Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T.

Duong – HUST

CHAPTER 6.
JOINING PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT
Welding processes are classified into three basic categories:
 Fusion welding: Is defined as the melting together and coalescing of
materials. Filer metals may or may not be used.
 Solid state welding: - Joining takes place without fusion.
- Basic processes: Diffusion bonding and cold, ultrasonic, friction,
resistance and explosion welding.
- Brasing: Uses filler metals and involves lower temperatures than welding.
- Soldering: Also uses similar filler metals (solders) and involves even
lower temperatures.
 Adhesive bonding: Has unique applications requiring strength, sealing,
thermal and electrical insulating, vibration damping, and resistance to
corrosion between dissimilar metals.

Chapter 6 - 1
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.1. Fusion-Welding Processes

6.1.1. Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)
 OFW is a general term used to describe any welding process that uses a fuel gas
combined with oxygen to produce a flame.
 The most common gas welding process uses acetylene  Oxyacetylene gas welding
(OAW).
 The primary combustion process occurs in the inner core of the flame (Fig. 6.1):
C2H2 + O2  2 CO + H2 + Heat (6.1)
 The secondary combustion process is:
2 CO + H2 + 1.5 O2  2 CO2 + H2O + Heat (6.2)
The temperatures developed in the flame can reach 3300 oC.
 Flame types: The proportion of C2H2 and O2 (VO2/VC2H2) is an important factor.
 At a ratio 1:1: The flame is considered to be neutral (Fig. 6.1a).
 With a greater oxygen supply, the flame can be harmful (especially for steels),
because it oxidizes the metal.  Oxidizing flame (Fig. 6.1b)  Suitable for copper
and copper alloys.
 If the oxygen is insufficient for full combustion, this is reducing or carburising
flame (Fig. 6.1c). The temperature is lower  Suitable for brazing, soldering, and
flame hardening operation. Chapter 6 - 2
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

Oxyacetylene Flames Used in Welding

Figure 6.1 Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and
cutting operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing,
flame. The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene. (d)
The principle of the oxyfuel-gas welding operation.
Chapter 6 - 3
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

Temperature distribution of oxyacetylene flame

Chapter 6 - 4
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Filler metals:
 Are used to supply additional metal to the weld zone during welding.
 They are available as filler rods or wire (Fig. 6.1d) and may be bare or coated
with flux.
 The purpose of the flux:
- To retard oxidation of the surfaces being welded by generating a gaseous shield
around the weld zone.
- To help to dissolve and remove oxides and other substances from the weld zone.
- The slag developed protects the molten puddle of metal against oxidation.

Coated filler rod with flux Bare filler rod

Chapter 6 - 5
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Welding practice and equipment

 Prepare the edges and maintain their position by using clamps and fixtures.
 Open the acetylene valve and ignite the gas. Open the oxygen valve (Fig. 6.2).
 Hold the torch at about 45o from the plane of the workpiece with the inner flame
near the workpiece and the filler rod at about 30o to 40o.
 Touch the filler rod to the joint and control its movement.

Chapter 6 - 6
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

Torch Used in Oxyacetylene Welding

 The equipment for oxyfuel gas
welding basically consists of a
welding torch connected by hoses
to high pressure gas cylinders and
equipped with pressure gases and
regulators (Fig. 6.2c).

Figure 6.2 (a) General view of and

(b) cross-section of a torch used in
oxyacetylene welding. The acetylene
valve is opened first; the gas is lit
with a spark lighter or a pilot light;
then the oxygen valve is opened and
the flame adjusted. (c) Basic
equipment used in oxyfuel-gas
welding. To ensure correct
connections, all threads on acetylene
fittings are left-handed, whereas those
for oxygen are right-handed. Oxygen
regulators are usually painted green,
acetylene regulators red.
Chapter 6 - 7
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Pressure gas welding

 Heat the interface by a torch (Fig. 6.3).
 After the interface begins to melt, the torch is withdrawn.
 A force is applied to press the two components together (Fig. 6.3b) and is
maintained until the interface solidifies.

Pressure-Gas Welding

Figure 6.3 Schematic illustration of the pressure-gas welding process.

Chapter 6 - 8
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.1.2. Arc welding processes: Consumable electrode

 In arc welding: - The heat required is obtained from electrical energy.
- The process involves either a consumable or a nonconsumable electrode.
- An arc is produced between the tip of the electrode and the workpiece by using AC
(alternative current) or DC (direct current) power supply.
- This arc produces temperatures of about 30,000 oC.

1) Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

 The electric arc is generated by touching the
tip of a coated electrode against the workpiece
and withdrawing it quickly to a distance
sufficient to maintain the arc (Fig. 6.4)

Figure 6.4 Schematic illustration of the shielded

metal-arc welding process. About 50% of all large-
scale industrial welding operations use this process.
Chapter 6 - 9
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 The molten metal consists of a mixture of the base metal (workpiece), the electrode metal,
and substances from the coating on electrode.
 The electrode coating deoxidize the weld area and provides a shielding gas to protect it
from oxygen in the environment.
 A bare section at the end of the electrode is clamped to one terminal of the power source,
while the other terminal is connected to the workpiece (Fig. 6.5).
 The current, which may be DC or AC, usually ranges between 50 and 300 A.

Figure 6.5 Schematic illustration of the

shielded metal-arc welding operations (also
known as stick welding, because the electrode
is in the shape of a stick).

Chapter 6 - 10
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Advantages of the SMAW: Simple, versatile and requiring a smaller variety of electrodes.
The equipment consists of a power supply, cables, and an electrode holder.
 The SMAW process commonly is used in general construction, shipbuilding, pipelines, and
maintenance work.
 This process is suited best for workpiece thicknesses of 3 to 19 mm. This range can be
extended by skilled operators using multiple pass techniques (Fig. 6.6).
 Before another weld is applied, the slag should be removed completely, such as by wire
brushing or weld chipping.
 Both labor cost and material cost are high.

