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fwehuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu Art is a diverse range of human
activity, and resulting product, that involves creative or imaginative talent
expressive of technical proficiency, beauty, emotional power, or conceptual ideas.
[1][2][3]
There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes art,[4][5][6] and its

interpretation has varied greatly throughout history and across cultures. The three
classical branches of visual art are painting, sculpture, and architecture.[7]
Theatre, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, music, film and
other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of the
arts.[1][8] Until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was
not differentiated from crafts or sciences. In modern usage after the 17th century,
where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and
distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied
arts.
The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and interpretation, are
explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics.[9] The resulting artworks
are studied in the professional fields of art criticism and the history of art.
Contents
1 Overview
2 History
3 Forms, genres, media, and styles
3.1 Skill and craft
4 Purpose
4.1 Non-motivated functions
4.2 Motivated functions
5 Public access
6 Controversies
7 Theory
7.1 Arrival of Modernism
7.2 New Criticism and the "intentional fallacy"
7.3 "Linguistic turn" and its debate
8 Classification disputes
8.1 Value judgment
9 Art and law
10 See also
11 Notes
12 Bibliography
13 Further reading
14 External links
Overview
Panorama of a section of A Thousand Li of Mountains and Rivers, a 12th-century

painting by Song dynasty artist Wang Ximeng.
In the perspective of the history of art,[10] artistic works have existed for
almost as long as humankind: from early pre-historic art to contemporary art;
however, some theorists think that the typical concept of "artistic works" doesn't
fit well outside modern Western societies.[11] One early sense of the definition of
art is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to
"skill" or "craft", as associated with words such as "artisan". English words
derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, and
military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with
some relation to its etymology.
20th-century bottle, Twa peoples, Rwanda, Artistic works may serve practical
functions, in addition to their decorative value.
Over time, philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Socrates and Kant, among others,
questioned the meaning of art.[12][full citation needed] Several dialogues in Plato
tackle questions about art: Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and
is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness
(drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus (265a–c), and yet in the
Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetic art, and laughter as well. In Ion,
Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the
Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient
Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely
inspired literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly
interpreted.[13][full citation needed]
With regards to the literary art and the musical arts, Aristotle considered epic
poetry, tragedy, comedy, Dithyrambic poetry and music to be mimetic or imitative
art, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[14][full citation
needed] For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas
dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ
in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men
worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average.
Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or
character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.[15]
Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of
mankind's advantages over animals.[16][full citation needed]
The more recent and specific sense of the word art as an abbreviation for creative
art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century.[17] Fine art refers to a skill
used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic
sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of more refined or
finer work of art.
Within this latter sense, the word art may refer to several things: (i) a study of
a creative skill, (ii) a process of using the creative skill, (iii) a product of
the creative skill, or (iv) the audience's experience with the creative skill. The
creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines which produce
artworks (art as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity)
and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to interpret (art as
experience). Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions,
beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made for this
purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. For some scholars, such
as Kant, the sciences and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as
representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as representing the domain of the
freedom of artistic expression.[18][full citation needed]
Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will
consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a
commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine
art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art.
Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art
has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional
difference.[19] However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and
self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as
in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of
beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to
generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.
The nature of art has been described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as "one of the
most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture".[20] Art has been
defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a
means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as
mimesis or representation. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of
Aristotle.[21] Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate
from one person to another.[21] Benedetto Croce and R. G. Collingwood advanced the
idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore
essentially exists in the mind of the creator.[22][23] The theory of art as form
has its roots in the philosophy of Kant, and was developed in the early 20th
century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin
Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for
itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation.[24] George Dickie has
offered an institutional theory of art that defines a work of art as any artifact
upon which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution
commonly referred to as "the art world" has conferred "the status of candidate for
appreciation".[25] Larry Shiner has described fine art as "not an essence or a fate
but something we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is a European
invention barely two hundred years old."[26]
Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis (its representation of reality),

narrative (storytelling), expression, communication of emotion, or other qualities.
During the Romantic period, art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human
mind to be classified with religion and science".[27]
History
Main article: History of art
Venus of Willendorf, circa 24,000–22,000 BP
Back of a Renaissance oval basin or dish, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art

