now
exhibit external and internal physical and physiological changes within him,
such that these changes occur beyond his defensive power to control or
repress them. These changes, on the other hand, are recorded by the
polygraph instrument and diagnosed by the Examiner.

But what is always driving a person to lie? What is behind all these?

The answer is the PSYCHOLOGY of a LYING PERSON. A person ’s

fears, anxieties and apprehensions are channeled toward the situation that
evoke his instinct of self-preservation to struggle out from the consequences of
the wrong he has already done. He may, once and for all, “erind-the axe” of his
self-defense mechanism come what may through lies, alibis and excuses. His
conscience is bothered so much on how to hide everything beyond his own
senses. And his will power and emotions are perplexed and varied.

In polygraphy, the psychological approach to all these lies or similar

situations are governed by the different types of test and control questions
prepared and formulated by the Examiner. The test contains relevant
questions which are designed to pose a threat to the security of the guilty (or
lying) Subject, and control questions designed to pose a threat to the security
of the innocent (or truthful) Subject. The equally truthful Subject, though
accused, its assured of the reactions he may exhibit during the whole
polygraph examination by the carefully formulate

Other factors psychologically taken into consideration are Subject’s

basic emotionality and intensity. of the offense. Normally, the innocent
Subject’s reaction potential is lower than that of the guilty Subject. A
temporary heightening of his emotional state when the examination began
registers this. Then such reaction decreases as the test itself progresses.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 10

In understanding more of the psychology of lying we are tempted to include

the study of the different kinds of LIES, which are as follows:

A. KINDS OF LIES

1. White Lie or Benign Lie

This is the kind of lie, the most common of all, which is intended to
protect or maintain harmony or friendship, at home, in the office or
elsewhere. Example: Peter’s Denial: The distorted formulation of rules and
regulations in some companies in order to protect and secure own products
from any outside competing forces.

2. Pathological Lie
This is a lie made by persons who cannot distinguish right from wrong. It
must be said that those persons are mentally sick, or of low mental caliber. In
Polygraphy, impairment of the mind must be established first before
conducting any lie-detector test; otherwise the whole test will be useless.
Pathological liars are among those classified as Barriers and Obstacles to Lie
Detection with the aid of the Polygraph.

3. Red Lie
This involves political interests and motives because this is part of
Communist propaganda strategy. This lie is prevalent in communist countries
of communist-infested nations. Lies of this sort purport to destroy other
ideologies by means of propaganda-brainwashing and black-mail via
espionage and treason.

4. Black Lie
A lie which accompanies pretensions and hypocrisies, intriguing can cause
dishonor or discredit one’s good image. (An example is the person who always
pretends what he thinks of himself, what kind of person he is, and what he is
doing).

5. Malicious or Judicious Lie

This is a very pure and unjustifiable kind of lie. This is intended purely to
mislead justice. The probable result would be “PERJURY” and pure
dishonesty to obstruct justice! Some liar lawyers and false witnesses fall under
this category.

B. TYPES OF LIE

a. Direct Denial-this is the direct denial of the act in question that creates an
emotional sense of disturbance. This disturbance refers to the conflict between
what is true and the attempted deception that creates an internal battle in the
mind. Example: “I did not do it”. The vague response permits the person to

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 11

evade inner conflict while seeming to answer the question. The reply given to
a query must be evaluated in terms of what was asked to know if the answer is
proper.

b. Lie of Omission - this is a type of lie that people usually used because it is
simple to tell. Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the
truth while omitting details that could create possible troubles.

c. Lie of Fabrication - this is the most difficult type op lie that a subject
could use in an interview.

d. Lie of Minimization - in this type of lie individua) will accept that

something has occurred buy downplays the implication. Lie of minimization
could be used if a subject wanted to stay close to the truth; however, he covers
the truth for his or her own benefit.

Example: Mr. X is complaining because Mr. B boxed him and as a result the
nose of Mr. X is broken. If Mr. B used the lie of minimization, he will state that
he only slapped Mr. X.

e. Lie of Exaggeration - this is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the
hope of obtaining some advantage. This is also often found on resume, where
applicant exaggerates his or her experiences, knowledge, skills, salary and
length of service. The exaggerated claims can be verified by looking for
inconsistencies of the subject’s story.

C. TYPES OF LIAR

a. Panic Liar

- It is one who lies in order to avoid the consequences of a confession

- He/she is afraid of embarrassment to love ones and it is a serious blow to
his/her ego.
- He/ she believes that confession will just make the matter worst.
b. Occupational Liar

- Someone laid for spare years

- This person is a practical liar and lies when it has a higher ‘’pay off’’ than
telling the truth.
c. Tournament Liar

- Loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being detected.

- This person views an interview as another contest and wants win.
- This person realizes that he or she will probably be convicted but will not
give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him or her confesses.
- He wants that people will believe that the law is punishing an innocent
person.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 12

d. Psychopathic Liar

- The most difficult type

- This person has no conscience. He shows no regret for dishonestly and no
manifestation of guilt.
e. Ethnological Liar

- One who is taught not to be a squealer

- * squealer – to cry or to shrill voice
- Used by underworld gang in order for their member not to reveal any
secret of their organization.
f. Pathological Liar

- A person who cannot distinguish right from wrong (his mind is sick.)
- Is an insane person.
g. Black Liar

- A person who always pretends.

- (what he thinks of himself, what kind of a person he is, and what he is.)

D. UNDERSTANDING SUBJECT’S AGE CHARACTERISTICS

To further enhance the study of the psychology of the lying person, it is

also necessary to understand Subject’s age characteristics, which are as
follows:

- 7 to 12 years......... Fantastic Subject.

- 13 to 19 years.......... Distinction of fantasy and reality. At this level, the
Subject is at age of limitation and idolatry. His/her ego my start to
develop.
- 20 to 25 years.......... His/ her ego begins to lessen because he/she is not
important person. Subjects like him are idealistic be principled. They
can be responsible and sometimes conscious of their neighbors. The
girls may begin to marry at this age, and they become sociable. The
degree of their exposure to the society depends on how they were
brought up socially, morally and spiritually, including family, friend
and other individual influence.
- 26 to 60 years…………. They serve as the best witnesses. They often
possess materialism, maturity and responsibility. Intellect is fully
developed and intelligence is well coordinated with memory.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 13

- 61 to Death……… Their memories are fading because some of their

senses are defective. They are no longer good witnesses. They are no
longer good witnesses. They need perspective because they may start to
act like children (senility). They are irritable and sensitive.

E. SOME SIGNS OF LIES AND DECEPTION

Generally, when a person becomes defensive due to fear of detection, one can
point out that any of the signs herein enumerated indicates lies, guilt or
deceptive, such as:

1. Stammering
2. Swearing to or before God that he did not commit the crime
3. Pointing his guilt to somebody else
4. Subject refuses to answer questions through alibis and excuses
5. He is all the time absent-minded
6. He is always requesting for repetition of questions
7. He often asks counter-question and counter-queries
8. He often asks permission to go to the comfort rooms, etc.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 14

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)