Lesson 1
Lesson 1
Lesson 1
LESSON 1
OBJECTIVES
1.1 Introduction
many forms from domestic water heaters and HVAC, where the variable temperature is
measured and used to control gas, oil, or electricity flow to the water heater, or heating
pressure to time and distance, can be sensed simultaneously. All of these can be
total control. Due to the rapid advances in technology, instruments in use today may be
obsolete tomorrow, as new and more efficient measurement techniques are constantly
being introduced. These changes are being driven by the need for higher accuracy, quality,
In order to produce a product with consistently high quality, tight process control
water to a number of cleaning stations, where the water temperature needs to be kept
A simple control block is shown in Figure 1 (a), steam and cold water are fed into
a heat exchanger, where heat from the steam is used to bring the cold water to the
water (the measured variable) from the process or exchanger. The temperature is
observed by an operator who adjusts the flow of steam (the manipulated variable) into the
heat exchanger to keep the water flowing from the heat exchanger at the constant set
amplitude of the output parameter from the process and comparing it to the desired or set
variable, but can measure and control many variables. A good example of the
the processor in the automobile engine. Figure below lists some of the functions
Figure 2
Figure 2. shows the breaks down the individual elements of the blocks in a
transmitter with its own regulated power supply. The control element has an actuator, a
power control circuit, and its own power supply. The controller has a processor with a
memory and a summing circuit to compare the set point to the sensed signal so that it can
generate an error signal. The processor then uses the error signal to generate a correction
signal to control the actuator and the input variable. The definition of these blocks is
given as follows:
Feedback loop is the signal path from the output back to the input to correct for
any variation between the output level from the set level.
4
Set point is the desired value of the output parameter or variable being monitored by a
sensor.
Instrument is the name of any of the various device types for indicating or
like.
Sensors are devices that can detect physical variables, such as temperature,
light intensity, or motion, and have the ability to give a measurable output
Transducers are devices that can change one form of energy to another, e.g., a
converts temperature into voltage. Both of these devices give an output that is
Converters are devices that are used to change the format of a signal without
changing the energy form, i.e., a change from a voltage to a current signal.
Actuators are devices that are used to control an input variable in response
to a signal from a controller. A typical actuator will be a flow-control valve that can
control the rate of flow of a fluid in proportion to the amplitude of an electrical signal
Controllers are devices that monitor signals from transducers and take the
necessary action to keep the process within specified limits according to a predefined
and are microprocessor-based systems. Small systems have the ability to monitor several
variables and control several actuators, with the capability of being expanded to monitor
a petrochemical refinery.
An error signal is the difference between the set point and the amplitude of the
measured variable.
A correction signal is the signal used to control power to the actuator to set the
Transmitters are devices used to amplify and format signals so that they are
suitable for transmission over long distances with zero or minimal loss of information.
The transmitted signal can be in one of the several formats, i.e., pneumatic, digital,
Example 1.
The block diagram of a closed-loop flow control system. Identify the following
elements: (a) the sensor, (b) the transducer, (c) the actuator, (d) the transmitter, (e) the
controller, (f) the manipulated variable, and (g) the measured variable.
6
Figure 3.
Answer.
(a) The sensor is labeled pressure cell in the diagram. (b) The transducer is
labeled converter. There are two transducers—one for converting pressure to current and
the other for converting current to pressure to operate the actuator. (c) The actuator in
this case is the pneumatic valve. (d) The transmitter is the line driver. (e) The controller
is labeled PLC. (f) The manipulated variable is the differential pressure developed by
the fluid flowing through the orifice plate constriction. (g) The controlled variable is
An electrical supply is required for all control systems and must meet all
standards in force at the plant. The integrity of the electrical supply is most important.
Many facilities have backup systems to provide an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to
take over in case of loss of external power. Power failure can mean plant shutdown and
from traveling through the power lines and affecting sensitive electronic control
instruments.
variations in the ground potential between electronic equipment can cause large errors in
signal levels. Each piece of equipment should be connected to a heavy copper bus that is
properly grounded.
Instrument air in pneumatic equipment must meet quality standards, the air must be dirt,
Water supply is required in many cleaning and cooling operations, and for steam
impurities, and may be satisfactory for cooling, but are not suitable for most cleaning
operations.
valves and so on. Each device must be easily accessible for maintenance and inspection.
8
Safety is a top priority in a facility. The correct material must be used in container
construction, plumbing, seals, and gaskets to prevent corrosion and failure leading to
leakage and spills of hazardous materials. All electrical equipment must be properly
installed to code with breakers. Electrical systems must have the correct fire retardant for
As with all disciplines, a set of standards has evolved over the years to ensure
consistency and avoid confusion. The Instrument Society of America (ISA) has
The units of measurement fall into two distinct systems; first, the English system
and second, the International system, SI (Systéme International D’Unités) based on the
metric system, but there are some differences. The English system has been the standard
used in the United States, but the SI system is slowly making inroads, so that students
need to be aware of both systems of units and be able to convert units from one system to
the other.
9
Example 2.
Answer: 100.584m
10
Example 3.
Answer: 98.4 in
Example 4.
The weight of an object is 2.5 lb. What is the equivalent force and mass in the SI
system of units?