Figure 6.6 A deep weld showing the buildup

sequence of individual weld beads.
Chapter 6 - 11
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

2) Submerged arc welding (SAW)

 The weld arc is shielded by a granular flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide,
calcium fluoride, and other compounds.
 The thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal (Fig. 6.7). It prevent spatter and
sparks and suppresses the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes characteristic of the
SMAW process.

Granular flux

Figure 6.7 Schematic

illustration of the submerged-
arc welding process and
equipment. The unfused flux
is recovered and reused.
Source: American Welding
Society. Chapter 6 - 12
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 The consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire 1.5 to 10 mm.

 Electric currents typically range between 300 and 2000 A.
 The SAW process is limited largely to welds in flat or horizontal position having a backup
piece. Circular welds can be made on pipes and cylinders provided that they are rotated.
 The unused flux can be recovered, treated, and reused (Fig. 6.7).
 The quality of the weld is very high with good toughness, ductility, and uniformity of
properties.
 The SAW process provides very high welding productivity, depositing 4 to 10 times the
amount of weld metal per hour as the SMAW process.
 Typical applications include thick plate welding for shipbuilding and for pressure vessels.

Chapter 6 - 13
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

3) Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

 In GMAW called metal inert gas (MIG) welding, the weld shielded by an effectively inert
atmosphere of argon, helium, carbon dioxide, or various other gas mixtures (Fig. 6.8).

Figure 6.8 Schematic

illustration of the gas metal-arc
welding process, formerly
known as MIG (for metal inert
gas) welding.

Chapter 6 - 14
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 The consumable bare wire is fed automatically through a nozzle into the weld arc
by a wire feed drive motor (Fig. 6.9).

Figure 6.9 Basic equipment used in gas metal-arc welding operations. Source: American Welding
Society.

Chapter 6 - 15
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Using inert shielding gases, deoxidizers usually are present in the electrode metal itself in
order to prevent oxidation of the molten weld puddle.
 The temperatures generated in GMAW are relatively low  Suitable only for thin sheets
and sections of less than 6 mm.
 The operation is easy to handle.
 This process is suitable for welding most ferrous and nonferrous metals.
 The process is versatile, rapid, and economical, and welding productivity is double of the
SMAW process.
 The GMAW process can be automated easily and lends itself readily to robotics and to
flexible manufacturing systems.

Chapter 6 - 16
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

4) Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)

 The FCAW process (Fig. 6.10) is similar to gas metal arc welding, except the electrode is
tubular in shape and is filled with flux.

Figure 6.10 Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This operation is
similar to gas metal-arc welding.
Chapter 6 - 17
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Cored electrode produce a more stable arc, improve weld contour, and produce better
mechanical properties of the weld metal.
 The electrodes are usually 0.5 to 4 mm in diameter, and the power required is  20 kW.
 The FCAW process combines the versatility of SMAW with the continuous and automatic
electrode feeding feature of GMAW.
 It is economical and versatile. It is used for steels, stainless steels, and nickel alloys.
 A major advantages of FCAW is the ease with specific weld metal chemistries by adding
alloying elements to the flux core.
 This process is easy to automate and is readily adaptable to flexible manufacturing systems
and robotics.

Chapter 6 - 18
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

5) Electrogas welding (EGW)

 EGW is used primarily for welding the

edges of sections vertically and in one
pass with the pieces placed edge to edge
(butt joint) (Fig. 6.11).

Figure 6.11 Schematic illustration of the

electrogas welding process. Source:
American Welding Society.

Chapter 6 - 19
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 The weld metal is deposited into a weld cavity between the two pieces.
 Single or multiple electrodes are fed through a conduit, and a continuous arc is maintained
using flux cored electrodes at up to 750 A or solid electrodes at 400 A.
 Shielding is done by means of an inert gas such as carbon dioxide, argon, or helium.
 The gas may be provided from an external source, produced from a flux cored electrode, or
from both.
 Weld thickness ranges from 12 to 75 mm on steels, titanium, and aluminium alloys.

Chapter 6 - 20
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6) Electroslag welding (ESW)

 ESW and its applications are similar to electrogas welding (Fig. 6.12). The main difference
is that the arc is started between the electrode tip and the bottom of the part.

Figure 6.12 Equipment used for

electroslag welding operations.
Source: American Welding Society.
Chapter 6 - 21
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Flux is added. After the molten slag reaches the tip of the electrode, the arc is extinguished.
Heat is produced continuously by the electrical resistance of the molten slag.
 Single or multiple solid as well as flux cored electrodes may be used.
 ESW is capable of welding plates with thickness ranging from 50 mm to > 900 mm.
 The current required is about 600 A at 40 to 50 V (voltage).
 Weld quality is good.
 This process is used for large structure steel sections.

Chapter 6 - 22
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.1.3. Electrodes for arc welding

 Electrode for consumable arc welding processes are classified according to the:
- Strength of the deposited weld metal
- Current (AC or DC)
- Type of coating
 Electrodes are identified by numbers and letters (Table 28.2) or by colour code.
 Typical coated electrode dimensions are in the range of 150 to 460 mm in length,
and 1.5 to 8 mm in diameter.
 Electrode coating
 Electrode are coated with clay like materials (silicate binders) and powdered
materials (oxides, carbonates, fluorides, metal alloys, and cellulose).
 Basic functions of electrode coating:
- Stabilize the arc
- Generate gases to act as a shield against the surrounding atmosphere.
- Control the rate at which the electrode melts.
- Act as a flux to protect the weld against the formation of oxides, nitrides, and other
inclusions and to protect the molten weld pool.
- Add alloying elements to the weld zone.
Chapter 6 - 23
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

28.2
TABLE 27.2
The prefix ―E‖ designates arc welding electrode.
The first two digits of four-digit numbers and the first three digits of five-digit numbers
indicate minimum tensile strength:
E60XX 60,000 psi minimum tensile strength
E70XX 70,000 psi minimum tensile strength
E110XX 110,000 psi minimum tensile strength

The next-to-last digit indicates position:

EXX1X All positions
EXX2X Flat position and horizontal fillets
The last two digits together indicate the type of covering and the current to be used.
The suffix (Example: EXXXX-A1) indicates the approximate alloy in the weld deposit:
—A1 0.5% Mo
—B1 0.5% Cr, 0.5% Mo
—B2 1.25% Cr, 0.5% Mo
—B3 2.25% Cr, 1% Mo
—B4 2% Cr, 0.5% Mo
—B5 0.5% Cr, 1% Mo
—C1 2.5% Ni
—C2 3.25% Ni
—C3 1% Ni, 0.35% Mo, 0.15% Cr
—D1 and D2 0.25–0.45% Mo, 1.75% Mn
—G 0.5% min. Ni, 0.3% min. Cr, 0.2% min. Mo, 0.1%min. V,
1% min. Mn (only one element required)

Chapter 6 - 24
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.1.4. Arc welding processes:

Nonconsumable electrode
 In nonconsumable electrode welding processes, the electrode is typically a tungsten
electrode (Fig. 6.13 and 6.14).
Figure 6.13 The gas tungsten-arc welding
process, formerly known as TIG (for tungsten
inert gas) welding.

Figure 6.14 Equipment for gas

tungsten-arc welding operations.
Source: American Welding
Society. Chapter 6 - 25
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 An externally supplied shielding is necessary to prevent oxidation of the weld zone.

 Typically, direct current is used, and its polarity is important. Its selection depends
on such factors as type of electrode, base metals, and depth and width of the weld:
- Straight polarity (direct current electrode negative – DCEN): The workpiece is
positive, and the electrode is negative.
- Reserve polarity (Direct current electrode positive - DCEP): The workpiece is
negative, and the electrode is positive.
 In the AC (alternative current) method, the arc pulsates rapidly.

Straight polarity

Reserve polarity

Chapter 6 - 26
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

1) Gas tungsten arc welding

 In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), formerly known as TIG (Tungsten inert gas),
the filler metal is supplied from a filler wire (Fig. 6.13).
 The filler metals are similar to the base metals, and flux is not used.
 The shielding gas is usually argon or helium (or a mixture of the two).
 The power supply is either DC at 200 A or AC at 500 A (Fig. 6.14).
 AC is preferred for aluminium and magnesium.
 The GTAW process is used for a wide variety of metals and applications,
particularly aluminium, magnesium, titanium, and the refractory metals.
 The cost of the inert gas makes this process more expensive than SMAW but
provides welds with very high quality and surface finish.
 The equipment is portable.

Chapter 6 - 27
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

2) Plasma arc welding

 A plasma is ionized hot gas composed of nearly equal numbers electrons and ions.
 The plasma is initiated between the tungsten electrode and the orifice by a low
current pilot arc.
 Arc and weld zone shielding is supplied by gases (argon, helium or mixtures).
 There are two methods of plasma arc welding:
- Transferred arc method (Fig. 6.15a): The workpiece is part of the electrical circuit.
- Non transferred method: The arc occurs between the electrode and the nozzle, and
the heat is carried to the workpiece by the plasma gas.

Figure 6.15 Two

types of plasma-
arc welding
processes: (a)
transferred, (b)
nontransferred.
Deep and narrow
welds can be made
by this process at
high welding
speeds.

Chapter 6 - 28
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Compared to other arc welding processes, plasma arc welding has:

- Better arc stability,
- Less thermal distortion,
- Higher energy concentration,
- Permitting deeper and narrower welds.
- Higher welding speeds (120  1000 mm/min)
 Safety considerations include protection against glare, spatter, and noise from the
plasma arc.

Chapter 6 - 29
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.1.5. Electron beam welding (EBW)

 In EBW, the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into
1- Ổ cấp điện
heat as they strike the workpiece.
2- Nguồn điện áp cao
 This process requires special equipment to focus the beam on
3- Cáp dẫn điện áp cao
the workpiece, typically in a vacuum.
4- Bộ phận điều khiển chùm tia
5- Cáp điều khiển
6- Cathode
7- Phát điện tử
8- Anode
9- Khuếch đại từ trường
10- Chùm tia điện tử
11- Ligthing installation
12- Ống ngắm
13- Buồng chân không
14- Máy hút chân không
15- Vật hàn
16- Đồ gá vật hàn
17- Bộ phận điều khiển
chuyển động của vật hàn
18- Vùng kim loại nóng chảy Chapter 6 - 30
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Almost any metal can be welded by EBW, and workpiece thickness can range from
foil to plate.
 The intense energy also is capable of producing holes in the workpiece.
 Generally, no shielding gas, flux, or filler metal is required.
 This process has the capability of making high quality welds that are almost parallel
side, are deep and narrow, and have small heat affected zones.
 Parameters can be controlled accurately at welding speeds as high as 12 m/mim.
 Distortion and shrinkage in the weld area is minimal.
 Weld quality is good and of very high purity.

Chapter 6 - 31
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.1.6. Laser beam welding (LBW)

 LBW utilizes a high power laser beam as the source of heat, to produce a fusion weld.

1- Ổ cấp điện
2- Bình chứa khí bảo vệ
3- Ống dẫn khí
4- Nguồn tạo Laser
5- Bảng điều khiển
6- Gương lái tia

7- Khí bảo vệ (Ar, He)

8- Chùm tia Laser
9- Thấu kính hội tụ
10- Vật hàn
11- Bộ phận điều khiển chuyển động của vật hàn
12- Vùng kim loại nóng chảy
Chapter 6 - 32
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 This process is suitable particularly for welding deep and narrow joints (Fig. 6.16).

Figure 6.16 Comparison of the size of weld beads in (a) electron-beam or laser-beam
welding to that in (b) conventional (tungsten-arc) welding. Source: American Welding
Society, Welding Handbook (8th ed.), 1991.

Chapter 6 - 33
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Applications: Automotive industry, thin parts for electronic components, …

 LBW produces welds of good quality with minimum shrinkage and distortion.
 Laser welds have good strength and generally are ductile and free of porosity.
 Typical metals and alloys welded include aluminium, titanium, ferrous metals, copper,
superalloys, and the refractory metals.
 The major advantages of LBW over EBW are the following:
- A vacuum is not required, and the beam can be transmitted through air.
- Laser beams can be shaped, manipulated, and focused optically, so the process can be
automated easily.
- The beams do not generate x rays.
- The quality of the weld is better than in EBW with less tendency for incomplete fusion,
spatter, porosity, and less distortion.