A shell engraved by Homo erectus was determined to be between 430,000 and 540,000
years old.[28] A set of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons bear cut
marks and abrasion that indicate manipulation by neanderthals, possibly for using
it as jewelry.[29] A series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—
were discovered in a South African cave.[30] Containers that may have been used to
hold paints have been found dating as far back as 100,000 years.[31]
Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings and petroglyphs from the Upper
Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found,[32] but the precise
meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures
that produced them.
Cave painting of a horse from the Lascaux caves, circa 16,000 BP

Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great
ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient
Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early
civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the
size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and
more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times.
Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this
period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development
of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct
proportions.[33]
In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the
expression of subjects about Biblical and religious culture, and used styles that
showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the
background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented
figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless, a classical realist
tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art
of Catholic Europe.[34]
Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the
material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the
human body, and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to
depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.[35]
The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in
Islamic calligraphy. It reads "Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever
victorious".
The Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, also called the Mosque of Uqba, is one of
the finest, most significant and best preserved artistic and architectural examples
of early great mosques. Dated in its present state from the 9th century, it is the
ancestor and model of all the mosques in the western Islamic lands.[36]
In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric
patterns, calligraphy, and architecture.[37] Further east, religion dominated
artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures
and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and
tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the
flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the
stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin[38]), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting,
drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is
traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang dynasty
paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming
dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting
and composition.[39] Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also
saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock
printing became important in Japan after the 17th century.[40]
Painting by Song dynasty artist Ma Lin, circa 1250. 24.8 × 25.2 cm

The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of
physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically
revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake's portrayal of
Newton as a divine geometer,[41] or David's propagandistic paintings. This led to
Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and
individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century
then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism,
impressionism and fauvism among others.[42][43]
The history of 20th-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the

search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the
parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism,
etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing
global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures
into Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves influenced by Western
Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent
development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent
by Matisse. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th centuries the West has had huge impacts
on Eastern art with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism
exerting a powerful influence.[44]
Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th
century to a realization of its unattainability. Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970,
"It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for
granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor
even the right of art to exist."[45] Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable
truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where
cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be
appreciated and drawn from only with skepticism and irony. Furthermore, the
separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more
appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional ones.
[46]
In The Origin of the Work of Art, Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher and a
seminal thinker, describes the essence of art in terms of the concepts of being and
truth. He argues that art is not only a way of expressing the element of truth in a
culture, but the means of creating it and providing a springboard from which "that
which is" can be revealed. Works of art are not merely representations of the way
things are, but actually produce a community's shared understanding. Each time a
new artwork is added to any culture, the meaning of what it is to exist is
inherently changed.
Historically, art and artistic skills and ideas have often been spread through
trade. An example of this is the Silk Road, where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and
Chinese influences could mix. Greco Buddhist art is one of the most vivid examples
of this interaction. The meeting of different cultures and worldviews also
influenced artistic creation. An example of this is the multicultural port
metropolis of Trieste at the beginning of the 20th century, where James Joyce met
writers from Central Europe and the artistic development of New York City as a
cultural melting pot.[47][48][49]
Forms, genres, media, and styles
Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne by Ingres (French, 1806), oil on canvas

Main article: The arts
The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, typically along
perceptually distinguishable categories such as media, genre, styles, and form.[50]
Art form refers to the elements of art that are independent of its interpretation
or significance. It covers the methods adopted by the artist and the physical
composition of the artwork, primarily non-semantic aspects of the work (i.e.,
figurae),[51] such as color, contour, dimension, medium, melody, space, texture,
and value. Form may also include visual design principles, such as arrangement,
balance, contrast, emphasis, harmony, proportion, proximity, and rhythm.[52]
In general there are three schools of philosophy regarding art, focusing

