Computer science

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANISATION

1. state the purpose of the main components of a computer system

Ha r d w a r e C o m p o n e n t s
 Input/output devices: port connectivity

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 ; speed; quality of output; specialised devices.
 Memory types: ROM; RAM; EPROM; EEPROM

 Understanding PC Memory: Overview of

RAM, its types and its features
 RAM is the Random Access memory that a computer uses when it is in
operation. It is the volatile memory and it means that when the power is
switched off, the data is vanished from it. RAM can have many of the
types. Each type is better than the previous one. RAM for desktop and the
Laptop both are different, the reason behind is the size which is available
for them on the both machines. RAM helps the computer perform the
tasks fast but there is a common misperception which is related to it that
RAM is the only factor which helps computer performs really fast. While,
RAM just helps the CPU fetch the memory fast, the calculations are
performed by the CPU itself. Following are the few characteristics of the
RAM;


 Knowing the Types of RAM:


 RAM stands for the Random Access memory. Random Access Memory is
one of the memories which exist within a computer. One should
understand the fact that RAM isn't as same as the hard disk memory or
any other type of memory. Reason of this is that both are measured in
Giga Bytes so one should mix them up just because the measurements of
both are the same. RAM has got some really volatile memory and when
the power is turned off, anything that it contains also goes away. But one
must understand that as long as it gets changed and the power is
provided to it constantly, it would maintain that information within the static
RAM. The main common types are the Dynamic ram and the static ram.
Static ram contains the information as long as it is connected to the power
supply. About the Dynamic RAM, one should know that it's opposite to the
static RAM. The S here in front of the SDRAM stands for the synchronous.
It is this way since the memory is synchronized with the speed of clock
which the memory bus has. Also, they must synchronize together at the
same time so that the data stays fresh and the information can be
accessed within the memory quite easily. There is another thing as well. It
doesn't matter which memory type of being used by the person, what
actually matters is that the right memory should be installed in the right
slot. Since if this doesn't happen, the RAM won't fit in and it might get
broke itself or can damage the memory slot as well. One must understand
the following types of memories that the RAM has;


 DDR:
 DDR is the very basic type of RAM. Now it has been outdates and isn't
used in many computers and laptops anymore.
For installing the DDR memory type, one should see if that's the right
memory to be installed. Then the computer should be shut down so that
memory can be installed without any fear of getting an electric shock and
 the wires should be unplugged as well. One should open up the cover of
the CPU and then look for the RAM slot at motherboard. Then he should
handle the memory in delicate way and should grab it from the both ends
using a hand. He should free up the clips and then press down the
memory into it. Doing so, one should be careful since there are chances
that memory can get damaged or the slot can be damaged as well then at
the end. The final pressure should be applied at both ends of it so ensure
that memory if properly sealed.


 DDR2:
 This type of RAM is now used mostly in the computers. The DDR2 is
basically an upgraded version of the DDR. It's basically the double data
rate two SDRAM. There are some enhancements as well which are
associated to it. The user must know that it has the ability to handle even
more interference since there are the buffers which have been built in this
thing. Since it was double faster than the traditional DDR, hence the users
have more preference for it. Also, the installation of this piece is almost the
same as DDR.
The same phenomenon that is used for installing the DDR is used for this
one as well. One should first understand whether it's the DDR memory
that he wants. Then he should search for the memory slot at the
motherboard. It might happen that he cannot find the memory slot. Then
some modules would have to be removed in order to install the memory.
One might need to remove the extension wires or some cables as well so
that the access can be made easily. Then the RAM should be put inside
the slot and should be closed gently, but ensuring that it has been closed
properly.