Example 5.
value and the actual value. Accuracy is determined by comparing an indicated reading to
that of a known standard. Standards can be calibrated devices or obtained from the
organization that is responsible for setting and maintaining standards, and developing
new standards as new technology requires it. Accuracy depends on linearity, hysteresis,
offset, drift, and sensitivity. The resulting discrepancy is stated as a ± deviation from the
11
Example 6.
The range of an instrument specifies the lowest and highest readings it can
measure, i.e., a thermometer whose scale goes from −40°C to 100°C has a range from
−40°C to 100°C.
The span of an instrument is its range from the minimum to maximum scale
value, i.e., a thermometer whose scale goes from −40°C to 100°C has a span of 140°C.
When the accuracy is expressed as the percentage of span, it is the deviation from true
Reading accuracy is the deviation from true at the point the reading is being taken
and is expressed as a percentage, i.e., if a deviation of ±4.35 psi in Example: 1.6 was
12
measured at 28.5 psi, the reading accuracy would be (4.35/28.5) × 100 = ±15.26% of
reading.
Example 7.
In the data sheet of a scale capable of weighing up to 200 lb, the accuracy is given
as ±2.5 percent of a reading. What is the deviation at the 50 and 100 lb readings, and
The absolute accuracy of an instrument is the deviation from true as a number not
range, the deviation is ±3 V at all the scale readings, e.g., 10 ± 3 V, 70 ± 3 V and so on.
Precision refers to the limits within which a signal can be read and may be
somewhat subjective. In the analog instrument shown in Figure, the scale is graduated in
divisions of 0.2 psi, the position of the needle could be estimated to within 0.02 psi, and
hence, the precision of the instrument is 0.02 psi. With a digital scale the last digit may
signal over time, and give the same output under the same conditions. An instrument may
not be accurate but can have good reproducibility, i.e., an instrument could read 20 psi as
in the measured variable, and is known as the transfer function, i.e., when the output of a
13
pressure transducer changes by 3.2 mV for a change in pressure of 1 psi, the sensitivity is
3.2 mV/psi. High sensitivity in an instrument is preferred as this gives higher output
amplitudes, but this may have to be weighted against linearity, range, and accuracy.
Drift is the change in the reading of an instrument of a fixed variable with time.
approaches a signal from opposite directions, i.e., if an instrument reads a midscale value
going from zero it can give a different reading from the value after making a full-scale
reading. This is due to stresses induced into the material of the instrument by changing its
Figure 4.
14
Example 8.
A pressure gauge is being calibrated. The pressure is taken from 0 to 100 psi and
Shows the difference in the readings when they are taken from 0 going
up to FSD and when they are taken from FSD going back down to 0. There is a
difference between the readings of 6 psi or a difference of 6 percent of FSD, that is, ±3
Resolution is the smallest amount of a variable that an instrument can resolve, i.e.,
readings (10 to12) taken consecutively of a variable, before the variable has time to
change. The average reading is calculated and the spread in the value of the readings
taken. Linearity is a measure of the proportionality between the actual value of a variable
being measured and the output of the instrument over its operating range.
Figure 5.
16
Problem Set 1
Name: ______________________________________ Course & Section: ____________
Date: ____________
Instruction: Print this page and encircle the correct answer in the choices. Scan and
submit this in the link provided on or before September 19, 2022.
https://tinyurl.com/ee27ps1
1. What is the difference between controlled and manipulated variables?
2. What is the difference between set point, error signal, and correction signal?
5. How many pounds per square inch are equivalent to 38.2 kPa?
8. How many amperes are required from a 110-V supply to generate 1.2 hp? Assume 93- percent
efficiency.
10. What is the sensitivity of an instrument whose output is 17.5 mV for an input change of 7°C?
11. A temperature sensor has a range of 0 to 120°C and an absolute accuracy of ±3°C. What is its FSD
percent accuracy?
12. A flow sensor has a range of 0 to 25 m/s and a FSD accuracy of 4.5 percent. What is the absolute accuracy?
13. A pressure sensor has a range of 30 to 125 kPa and the absolute accuracy is ±2 kPa. What is its
percent full-scale and span accuracy?
14. A temperature instrument has a range −20°F to 500°F. What is the error at 220°F? Assume the
accuracy is (a) ±7 percent of FSD and (b) ±7 percent of span.
15. A spring balance has a span of 10 to 120 kg and the absolute accuracy is ±3 kg. What is its %FSD
accuracy and span accuracy?
16. A digital thermometer with a temperate range of 129.9°C has an accuracy specification of ±1/2 of the
least significant bit. What is its absolute accuracy, %FSD accuracy, and its resolution?
17. A flow instrument has an accuracy of (a) ±0.5 percent of reading and (b) 0.5%FSD. If the range of the
instrument is 10 to 100 fps, what is the absolute accuracy at 45 fps?
18
18. A pressure gauge has a span of 50 to 150 psi and its absolute accuracy is ±5 psi. What is its %FSD and
span accuracy?
19. Plot a graph of the following readings for a pressure sensor to determine if there is hysteresis, and if
so, what is the hysteresis as a percentage of FSD?
20. Plot a graph of the following readings for a temperature sensor to determine the linearity of the sensor.
What is the nonlinearity as a percentage of FSD?