respectively on form, content, and context.[52] Extreme Formalism is the view that
all aesthetic properties of art are formal (that is, part of the art form).
Philosophers almost universally reject this view and hold that the properties and
aesthetics of art extend beyond materials, techniques, and form.[53] Unfortunately,
there is little consensus on terminology for these informal properties. Some
authors refer to subject matter and content – i.e., denotations and connotations –
while others prefer terms like meaning and significance.[52]
Extreme Intentionalism holds that authorial intent plays a decisive role in the
meaning of a work of art, conveying the content or essential main idea, while all
other interpretations can be discarded.[54] It defines the subject as the persons
or idea represented,[55] and the content as the artist's experience of that
subject.[56] For example, the composition of Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne is
partly borrowed from the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. As evidenced by the title, the
subject is Napoleon, and the content is Ingres's representation of Napoleon as
"Emperor-God beyond time and space".[52] Similarly to extreme formalism,
philosophers typically reject extreme intentionalism, because art may have multiple
ambiguous meanings and authorial intent may be unknowable and thus irrelevant. Its
restrictive interpretation is "socially unhealthy, philosophically unreal, and
politically unwise".[52]
Finally, the developing theory of post-structuralism studies art's significance in

a cultural context, such as the ideas, emotions, and reactions prompted by a work.
[57] The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques and intentions,
in which case analysis proceeds along lines similar to formalism and
intentionalism. However, in other cases historical and material conditions may
predominate, such as religious and philosophical convictions, sociopolitical and
economic structures, or even climate and geography. Art criticism continues to grow
and develop alongside art.[52]
Skill and craft

See also: Conceptual art and artistic skill
The Creation of Adam, detail from Michelangelo's fresco in the Sistine Chapel
(1511)
Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also
simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning
with immediacy or depth. Art can be defined as an act of expressing feelings,
thoughts, and observations.[58]
There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling

it, which facilitates one's thought processes. A common view is that the epithet
"art", particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative
expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an
originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally
skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary
for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other
endeavors, was a manifestation of skill.[59] Rembrandt's work, now praised for its
ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity.[60]
At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent
were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency,[61]
yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized
and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic
training at which he excelled.[62][63]
Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, c. 1503–1506, showing the painting

technique of sfumato
A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of
objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of
the artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain" is among the
first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects ("ready-made") and
exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills.[64] Tracey Emin's My Bed, or
Damien Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living
follow this example and also manipulate the mass media. Emin slept (and engaged in
other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art.
Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the
eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded
entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts.[65] The actual production in
many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found
objects. However, there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to
excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating hands-on works of art.
[66]
Purpose
A Navajo rug made circa 1880
Mozarabic Beatus miniature. Spain, late 10th century

Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making
its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not
imply that the purpose of Art is "vague", but that it has had many unique,
different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in
the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to
those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Lévi-Strauss).[67]
Non-motivated functions
The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human,
transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this
sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e.,
no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility.[67]
Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm. Art at this level is not an
action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty),
and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.
Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for
'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons,
therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special
aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry. – Aristotle[68]
Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experience one's self in

relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one
appreciates art, music or poetry.
The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of
all true art and science. – Albert Einstein[69]
Expression of the imagination. Art provides a means to express the imagination in

non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written
language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite
meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are
malleable.
Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes
of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather
something else—something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its
flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than
admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic
idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical
presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by
opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching
beyond its ken. – Immanuel Kant[70]
Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals,

performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no
specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often
serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning
is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations
of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.
Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric
contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as
decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'. –
Silva Tomaskova[71]
Motivated functions
Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of
the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on
an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal
psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) sell a
product, or simply as a form of communication.[67][72]
Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of

communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a
motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form
of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be
scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.
[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of
communication. – Steve Mithen[73]
Art as entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for
the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of
the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games.[74]
The Avant-Garde. Art for political change. One of the defining functions of early
20th-century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art
movements that had this goal—Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian constructivism, and
Abstract Expressionism, among others—are collectively referred to as the avant-
garde arts.
By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas
Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or
moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull
conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books,
these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the
newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest
of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life. – André Breton
(Surrealism)[75]
Art as a "free zone", removed from the action of the social censure. Unlike the
avant-garde movements, which wanted to erase cultural differences in order to
produce new universal values, contemporary art has enhanced its tolerance towards
cultural differences as well as its critical and liberating functions (social
inquiry, activism, subversion, deconstruction ...), becoming a more open place for
research and experimentation.[76]
Art for social inquiry, subversion or anarchy. While similar to art for political
change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society
without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be
simply to criticize some aspect of society.
Spray-paint graffiti on a wall in Rome

Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-
painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and
bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also
be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).
Art for social causes. Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of
causes. A number of art activities were aimed at raising awareness of autism,[77]
[78][79] cancer,[80][81][82] human trafficking,[83][84] and a variety of other
topics, such as ocean conservation,[85] human rights in Darfur,[86] murdered and
missing Aboriginal women,[87] elder abuse,[88] and pollution.[89] Trashion, using
trash to make fashion, practiced by artists such as Marina DeBris is one example of
using art to raise awareness about pollution.
Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists,
psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing
Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning
of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a
process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of
artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may
suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric
therapy.[90]
Art for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is often utilized as a form of
propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood.
In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and
emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer
into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or
object.[91]
Art as a fitness indicator. It has been argued that the ability of the human brain
by far exceeds what was needed for survival in the ancestral environment. One
evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that the human brain and associated
traits (such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human equivalent of the
peacock's tail. The purpose of the male peacock's extravagant tail has been argued
to be to attract females (see also Fisherian runaway and handicap principle).
According to this theory superior execution of art was evolutionarily important
because it attracted mates.[92]
The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them
may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to
sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.
Public access
The Metropolitan Museum of Art in Manhattan. Museums are important forums for the
display of visual art.
Since ancient times, much of the finest art has represented a deliberate display of
wealth or power, often achieved by using massive scale and expensive materials.
Much art has been commissioned by political rulers or religious establishments,
with more modest versions only available to the most wealthy in society.[93]
Nevertheless, there have been many periods where art of very high quality was
available, in terms of ownership, across large parts of society, above all in cheap
media such as pottery, which persists in the ground, and perishable media such as
textiles and wood. In many different cultures, the ceramics of indigenous peoples
of the Americas are found in such a wide range of graves that they were clearly not
restricted to a social elite,[94] though other forms of art may have been.
Reproductive methods such as moulds made mass-production easier, and were used to
bring high-quality Ancient Roman pottery and Greek Tanagra figurines to a very wide
market. Cylinder seals were both artistic and practical, and very widely used by
what can be loosely called the middle class in the Ancient Near East.[95] Once
coins were widely used, these also became an art form that reached the widest range
of society.[96]
Another important innovation came in the 15th century in Europe, when printmaking
began with small woodcuts, mostly religious, that were often very small and hand-
colored, and affordable even by peasants who glued them to the walls of their
homes. Printed books were initially very expensive, but fell steadily in price
until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some with printed
illustrations.[97] Popular prints of many different sorts have decorated homes and
other places for centuries.[98]
The Museum of Art in Basel (Switzerland), is the oldest public museum of art in the
world.
In 1661, the city of Basel, in Switzerland, opened the first public museum of art
in the world, the Kunstmuseum Basel. Today, its collection is distinguished by an
impressively wide historic span, from the early 15th century up to the immediate
present. Its various areas of emphasis give it international standing as one of the
most significant museums of its kind. These encompass: paintings and drawings by
artists active in the Upper Rhine region between 1400 and 1600, and on the art of
the 19th to 21st centuries.[99]
Public buildings and monuments, secular and religious, by their nature normally
address the whole of society, and visitors as viewers, and display to the general
public has long been an important factor in their design. Egyptian temples are
typical in that the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts
that could be seen by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the
priests.[100] Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the houses of the social
elite were often generally accessible, and large parts of the art collections of
such people could often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a small
price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regardless of who they were, as at the
Palace of Versailles, where the appropriate extra accessories (silver shoe buckles
and a sword) could be hired from shops outside.[101]
Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private
collections placed in galleries, as with the Orleans Collection mostly housed in a
wing of the Palais Royal in Paris, which could be visited for most of the 18th
century.[102] In Italy the art tourism of the Grand Tour became a major industry
from the Renaissance onwards, and governments and cities made efforts to make their
key works accessible. The British Royal Collection remains distinct, but large
donations such as the Old Royal Library were made from it to the British Museum,
established in 1753. The Uffizi in Florence opened entirely as a gallery in 1765,
though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original
civil servants' offices for a long time before.[103] The building now occupied by
the Prado in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display
of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries open to the
public existed in Vienna, Munich and other capitals. The opening of the Musée du
Louvre during the French Revolution (in 1793) as a public museum for much of the
former French royal collection certainly marked an important stage in the
development of public access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state,
but was a continuation of trends already well established.[104]
Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can
be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. However, museums
do not only provide availability to art, but do also influence the way art is being
perceived by the audience, as studies found.[105] Thus, the museum itself is not
only a blunt stage for the presentation of art, but plays an active and vital role
in the overall perception of art in modern society.
Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses.
(The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John
Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the
museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in
the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.[106]
There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the
wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art
of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It
is "necessary to present something more than mere objects"[107] said the major post
war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as
performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork
was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it could
not be bought and sold. "Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work
of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the
mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the
heading of Conceptual art ... substituting performance and publishing activities
for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or
sculptural form ... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object."[108]
Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansive
entrance cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe.
In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has
learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works,[109] invitations to exclusive
performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of
these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been
educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered
art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily
owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread
use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system
that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of
controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to
collectors."[110]
Controversies
Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, circa 1820

Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a
wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded,
or completely lost to a modern view. Iconoclasm is the destruction of art that is
disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. Aniconism is a general
dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been
a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of
Islamic art, where depictions of Muhammad remain especially controversial. Much art
has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise stood for unpopular
rulers, parties or other groups. Artistic conventions have often been conservative
and taken very seriously by art critics, though often much less so by a wider
public. The iconographic content of art could cause controversy, as with late
medieval depictions of the new motif of the Swoon of the Virgin in scenes of the
Crucifixion of Jesus. The Last Judgment by Michelangelo was controversial for
various reasons, including breaches of decorum through nudity and the Apollo-like
pose of Christ.[111][112]
The content of much formal art through history was dictated by the patron or
commissioner rather than just the artist, but with the advent of Romanticism, and
economic changes in the production of art, the artists' vision became the usual
determinant of the content of his art, increasing the incidence of controversies,
though often reducing their significance. Strong incentives for perceived
originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy. Théodore
Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (c. 1820), was in part a political commentary on a
recent event. Édouard Manet's Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe (1863), was considered
scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men
fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique
world.[113][114] John Singer Sargent's Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X) (1884),
caused a controversy over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe,
considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's
reputation.[115][116] The gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depiction of
realistic representations of the visual appearance of subjects in the 19th and 20th
centuries led to a rolling controversy lasting for over a century.
Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978: Everyone an artist – On the way to the

