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LESSON 1

INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS CONTROL

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lessons, the students should be able to:

1. Demonstrate understanding of the various measurement units used.

2. Understand the reason why process control relies extensively on instrumentation

3. Become familiar with instrument terminology and standards.

4. Apply the problem-solving methodology used in this Manual.

1.1 Introduction

Instrumentation is the basis for process control in industry. However, it comes in

many forms from domestic water heaters and HVAC, where the variable temperature is

measured and used to control gas, oil, or electricity flow to the water heater, or heating

system, or electricity to the compressor for refrigeration, to complex industrial process

control applications such as used in the petroleum or chemical industry.

In industrial control a wide number of variables, from temperature, flow, and

pressure to time and distance, can be sensed simultaneously. All of these can be

interdependent variables in a single process requiring complex microprocessor systems for

total control. Due to the rapid advances in technology, instruments in use today may be

obsolete tomorrow, as new and more efficient measurement techniques are constantly

being introduced. These changes are being driven by the need for higher accuracy, quality,

precision, and performance. To measure parameters accurately, techniques have been

developed that were thought impossible only a few years ago.


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1.2 Process Control

In order to produce a product with consistently high quality, tight process control

is necessary. A simple-to-understand example of process control would be the supply of

water to a number of cleaning stations, where the water temperature needs to be kept

constant in spite of the demand.

Figure 1 (a) Figure 1 (b)

A simple control block is shown in Figure 1 (a), steam and cold water are fed into

a heat exchanger, where heat from the steam is used to bring the cold water to the

required working temperature. A thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the

water (the measured variable) from the process or exchanger. The temperature is

observed by an operator who adjusts the flow of steam (the manipulated variable) into the

heat exchanger to keep the water flowing from the heat exchanger at the constant set

temperature. This operation is referred to as process control, and in practice would be

automated as shown in Figure 1 (b).

Process control is the automatic control of an output variable by sensing the

amplitude of the output parameter from the process and comparing it to the desired or set

level and feeding an error signal back to control an input variable.


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In a process-control facility the controller is not necessarily limited to one

variable, but can measure and control many variables. A good example of the

measurement and control of multi-variables that we encounter on a daily basis is given by

the processor in the automobile engine. Figure below lists some of the functions

performed by the engine processor.

Figure 2

Figure 2. shows the breaks down the individual elements of the blocks in a

process-control loop. The measuring element consists of a sensor, a transducer, and a

transmitter with its own regulated power supply. The control element has an actuator, a

power control circuit, and its own power supply. The controller has a processor with a

memory and a summing circuit to compare the set point to the sensed signal so that it can

generate an error signal. The processor then uses the error signal to generate a correction

signal to control the actuator and the input variable. The definition of these blocks is

given as follows:

Feedback loop is the signal path from the output back to the input to correct for

any variation between the output level from the set level.
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Controlled or measured variable is the monitored output variable from a process.

Manipulated variable is the input variable or parameter to a process that is varied

by a control signal from the processor to an actuator.

Set point is the desired value of the output parameter or variable being monitored by a

sensor.

Instrument is the name of any of the various device types for indicating or

measuring physical quantities or conditions, performance, position, direction, and the

like.

Sensors are devices that can detect physical variables, such as temperature,

light intensity, or motion, and have the ability to give a measurable output

that varies in relation to the amplitude of the physical variable.

Transducers are devices that can change one form of energy to another, e.g., a

resistance thermometer converts temperature into electrical resistance, or a thermocouple

converts temperature into voltage. Both of these devices give an output that is

proportional to the temperature.

Converters are devices that are used to change the format of a signal without

changing the energy form, i.e., a change from a voltage to a current signal.

Actuators are devices that are used to control an input variable in response

to a signal from a controller. A typical actuator will be a flow-control valve that can

control the rate of flow of a fluid in proportion to the amplitude of an electrical signal

from the controller.


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Controllers are devices that monitor signals from transducers and take the

necessary action to keep the process within specified limits according to a predefined

program by activating and controlling the necessary actuators.

Programmable logic controllers (PLC) are used in process-control applications,

and are microprocessor-based systems. Small systems have the ability to monitor several

variables and control several actuators, with the capability of being expanded to monitor

60 or 70 variables and control a corresponding number of actuators, as may be required in

a petrochemical refinery.

An error signal is the difference between the set point and the amplitude of the

measured variable.

A correction signal is the signal used to control power to the actuator to set the

level of the input variable.

Transmitters are devices used to amplify and format signals so that they are

suitable for transmission over long distances with zero or minimal loss of information.

The transmitted signal can be in one of the several formats, i.e., pneumatic, digital,

analog voltage, analog current, or as a radio frequency (RF) modulated signal.

Example 1.

The block diagram of a closed-loop flow control system. Identify the following

elements: (a) the sensor, (b) the transducer, (c) the actuator, (d) the transmitter, (e) the

controller, (f) the manipulated variable, and (g) the measured variable.
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Figure 3.
Answer.