Chapter 6 - 34
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.1.7. Cutting
 A piece of material can be separated into two or more parts or into various contours
by use a heat source that melts and removes a narrow zone in the workpiece.
 The sources of heat can be torches, electric arcs, or lasers.

1) Oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC)

 OFC is similar to oxyfuel welding, but the heat source now is used to remove a narrow
zone from a metal plate or sheet (Fig. 6.18a).

Flame Cutting and Drag Lines

Figure 6.18 (a) Flame cutting of steel plate with an oxyacetylene torch, and a cross-section
of the torch nozzle. (b) Cross-section of a flame-cut plate showing drag lines.
Chapter 6 - 35
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Cutting takes place mainly by the oxidation (burning) of the steel; some melting also
takes place.
 Cast irons and steel casting can be cut by this method.
 The maximum thickness that can be cut by OFC depends mainly on the gases used. With
oxyacetylene gas, it is about 300 mm; with oxyhydrogen, about 600 mm.
 The flames leaves drag lines on the cut surface (Fig. 6.18b) which results in a rougher
surface than that produced by using mechanical cutting tools.
 Distortion caused by uneven temperature distribution can be a problem in OFC.
 Underwater cutting is done with specially designed torches that produce a blanket of
compressed air between the flame and the surrounding water.

Chapter 6 - 36
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

2) Arc cutting
 Arc cutting processes are based on the same principles as arc welding processes.
 A variety of materials can be cut at high speeds by arc cutting.
Air carbon arc cutting
 A carbon electrode is used.
 The molten metal is blown away by a high velocity air jet.
 Used for gouging and scarfing (removal of metal from a surface).
 This process is noisy.
 Plasma arc cutting
 Produces the highest temperatures.
 Used for the rapid cutting of non ferrous and stainless steel plates.
 Produces a good surface finish, narrow kerfs.
 Electron beams and lasers
 Used very accurately cutting.
 The surface finish is better than that other thermal cutting processes, and the kerf is
narrower.

Chapter 6 - 37
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.2. Solid-State Welding Processes

 In solid state welding processes, joining takes place without fusion
at the interface of the two parts. No liquid or molten phase is present
in the joint.
 If two clean surfaces are brought into atomic contact with each
other under sufficient pressure, they form bonds and produce a joint.
Solid state bonding involves one or more of the following
phenomena:
 Diffusion: - The transfer of atoms across an interface;
-Applying external heat improves the strength of the bond between
the two surfaces being joined (in diffusion bonding).
 Pressure: - The higher the pressure, the stronger is the interface (in
roll bonding and explosion welding), where plastic deformation also
occurs at the interface.

Chapter 6 - 38
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.2.1. Cold welding and roll bonding

 In cold welding, pressure is applied to the workpieces through dies or rolls.
 Prior to welding, the interface is degreased, wire brushed, and wiped to remove
oxide smudges.
 Applications: Wire stock and electrical connections.
 Roll bonding or roll welding (ROW)
 The pressure required for welding can be applied through a pair of roll (Fig. 6.19)
 Surface preparation is important for interfacial strength.
 Typical examples are the cladding of:
- Pure aluminium over precipitation hardened aluminium alloy sheet;
- Stainless steel over mild steel (for corrosion resistance).

Figure 6.19 Schematic illustration of

the roll bonding, or cladding, process

Chapter 6 - 39
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.2.2. Ultrasonic bonding

 In ultrasonic welding (USW), the faying surfaces of the two components are
subjected to a static normal force and oscillating shearing (tangential) stresses.
 The shearing stresses are applied by the tip of a transducer (Fig. 6.20a).
(a) (b)

Figure 6.20 (a) Components of an ultrasonic welding machine for lap welds. The lateral
vibrations of the tool tip cause plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of the workpieces.
(b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller. Chapter 6 - 40
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 The frequency of oscillation is generally in the range of 10 to 75 kHz.

 Proper coupling between the transducer and the tip is important for efficient
operation.
 The shearing stresses cause plastic deformation at the interface of the two
components, breaking up oxide films and contaminations, thus allowing good
contact and producing a strong solid state bond.
 USW process can be used with wide variety of metallic and nonmetallic
materials, including dissimilar metals.
 The welding tip can be replaced with rotating disks (Fig. 6.20b) for the seam
welding of structures.

Chapter 6 - 41
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.2.3. Friction welding

 In friction welding (FRW), the heat required for welding is generated through
friction at the interface of the two components being joined.
 Operation:
- One of the workpiece components remains stationary while the other is placed in a
chuck or collet and rotated at a high constant speed.
- The two members to be joined then are brought into contact under an axial force
(Fig. 6.21a).
- After sufficient contact is established, the rotating member is brought to a quick
stop while the axial force is increased.
 The shape of the welded joint depends on the rotational speed and on the axial
pressure applied (Fig. 6.21b).
 Solid or tubular parts can be joined by this method with good joint strength.
 Inertia friction welding
 The energy required for frictional heating in inertia friction welding is supplied by
the kinetic energy of a flywheel.
 The flywheel is accelerated to the proper speed, the two members are brought into
contact, and an axial force is increased.
Chapter 6 - 42
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

(a)

(b)

Figure 6.21 (a) Sequence of operations in the friction welding process: (1) Left-hand component is
rotated at high speed. (2) Right-hand component is brought into contact under an axial force. (3)
Axial force is increased; flash begins to form. (4) Left-hand component stops rotating; weld is
completed. The flash can subsequently be removed by machining or grinding. (b) Shape of fusion
zone in friction welding, as a function of the force applied and the rotational speed.
Chapter 6 - 43
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Linear friction welding

 The interface of the two components to be joined is subjected to a linear
reciprocating motion.
 The components do not have to be circular or tubular in their cross section. The
process is capable of welding square or rectangular components made of metals or
plastics.
 Friction stir welding (FSW)
 A third body is rubbed against the two surfaces to be joined.
 A rotating nonconsumable probe (56 mm in diameter and 5 mm high) is plunged
into the joint (Fig. 6.22).
 The probe at the tip of the rotating tool forces heating and mixing (or stirring) of
the material in the joint.
 Materials such as aluminium, copper, steel, titanium, polymers and composite
materials have been welded successfully.
 This process now is being applied to aerospace, automotive, shipbuilding, and
military vehicles, using sheet or plates.