libertarian form of the social organism.
In the 20th century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist
techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a
contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's Interrogation
III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs
open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday
clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred
to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering,
submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to
comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.[117][118]
Theory
Main article: Aesthetics
Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly concerned with achieving
the appropriate balance between different aspects of realism or truth to nature and
the ideal; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over
the centuries. This concern is largely absent in other traditions of art. The
aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J.
M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth
that could only be found in nature.[119]
The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the
20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the
aesthetic value of art: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value
independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute
value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position,
whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human
experience of different humans.[120]
Arrival of Modernism
Composition with Red Blue and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872–1944)
The arrival of Modernism in the late 19th century lead to a radical break in the
conception of the function of art,[121] and then again in the late 20th century
with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article "Modernist
Painting" defines modern art as "the use of characteristic methods of a discipline
to criticize the discipline itself".[122] Greenberg originally applied this idea to
the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify
flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:
Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art;
modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the
medium of painting—the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of
the pigment—were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be
acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations
came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.[122]
After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T.
J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though
only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists,
Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art
within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century.[123]
[124]
Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work
including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world.
Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism
beyond high art to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics,
billboards and pornography.[125][126]
Duchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any kind-everything. However, the
way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social
construction.[127] There is evidence that there may be an element of truth to this.
In The Invention of Art: A Cultural History, Larry Shiner examines the construction
of the modern system of the arts, i.e. fine art. He finds evidence that the older
system of the arts before our modern system (fine art) held art to be any skilled
human activity; for example, Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art,
but techne. Techne can be understood neither as art or craft, the reason being that
the distinctions of art and craft are historical products that came later on in
human history. Techne included painting, sculpting and music, but also cooking,
medicine, horsemanship, geometry, carpentry, prophecy, and farming, etc.[128]
New Criticism and the "intentional fallacy"

Following Duchamp during the first half of the 20th century, a significant shift to
general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory
between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to
each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate
concerning the intentional fallacy. At issue was the question of whether the
aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its
specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final
product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own
merits independent of the intentions of the artist.[129][130]
In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and

controversial New Critical essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy", in which they
argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention, or "intended
meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words
on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text
was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.[131][132]
In another essay, "The Affective Fallacy", which served as a kind of sister essay
to "The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's
personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a
text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response
school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this
school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt
and Beardsley in his 1970 essay "Literature in the Reader".[133][134]
As summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art":

"Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical
of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic
appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on
biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience
were a privileged critical topic."[135] These authors contend that: "Anti-
intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the
making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So
details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves,
have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work."[136]
Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating
that: "Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is
essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works." They quote Richard
Wollheim as stating that, "The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the
creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as
something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself."[136]
"Linguistic turn" and its debate

The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as the linguistic
turn controversy, or the "innocent eye debate" in the philosophy of art. This
debate discussed the encounter of the work of art as being determined by the
relative extent to which the conceptual encounter with the work of art dominates
over the perceptual encounter with the work of art.[137]
Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the humanities were the
works of yet another tradition, namely the structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure
and the ensuing movement of poststructuralism. In 1981, the artist Mark Tansey
created a work of art titled "The Innocent Eye" as a criticism of the prevailing
climate of disagreement in the philosophy of art during the closing decades of the
20th century. Influential theorists include Judith Butler, Luce Irigaray, Julia
Kristeva, Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida. The power of language, more
specifically of certain rhetorical tropes, in art history and historical discourse
was explored by Hayden White. The fact that language is not a transparent medium of
thought had been stressed by a very different form of philosophy of language which
originated in the works of Johann Georg Hamann and Wilhelm von Humboldt.[138] Ernst
Gombrich and Nelson Goodman in his book Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory
of Symbols came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art
predominated exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of
art during the 1960s and 1970s.[139] He was challenged on the basis of research
done by the Nobel prize winning psychologist Roger Sperry who maintained that the
human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone
(the linguistic turn) and that other forms of psychological representations of the
work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable. Sperry's view eventually
prevailed by the end of the 20th century with aesthetic philosophers such as Nick
Zangwill strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic formalism among other
alternatives.[140]
Classification disputes
Main article: Classificatory disputes about art
The original Fountain by Marcel Duchamp, 1917, photographed by Alfred Stieglitz at

the 291 after the 1917 Society of Independent Artists exhibit. Stieglitz used a
backdrop of The Warriors by Marsden Hartley to photograph the urinal. The
exhibition entry tag can be clearly seen.[141]
Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred
to as classificatory disputes about art. Classificatory disputes in the 20th
century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's Fountain, the
movies, superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games.[142]
Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art
are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests
that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory
disputes about art."[143] According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more
often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they
are about theory proper. For example, when the Daily Mail criticized Hirst's and
Emin's work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising
forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all"
they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value
of Hirst's and Emin's work.[144] In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought
experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the
ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible
qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore
constitutive of an object's arthood."[145][146]
Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established