(a) The sensor is labeled pressure cell in the diagram. (b) The transducer is

labeled converter. There are two transducers—one for converting pressure to current and

the other for converting current to pressure to operate the actuator. (c) The actuator in

this case is the pneumatic valve. (d) The transmitter is the line driver. (e) The controller

is labeled PLC. (f) The manipulated variable is the differential pressure developed by

the fluid flowing through the orifice plate constriction. (g) The controlled variable is

the flow rate of the liquid.

1.3 Process Facility Considerations

The process facility has a number of basic requirements including safety

precautions and well-regulated, reliable electrical, water, and air supplies.


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An electrical supply is required for all control systems and must meet all

standards in force at the plant. The integrity of the electrical supply is most important.

Many facilities have backup systems to provide an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to

take over in case of loss of external power. Power failure can mean plant shutdown and

the loss of complete production runs.

An isolating transformer should be used in the power supply lines to prevent

electromagnetic interference (EMI) generated by motors, contactors, relays, and so on

from traveling through the power lines and affecting sensitive electronic control

instruments.

Grounding is a very important consideration in a facility for safety reasons. Any

variations in the ground potential between electronic equipment can cause large errors in

signal levels. Each piece of equipment should be connected to a heavy copper bus that is

properly grounded.

An air supply is required to drive pneumatic actuators in most facilities.

Instrument air in pneumatic equipment must meet quality standards, the air must be dirt,

oil, contaminant, and moisture free.

Water supply is required in many cleaning and cooling operations, and for steam

generation. Domestic water supplies contain large quantities of particulates and

impurities, and may be satisfactory for cooling, but are not suitable for most cleaning

operations.

Installation and maintenance must be considered when locating instruments,

valves and so on. Each device must be easily accessible for maintenance and inspection.
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It may also be necessary to install hand-operated valves so that equipment can be

replaced or serviced without complete plant shutdown.

Safety is a top priority in a facility. The correct material must be used in container

construction, plumbing, seals, and gaskets to prevent corrosion and failure leading to

leakage and spills of hazardous materials. All electrical equipment must be properly

installed to code with breakers. Electrical systems must have the correct fire retardant for

use in case of electrical fires.

1.4 Units and Standards

As with all disciplines, a set of standards has evolved over the years to ensure

consistency and avoid confusion. The Instrument Society of America (ISA) has

developed a complete list of symbols for instruments, instrument identification, and

process control drawings.

The units of measurement fall into two distinct systems; first, the English system

and second, the International system, SI (Systéme International D’Unités) based on the

metric system, but there are some differences. The English system has been the standard

used in the United States, but the SI system is slowly making inroads, so that students

need to be aware of both systems of units and be able to convert units from one system to

the other.
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Table 1.1 Basic Units

Table 1.2 Units in Common Use in the English and SI System

Example 2.

How many meters are there in 110 yard?

Answer: 100.584m
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Example 3.

What is the equivalent length in inches of 2.5 m?

Answer: 98.4 in

Example 4.

The weight of an object is 2.5 lb. What is the equivalent force and mass in the SI

system of units?

Answer: F=11.12 N, m=1.14 kg

Example 5.

What is the pressure equivalent of 18 psi in SI units?

Answer: 124.146 kPa

1.5 Instrument Parameters

The accuracy of an instrument or device is the difference between the indicated

value and the actual value. Accuracy is determined by comparing an indicated reading to

that of a known standard. Standards can be calibrated devices or obtained from the

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). This is the government

organization that is responsible for setting and maintaining standards, and developing

new standards as new technology requires it. Accuracy depends on linearity, hysteresis,

offset, drift, and sensitivity. The resulting discrepancy is stated as a ± deviation from the
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true value, and is normally specified as a percentage of full-scale reading or deflection

(%FSD). Accuracy can also be expressed as the percentage of span, percentage of

reading, or an absolute value.

Table 1.3 Standard Prefixes

Example 6.

A pressure gauge ranges from 0 to 50 psi, the worst-case spread in readings is

±4.35 psi. What is the %FSD accuracy?

Answer 8.7% FSD

The range of an instrument specifies the lowest and highest readings it can

measure, i.e., a thermometer whose scale goes from −40°C to 100°C has a range from

−40°C to 100°C.

The span of an instrument is its range from the minimum to maximum scale

value, i.e., a thermometer whose scale goes from −40°C to 100°C has a span of 140°C.

When the accuracy is expressed as the percentage of span, it is the deviation from true

expressed as a percentage of the span.

Reading accuracy is the deviation from true at the point the reading is being taken

and is expressed as a percentage, i.e., if a deviation of ±4.35 psi in Example: 1.6 was
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measured at 28.5 psi, the reading accuracy would be (4.35/28.5) × 100 = ±15.26% of

reading.

Example 7.

In the data sheet of a scale capable of weighing up to 200 lb, the accuracy is given

as ±2.5 percent of a reading. What is the deviation at the 50 and 100 lb readings, and

what is the %FSD accuracy?