Chapter 6 - 44
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

Friction Stir Welding

Figure 6.22 The principle of the friction

stir welding process. Aluminum-alloy
plates up to 75 mm (3 in.) thick have
been welded by this process. Source:
TWI, Cambridge, U.K.

Chapter 6 - 45
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.2.4. Resistance welding

 The heat required for welding is produced by means of electrical resistance across
the two components to be joined.
 Advantages: Not requiring consumable electrodes, shielding gases, or flux.
 The heat generated in resistance welding is:
H = I2 R t
Where: H – Heat generated (Joules); I – Current (Amperes);
R – Resistance (Ohms); t – Time of current flow (Seconds).
 The strength of the bond depends on surface roughness and on the cleanliness of
the mating surfaces.

1) Resistance spot welding (RSW)

 The tips of two opposing solid, cylindrical electrodes touch a lap joint of two
sheet metals, and resistance heating produces a spot weld (Fig. 6.23a).
 Pressure is applied until the current is turned off and the weld has solidified.
 Accurate control and timing of electric current and of the pressure are essential.
 The weld nugget (Fig. 6.23b) is generally 6 to 10 mm in diameter.
 Currents range from 3000 to 40,000 A.
Chapter 6 - 46
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

Figure 6.23 (a)

Sequence in resistance
spot welding. (b)
Cross-section of a spot
weld, showing the weld
nugget and the
indentation of the
electrode on the sheet
surfaces. This is one of
the most commonly
used process in sheet-
metal fabrication and in
automotive-body
assembly.
Chapter 6 - 47
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 The shape and surface condition of the

electrode tip and the accessibility of the site
are important factors in spot welding.
 A variety of electrode shapes are used to spot
weld areas that are difficult to reach (Fig.
6.24b and c).
 Spot welding is used widely for fabricating
sheet metal parts.

Figure 6.24 (a) Schematic illustration of an air-

operated rocker-arm spot-welding machine.
Source: American Welding Society. (b) and (c)
Electrode designs for easy access into components
to be welded.

Chapter 6 - 48
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

2) Resistance seam welding (RSEW)

 RSEW is a modification of
spot welding wherein the
electrodes are replaced by
rotating wheels or rollers
(6.26a).
 With a high enough
frequency or slow enough
traverse speed, these spot
welds actually overlap into a
continuous seam and
produce a joint that is liquid
tight and gas tight (Fig.
6.26b).
 Current to the rollers is
applied only intermittently,
resulting in a series of spot
welds at specified intervals Figure 6.26 (a) Seam-welding process in which rotating rolls
along the length of the seam act as electrodes. (b) Overlapping spots in a seam weld. (c)
Roll spot welds. (d) Resistance-welded gasoline tank.
(Fig. 6.26c). Chapter 6 - 49
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

3) High frequency resistance welding (HFRW)

 HFRW is similar to seam welding, except that high frequency current (up to 450
kHz) is employed.
 A typical applications is the production of butt welded tubing or pipe where the
current is conducted through two sliding contacts (Fig. 6.27) to the edges of roll
formed tubes.
 The heated edges then are pressed together by passing the tube through a pair of
squeeze rolls.
 Another method (high frequency induction welding HFIW), the roll formed tube
is subjected to high frequency induction heating (Fig. 6.27b).

Figure 6.27 Two methods of high-frequency butt welding of tubes.

Chapter 6 - 50
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

4) Resistance project welding (RPW)

 High electrical resistance at the

joint is developed by embossing one
or more projections on one of the
surfaces to be welded (Fig. 6.28).
 Weld nuggets similar to those in
spot welding are formed as the
electrode exert pressure to soften and
compress the projections.
 This process produces a number of
welds in one pass, extend electrode
life, and is capable of welding metals
of different thickness.

Figure 6.28 (a) Schematic illustration

of resistance projection welding. (b)
A welded bracket. (c) and (d)
Projection welding of nuts or
threaded bosses and studs. Source:
American Welding Society. (e)
Resistance-projection-welded grills.
Chapter 6 - 51
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

5) Flash welding (FW)

 Heat is generated very rapidly from the arc as the ends of two members begin to
make contact and develop an electrical resistance at the joint (Fig. 6.29).
 After the proper temperatures is reached and the interface begins to soften, an
axial force is applied at a controlled rate, and a weld is formed by plastic
deformation of the joint.
 Because of the presence of an arc, this process also can be classified as arc
welding.
 FW process is suitable for end-to-end or edge-to-edge joining sheets of similar or
dissimilar metals 0.2 to 2.5 mm thick and for end joining bars 1 to 75 mm in
diameter.
 Design guidelines for mating surfaces: The importance of uniform cross sections
at the joint.

Figure 6.29 Flash-welding process for

end-to-end welding of solid rods or
tubular parts.

Chapter 6 - 52
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6) Stud welding (SW)

 SW is called stud arc welding and is similar to flash welding.
 The stud serves as one of the electrodes while being joined to another component,
which is usually a flat plate (Fig. 6.30).
 Polarity for aluminium is usually direct current electrode positive (DCEP), and
for steel it is direct current electrode negative (DCEN).
 In order to concentrate the heat generated, prevent oxidation, and retain the
molten metal in the weld zone, a disposable ceramic ring is placed around the joint.

Figure 6.30 The sequence of operations in stud welding, which is used for welding bars,
threaded rods, and various fasteners onto metal plates.
Chapter 6 - 53
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.2.5. Explosion welding (EXW)

 Pressure is applied by detonating a layer of explosive that has been placed over
one of the components being joined, called the flyer plate (Fig. 6.31a and b).