parameters and values of art;[147] it is term associated with Dadaism and
attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I,[147] when he was making art
from found objects.[147] One of these, Fountain (1917), an ordinary urinal, has
achieved considerable prominence and influence on art.[147] Anti-art is a feature
of work by Situationist International,[148] the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the
Young British Artists,[147] though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists,
[147] who describe themselves as anti-anti-art.[149][150]
Architecture is often included as one of the visual arts; however, like the
decorative arts, or advertising, it involves the creation of objects where the
practical considerations of use are essential in a way that they usually are not in
a painting, for example.[151]
Value judgment
Aboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, Canberra, Australia.

Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to apply judgments of
value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an
artist),[152] or "the art of deception" (the highly attained level of skill of the
deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and
high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of
value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine
whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered
art is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is
always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly
understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art.
However, "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a
majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the
pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social,
moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting
depicting the Spanish shootings of 3 May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing
squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific
imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and
produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to
what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.[153][154]
The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is
aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of
the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true,
that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically
appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new
appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their
own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once
their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by
its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal
chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in
what is termed the zeitgeist. Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with
human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as
a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their
audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art
may be considered an exploration of the human condition; that is, what it is to be
human.[155] By extension, it has been argued by Emily L. Spratt that the
development of artificial intelligence, especially in regard to its uses with
images, necessitates a re-evaluation of aesthetic theory in art history today and a
reconsideration of the limits of human creativity.[156][157]
Art and law

An essential legal issue are art forgeries, plagiarism, replicas and works that are
strongly based on other works of art.
The trade in works of art or the export from a country may be subject to legal
regulations. Internationally there are also extensive efforts to protect the works
of art created. The UN, UNESCO and Blue Shield International try to ensure
effective protection at the national level and to intervene directly in the event
of armed conflicts or disasters. This can particularly affect museums, archives,
art collections and excavation sites. This should also secure the economic basis of
a country, especially because works of art are often of tourist importance. The
founding president of Blue Shield International, Karl von Habsburg, explained an
additional connection between the destruction of cultural property and the cause of
flight during a mission in Lebanon in April 2019: “Cultural goods are part of the
identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture,
you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often no longer have any
prospects and as a result flee from their homeland.”[158][159][160][161][162][163]
See also
icon Arts portal
icon Visual arts portal
Applied arts
Art movement
Artist in residence
Artistic freedom
Cultural tourism
Craftivism
Formal analysis
History of art
List of artistic media
List of art techniques
Mathematics and art
Street art (or "independent public art")
Outline of the visual arts, a guide to the subject of art presented as a tree
structured list of its subtopics.
Visual impairment in art
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There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes art,[4][5][6] and its

Panorama of a section of A Thousand Li of Mountains and Rivers, a 12th-century

Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis (its representation of reality),

Venus of Willendorf, circa 24,000–22,000 BP

Back of a Renaissance oval basin or dish, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Cave painting of a horse from the Lascaux caves, circa 16,000 BP

Painting by Song dynasty artist Ma Lin, circa 1250. 24.8 × 25.2 cm

The history of 20th-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the

Forms, genres, media, and styles

Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne by Ingres (French, 1806), oil on canvas

In general there are three schools of philosophy regarding art, focusing

Finally, the developing theory of post-structuralism studies art's significance in

Skill and craft

There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling

Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, c. 1503–1506, showing the painting

A Navajo rug made circa 1880

Mozarabic Beatus miniature. Spain, late 10th century

Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experience one's self in

Expression of the imagination. Art provides a means to express the imagination in

Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals,

Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of

Spray-paint graffiti on a wall in Rome

Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, circa 1820

Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978: Everyone an artist – On the way to the

New Criticism and the "intentional fallacy"

In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and

As summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art":

"Linguistic turn" and its debate

The original Fountain by Marcel Duchamp, 1917, photographed by Alfred Stieglitz at

Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established

Aboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, Canberra, Australia.

Art and law

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