Answer. 1.25 lb, 2.5 lb, 2.5%

The absolute accuracy of an instrument is the deviation from true as a number not

as a percentage, i.e., if a voltmeter has an absolute accuracy of ±3 V in the 100-volt

range, the deviation is ±3 V at all the scale readings, e.g., 10 ± 3 V, 70 ± 3 V and so on.

Precision refers to the limits within which a signal can be read and may be

somewhat subjective. In the analog instrument shown in Figure, the scale is graduated in

divisions of 0.2 psi, the position of the needle could be estimated to within 0.02 psi, and

hence, the precision of the instrument is 0.02 psi. With a digital scale the last digit may

change in steps of 0.01 psi so that the precision is 0.01 psi.

Reproducibility is the ability of an instrument to repeatedly read the same

signal over time, and give the same output under the same conditions. An instrument may

not be accurate but can have good reproducibility, i.e., an instrument could read 20 psi as

having a range from17.5 to 17.6 psi over 20 readings.

Sensitivity is a measure of the change in the output of an instrument for a change

in the measured variable, and is known as the transfer function, i.e., when the output of a
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pressure transducer changes by 3.2 mV for a change in pressure of 1 psi, the sensitivity is

3.2 mV/psi. High sensitivity in an instrument is preferred as this gives higher output

amplitudes, but this may have to be weighted against linearity, range, and accuracy.

Offset is the reading of an instrument with zero input.

Drift is the change in the reading of an instrument of a fixed variable with time.

Hysteresis is the difference in readings obtained when an instrument

approaches a signal from opposite directions, i.e., if an instrument reads a midscale value

going from zero it can give a different reading from the value after making a full-scale

reading. This is due to stresses induced into the material of the instrument by changing its

shape in going from zero to full-scale deflection. Hysteresis is illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4.
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Example 8.

A pressure gauge is being calibrated. The pressure is taken from 0 to 100 psi and

back to 0 psi. The following readings were obtained on the gauge:

Shows the difference in the readings when they are taken from 0 going

up to FSD and when they are taken from FSD going back down to 0. There is a

difference between the readings of 6 psi or a difference of 6 percent of FSD, that is, ±3

percent from linear.

Resolution is the smallest amount of a variable that an instrument can resolve, i.e.,

the smallest change in a variable to which the instrument will respond.


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Repeatability is a measure of the closeness of agreement between a number of

readings (10 to12) taken consecutively of a variable, before the variable has time to

change. The average reading is calculated and the spread in the value of the readings

taken. Linearity is a measure of the proportionality between the actual value of a variable

being measured and the output of the instrument over its operating range.

Figure 5.
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Problem Set 1
Name: ______________________________________ Course & Section: ____________
Date: ____________
Instruction: Print this page and encircle the correct answer in the choices. Scan and
submit this in the link provided on or before September 19, 2022.
https://tinyurl.com/ee27ps1
1. What is the difference between controlled and manipulated variables?

2. What is the difference between set point, error signal, and correction signal?

3. How many pounds are equivalent to 63 kg?

4. How many micrometers are equivalent to 0.73 milli-in?

5. How many pounds per square inch are equivalent to 38.2 kPa?

6. How many foot-pounds of energy are equivalent to 195 J?

7. What force in pounds is equivalent to 385 N?

8. How many amperes are required from a 110-V supply to generate 1.2 hp? Assume 93- percent
efficiency.

9. How many joules are equivalent to 27 ft⋅lb of energy?


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10. What is the sensitivity of an instrument whose output is 17.5 mV for an input change of 7°C?

11. A temperature sensor has a range of 0 to 120°C and an absolute accuracy of ±3°C. What is its FSD
percent accuracy?

12. A flow sensor has a range of 0 to 25 m/s and a FSD accuracy of 4.5 percent. What is the absolute accuracy?

13. A pressure sensor has a range of 30 to 125 kPa and the absolute accuracy is ±2 kPa. What is its
percent full-scale and span accuracy?

14. A temperature instrument has a range −20°F to 500°F. What is the error at 220°F? Assume the
accuracy is (a) ±7 percent of FSD and (b) ±7 percent of span.

15. A spring balance has a span of 10 to 120 kg and the absolute accuracy is ±3 kg. What is its %FSD
accuracy and span accuracy?

16. A digital thermometer with a temperate range of 129.9°C has an accuracy specification of ±1/2 of the
least significant bit. What is its absolute accuracy, %FSD accuracy, and its resolution?

17. A flow instrument has an accuracy of (a) ±0.5 percent of reading and (b) 0.5%FSD. If the range of the
instrument is 10 to 100 fps, what is the absolute accuracy at 45 fps?
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18. A pressure gauge has a span of 50 to 150 psi and its absolute accuracy is ±5 psi. What is its %FSD and
span accuracy?

19. Plot a graph of the following readings for a pressure sensor to determine if there is hysteresis, and if
so, what is the hysteresis as a percentage of FSD?

20. Plot a graph of the following readings for a temperature sensor to determine the linearity of the sensor.
What is the nonlinearity as a percentage of FSD?

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