(a) (b)

Figure 6.31 Schematic illustration of the explosion welding process: (a)

constant interface clearance gap and (b) angular interface clearance gap.

Chapter 6 - 54
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 The impact mechanically interlocks the two surfaces (Fig. 6.31c and d), so that
pressure welding by plastic deformation also takes place.
 Any oxide films present at the interface are broken up and propelled out of the
interface. So, the bond strength from EXW is very high.
 There is a minimum denotation speed necessary for welding to occur in this
process. Denotation speed is usually in the range of from 2400 to 3600 m/s.
 Applications: - This process is suitable particularly for cladding a plate or a slab
with a dissimilar metal.
- Tubes and pipes can be joined to the holes in the header plates of boilers and heat
exchangers by placing the explosive inside the tube.
 EXW is dangerous, so it requires safe handling by well trained and experienced
(c)
personnel. (d)

Figure 6.31 (c) and (d) Cross-sections of explosion-welded joints. (c) titanium (top piece) on low-
carbon steel (bottom). (d) Incoloy 800 (an iron-nickel-based alloy) on low-carbon steel. Chapter 6 - 55
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.2.6. Diffusion bonding (DFW)

 DFW is a process in which of the strength of the joint results primarily from
diffusion (movement of atoms across the interface) and secondarily from plastic
deformation of the facing surfaces.
 This process requires temperatures of about 0.5 Tm in order to have a sufficiently
high diffusion rate between the parts.
 The bonded interface in DFW essentially has the same physical and mechanical
properties as the base metal.
 Pressure may be applied by dead weights, a press, gas pressure, or by thermal
expansion of the parts to be joined.
 The parts usually are heated in a furnace or by electrical resistance.
 Applications:
- DFW is most suitable for joining dissimilar metals.
- It also is used for reactive metals (titanium, beryllium, zirconium, and refractory
metal alloys) and for composite materials.
- DFW is used for fabricating complex parts in low quantities for the aerospace,
nuclear, and electronics industries.

Chapter 6 - 56
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Diffusion bonding / superplastic forming

 Sheet metal structures can be fabricated by combining diffusion with superplastic
forming.
 After the diffusion bonding of selected locations of the sheets, the unbonded (stop
off) region are expanded in a mold by air or fluid pressure (Fig. 6.32).
 This process improves productivity by eliminating the number of parts in a
structures, mechanical fasteners, labor, and cost.
 It produces parts with good dimensional accuracy and low residual stresses.

Chapter 6 - 57
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Diffusion bonding / superplastic forming

Figure 6.32 The sequence of operations in the fabrication of various structures by diffusion
bonding and then superplastic forming of (originally) flat sheets. Sources: (a) After D. Stephen
and S.J. Swadling. (b) and (c) Rockwell International Corp.
Chapter 6 - 58
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.3. The Metallurgy of Welding; Welding Design

and Process Selection
6.3.1. The welded joint
 Three distinct zones can be identified in a typical fusion weld joint (6.33): Base
metal; Heat affected zone; Weld metal.
 The metallurgy and properties of the second and third zones depend strongly on the
metals joined, on the welding process, on the filler metals and on process variables.

Fusion Weld Zone

Figure 6.33 Characteristics of a

typical fusion weld zone in oxyfuel
gas and arc welding.
Chapter 6 - 59
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

1) Solidification of the weld metal

 The solidification process is similar to that in casting and begins with the
formation of columnar (dendritic) grains.
 Because metals are much better heat conductors than the surrounding air, the
grains lie parallel to the plane of the two components being welded (Fig. 6.34a).
 The grains in a shallow weld are shown in Fig. 6.34b and 6.35.
 Grain structure and size depend on the specific alloy, the specific welding process
employed, and the specific filler metal.
 The structure of weld metal has generally low strength, toughness, and ductility.
 The proper selection of filler metal composition or of heat treatments following
welding can improve the mechanical properties of the joint.
(a) (b)

Figure 6.34 Grain structure in (a) a deep weld (b) a shallow weld. Note that the grains in the
solidified weld metal are perpendicular to the surface of the base metal. In a good weld, the
solidification line at the center in the deep weld shown in (a) has grain migration, which develops
uniform strength in the weld bead.
Chapter 6 - 60
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

2) Heat affected zone (HAZ)

 HAZ (Fig. 6.36) is within the base metal itself.
 HAZ has a microstructure different from that of the base metal prior to welding
because it has been subjected to elevated temperatures during welding.
 The properties and microstructure of the HAZ depend on the rate of heat input
and cooling, and the temperature to which this zone was raised.

Figure 6.36 Schematic illustration of

various regions in a fusion weld zone
(and the corresponding phase diagram)
for 0.30% carbon steel. Source:
American Welding Society.

Chapter 6 - 61
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Grain close to the weld metal will grow. This growth will cause their region to be
softer and to have less strength.
 Such a joint will be weakest in its HAZ. The grain structure of such a weld that is
exposed to corrosion by chemical reaction (Fig. 6.37).

Figure 6.37 Intergranular corrosion of a 310-stainless-steel welded tube after exposure to a caustic solution.
The weld line is at the center of the photograph. Scanning electron micrograph at 20 X. Source: Courtesy of
B. R. Jack, Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp.

Chapter 6 - 62
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.3.2. Welded quality

 As a result of a history of thermal cycling and its attendant microstructural
changes, a welded joint may develop various discontinuities.
 Welding discontinuities can also be caused by inadequate or careless application
of established welding technologies or by substandard operator training.

1) Porosity
 Porosity in welds is caused by:
- Gases released during melting of the weld area but trapped during solidification.
- Chemical reaction during welding, or
- Contaminants.
 Porosity in welds can be reduced by:
- Proper selection of electrodes and filler metals;
- Improved welding techniques: Preheating or an increase in the rate of heat input;
- Proper cleaning, and the prevention of contaminants from entering the weld zone;
- Reduced welding speeds, to allow time for gas to escape.

Chapter 6 - 63
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

2) Slag inclusions
 Slag inclusions are compounds such as oxides, fluxes, electrode coating materials,
and contamination from environment that are trapped in the weld zone.
 Slag inclusions can be prevented by:
- Cleaning the weld bead surface before next layer is deposited;
- Providing enough shielded gas;
- Redesigning the joint so as to permit sufficient space for proper manipulation of
the puddle of molten weld metal.

Chapter 6 - 64
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

3) Incomplete fusion and penetration

 Incomplete fusion (lack of fusion) produces poor weld beads (Fig. 6.38).
 A better weld can be obtained by:
- Raising the temperature of the base metal;
- Cleaning the weld area, prior to the welding;
- Changing the joint design and types of electrode;
- Providing enough shielding gas.

Figure 6.38 Low-quality weld beads, the result of

incomplete fusion. Source: American Welding Society.

Chapter 6 - 65
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Incomplete penetration (lack of penetration) occurs when the depth of

the welded joint is insufficient (Fig. 6.39).
 Penetration can be improved by:
- Increasing the heat input;
- Reducing the travel speed during the welding;
- Changing the joint design;
- Ensuring that the surfaces to be joined fit properly.

Figure 6.39 Schematic illustration of various discontinuities in fusion welds.

Source: American Welding Society.
Chapter 6 - 66
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

4) Weld profile
 Weld profile is important not only because of its effects on the strength and
appearance of the weld, but also because it can signal incomplete fusion or the
presence of slag inclusions in multiple layer welds.
 Underfilling (Fig. 6.39a): The joint is not filled with proper amount of weld metal.
 Undercutting (Fig. 6.39b): Results from the melting away of the base metal and the
consequence generation of a groove in the shape of sharp recess or notch.
 Overlap (Fig. 6.39b): Is the surface discontinuity usually caused by poor welding
practice and by selection of improper materials.

Figure 6.39 Schematic illustration of various discontinuities in fusion welds.

Source: American Welding Society. Chapter 6 - 67
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

5) Cracks
 Typical types of cracks are longitudinal, transverse, crater, underbead, and toe
cracks (Fig. 6.40 and 6.41).

Figure 6.40 Types of cracks (in welded joints) caused by thermal stresses that develop during
solidification and contraction of the weld bead and the surrounding structure. (a) Crater cracks.
(b) Various types of cracks in butt and T joints.
Chapter 6 - 68
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Crack are classified as hot or cold. Hot cracks occur while the joint is still at
elevated temperature. Cold crack develop after the weld metal has solidified.
 The basic crack prevention measures are:
- Change the joint design, to minimize stresses from shrinkage during cooling.
- Change the parameters, the procedures, and the sequence of the welding process.

Figure 6.41 Crack in a weld bead, due to the fact that the
two components were not allowed to contract after the weld
was completed. Source: S. L. Meiley, Packer Engineering
Associates, Inc.

Chapter 6 - 69
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6) Residual stresses
 Because of localized heating and cooling during welding, expansion and
contraction of the weld area causes residual stresses in the workpiece.
 Residual stresses can cause the following defects:
- Distortion, warping, and buckling of the welded parts (Fig. 6.42);
- Stress corrosion cracking;
- Further distortion;
- Reduced fatigue life.

Figure 6.42 Distortion of parts after welding: (a) butt joints; (b) fillet welds. Distortion is caused
by differential thermal expansion and contraction of different parts of the welded assembly.
Chapter 6 - 70
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 After the weld is completed, the heat from the weld zone dissipates laterally into
the plates, while the weld area cools. The plates thus begin expand longitudinally
while the welded length begins to contract.
 These two opposite effects cause residual stresses that are distributed as shown in
Fig. 6.43b.

Figure 6.43 Residual stresses developed during welding of a butt joint.

Source: American Welding Society.
Chapter 6 - 71
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.3.3. Weldability
 Weldability of a metal is usually defined as its capacity to be welded into a
specific structure that has certain properties and characteristics and will
satisfactorily meet service requirement.
 Brief summery of the general weldability characteristics of metals and alloys:

Materials Weldability
Plain carbon steels Excellent for low carbon steels, fair to good for medium
steels, poor for high carbon steels
Low alloy steels Similar to that of medium carbon steels
High alloy steels Good under well controlled condition
Stainless steels Weldable by various processes
Aluminum alloys Weldable at a high rate of heat input
Copper alloys Similar to that of aluminum alloys

Chapter 6 - 72
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.3.4. Testing welded joints

 The quality of a welded joint is established by testing.
 Welded joints may be tested either destructively or nondestructively.

1) Destructive techniques
 Tension test: Longitudinal and transverse tension tests are performed, on specimens
removed from actual welded joints and from welded metal area. Stress – strain curves are
obtained.
 Tension shear test: The specimens are specially prepared to simulate actual welded
joints and procedures (Fig. 6.44). The shear strength of the weld metal and the location of
fracture are determined.

Figure 6.44 Two types of specimens for

tension-shear testing of welded joints.

Chapter 6 - 73
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

Bend test (Fig. 6.45): To determine the relative ductility and strength of welded joints.
 Fracture test: Utilize the impact testing techniques.
 Corrosion and creep tests:
- Because of the difference in the composition and microstructure of the materials in the
weld zone, preferential corrosion may take place in it.
- Creep tests are important in determining the behavior of welded joints at elevate
temperatures.

Figure 6.45 (a) Wrap-around bend

test method. (b) Three-point bending
of welded specimens.

Chapter 6 - 74
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Testing of spot welds (Fig. 6.46): Test for weld nugget strength using the following
tests: Tension shear; Cross tension; Twist and Peel.
- The cross tension and twist tests are capable of revealing flaws, cracks, and porosity
in the weld area.
- The peel test is commonly used for thin sheets.

Testing of
Spot Welds
Figure 6.46 (a) Tension-
shear test for spot welds.
(b) Cross-tension test. (c)
Twist test. (d) Peel test.

Chapter 6 - 75
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

2) Nondestructive techniques

 Application where weld failure can be catastrophic: Pressure vessels, load bearing
structural members, power plants.
 Nondestructive techniques consist: Visual, radiographic (x-rays), magnetic-particle,
liquid-penetrant, Ultrasonic.

Chapter 6 - 76
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.3.5. Weld design and process selection

 General design guidelines:
 Product design should minimize the number of welds;
 Components should fit properly before welding;
 Some designs can be avoid or minimize the need for edge preparation.
 Weld bead size should be kept to a minimum, to conserve weld metal.
 Weld location should be selected so as not to interfere with further processing.

Figure 6.47 Design guidelines for welding. Source: J. G. Bralla

(ed.), Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing. Copyright
©1986, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Used with permission. Chapter 6 - 77
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Weld symbols
Figure 30.16 Standard Identification and Symbols for Welds

Chapter 6 - 78
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Example: Weld design selection (Fig. 6.48)

 (a): In intermittent welds, the appearance of the structure is improved and distortion is
reduced.
 (b): The design on the right can carry three times the moment M of the one on the left.
 (c): The weld on the left requires about twice the amount of weld material than does the
design on the right.

Figure 6.48

Chapter 6 - 79
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.4. Brazing, Soldering, Adhesive-Bonding, and

Mechanical-Fastening Processes
6.4.1. Brazing

 Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is placed between the facing
surfaces to be joined (or at their periphery) and the temperature is raised sufficiently
to melt the filler metal (Fig. 6.49).
 Brazing is a liquid – solid state bonding process.
 Filler metals used for brazing typically melt above 450oC.

Figure 6.49 (a) Brazing and (b) braze welding operations.

Chapter 6 - 80
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Filler metals
 Filler metals for brazing generally have a composition significantly different from
the metals to be joined.
 They come in a variety shapes: Wire, rod, rings, shims, and filling.

 Fluxes
 Use of a flux to prevent oxidation and to remove oxide films from workpiece
surfaces.
 Brazing fluxes made of borax, boric acid, borates, fluorides, and chlorides.
 Wetting agents may be added to improve both the wetting characteristics of the
molten filler metal and the capillary action.

Chapter 6 - 81
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.4.2 Soldering
 The filler metal (called solder) melts at a relatively low temperatures (under 450oC).
 As in brazing, the solder fills the joint by capillary action.
 Important characteristics for solders are low surface tension and high wetting
capability.
 Solders melt at a temperature that is the eutectic point of the solder alloy.
 Solders (Table ) traditionally have been tin-lead alloys in various proportions.
 Example: A solder of 61.9% Sn – 38.1% Pb composition melts at 188oC (whereas tin
melts at 232oC and lead at 327oC).
 Fluxes are used in soldering and for the same purposes as they are in welding and
brazing.
 There are two types of fluxes for soldering:
- Inorganic acids or salts: Such as zinc ammonium chloride solutions.
- Noncorrosive resin based fluxes used in electrical applications.

Chapter 6 - 82
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.4.3. Adhesive bonding

 Adhesive bonding has been a common method of joining and assembly in such
applications as labeling, packaging, bookbinding, home furnishings, ...
 An adhesive may require one or more of the following properties: Strength,
toughness, resistance to various fluids and chemicals, resistance to environmental
degradation, capability to wet the surfaces to bonded.

 Several types of adhesives are available, and more continue to be developed that
provide adequate joint strength – including fatigue strength.

Chapter 6 - 83
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Process capabilities:
 Adhesives can be used for bonding a wide variety similar and dissimilar metallic and
nonmetallic materials and components with different shapes, sizes, and thickness.
 Adhesive joints are designed to withstand shear, compressive, and tensile forces, but they
should not be subjected to peeling (Fig. 6.56).
 Applications:
 Used in major industries: Aerospace, automotive, appliances, and building products.
 Curing time can range from a few seconds to several hours. Thus production rates can be low
compared to those of other processes.
 Adhesive bonds for structural applications rarely are suitable for service above 250oC.

Figure 6.56 Characteristic behavior of (a) brittle and (b) tough adhesives in a peeling test. This test is similar to
the peeling of adhesive tape from a solid surface.
Chapter 6 - 84
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

6.4.4. Mechanical fastening

 The most common method of mechanical fastening (mechanical assembly) is by
the use of bolts, nuts, screws, pins, …
 Mechanical fastening generally requires that the components have holes through
which the fasteners are inserted.
 These joints may be subjected to both shear and tensile stresses.
 Advantages:
- Ease to manufacturing;
- Ease of assembly and transportation;
- Ease of disassembly, maintenance, parts replacements, or repair;
- Ease in creating designs that require movable joint: Hinges, sliding mechanisms,
and adjustable components and fixtures;
- Lower overall cost of manufacturing the product.
 Threaded fasteners: Bolts, screws, and nuts.
 Rivets: The method of permanent or semipermanent mechanical joining is by
riveting (Fig. 6.59).

Figure 6.59 Examples of rivets: (a) solid, (b) tubular, (c) split (or bifurcated), (d) compression.
Chapter 6 - 85
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Metal stitching and stapling: The process of metal stitching and stapling
(Fig. 6.61) is much like that of the ordinary stapling of papers.
 Seaming: Is a process much like the joining of two pieces of papers by folding
them at the corner (Fig. 6.62).

Figure 6.61 Various examples of metal stitching.

Figure 6.62 Stages in forming a double-lock seam.

Chapter 6 - 86
Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Crimping:  Is a method of joining without using fasteners

 It can be done with beads or dimples (Fig. 6.63), which can be produced by
shrinking or swaging operations.
 Caps are fastened to bottle by crimping just as some connectors are to electrical
wiring.

Figure 6.63 Two examples of mechanical joining by crimping.

Chapter 6 - 87
 Introduction to Manufacturing Engineering – Ass.Prof. N.T. Duong – HUST

 Snap-in fasteners
(Fig. 6.64)
 Used widely in
automotive bodies and
household appliances.
 They are economical, and
they permit easy and rapid
component assembly.

Figure 6.64 Examples of spring and snap-in

fasteners used to facilitate assembly.

Chapter 6 - 88