 DDR3:
 DDR 3 can be found in the latest versions of the laptops and the PCs. This
memory is the latest generation of DDR. Just like DDR2 is double faster
as the DDR, this DDR3 is now double faster than DDR2 hence is 4 times
more fast than the DDR. One must know that there are some even larger
modules which are there for facilitation this ram type.
The DDR3 has the same method to be installed as well. But while one
disconnects the wires from the motherboard, he would be able to
remember it too that at what place what wire was placed. Also, one should
look for the notches at the end of the memory card. There are near the
yellow area. These notches help the memory to get installed in one simple
direction and if the memory that is being installed is not compatible, it will
not get matched up with the slot at all and notches would create some
 problems. Also, when the notches have been verified and it is obvious that
the RAM would go into this specific slot, one should remove the memory
slots' tab in outward direction and then should put it. There would be a
little tick voice ensuring that memory has been fit best into the slot and the
notches have met properly. Then the tabs should be pressed softly and
then too, two tick voices would be heard which presents that the memory
has been locked and it is now safe to use the memory. Then the wires
which were disconnected before should be connected again.


 SDRAM:
 SDRAM stands for the synchronous dynamic RAM. The installation of the
SDRAM is very easy. The characteristics of SDRAM have been explained
above. For installation, one should simple first get the RAM. Then remove
the cover of the computer, before this it should be ensured that the cables
and the power devices are all unplugged. Then the computer's case
should be opened following the guideline of the manufacturer. Many of the
computers simple have a side panels that can be moved with convenience
but some can have screws as well. Search for the memory slot and once it
is found, take out the old stick by simple freeing it from the grabs of the
clips. When it's free, put the new RAM and close the clips again which
would be closed with the click sound. Now close up the computer and then
one should turn on the commuter again. If now the computer shows the
beep sound while getting in, it indicated that the memory is not installed
properly and one would have it install it again. If the computers get on and
there isn't any of the beep sound, it means the memory has been installed
successfully.


 SODIMM:
 These RAMS are the smaller versions of all RAMS and they are designed
especially for the laptops since they have the small size and they can get
fir into the laptop easily. The size of the ram allows it to fit into no only the
laptop, but the other devices like netbooks as well... The performance of
SODIM isn't low since one might confuse that from the size of it.


 RAMBUS:
 The RAMBUS memory was introduced when there was a need for the
faster and greater memory. The RAMBUS's manufacturer partnered up
with Intel to create the motherboard which would contain this amazing
 memory. One must know that the speed is the advantage, but there is a
disadvantage as well. Even through it is much faster than this old SDAM,
but this memory is pretty expensive which can prevent many people from
using it.


 DIMM:
 This is the Dual inline memory module. Is the basically the circuit with the
small scale that being hold by the memory chips present on the
motherboards. This DIMM contains some series of the memoir, which is
called the DRAM. This has the primary storage facility and has the main
memory which is used for the reading an execution of the stored data or
the instructions which are given to the CPU. DIMM is basically an
improved memory version of the memory which is known as the SIMM. It
contains only one circuit board and hence the storage and the memory of
it is more than the many other memories. It has one small circuit so the
inserting of this memory is easier than the other memories. DIMM is the
most common circuit board. With this DMA, the processor of a computer
can attain the access of the any part which is of memory and hence
instead of processing in the chronological order, it can proceed directly.
The each set which a module is comprised of is called a rank. Now the
DIMM are being made for the four ranks a module as well.


 Parity vs. Non Parity:


 Memory modules are of two types and they are parity and non-parity. A
person must know about them since that's the place where he would be
inserting the RAM if he is going to change the RAM. The parity RAM is an
important thing for the users since it comes with the stable RAM and the
irregularities in the RAM are eliminated with its introduction in the
computer. One should know that the DIMM or the SIMM has normally 9
chips of the memory. And only 8 are used out of them. The ninth one is
 checked by the parity checking so that the checksum data can be hold in
it.


 ECC vs. Non ECC:

 ECC and non ECC memory has some differences and one should hold
the knowledge about them since they are pretty common. ECC is the
memory type which is used mainly for the servers and some other
applications which need some additional stability and the security. The
non EEC is for the regular people. Like those who use PC at home or
those who have got passion for gaming. One should also know that ECC
rams are somehow, slower because they contain some extra steps in their
working which can eliminate and prohibit errors. Aloes, they can be pretty
expensive too. But for using the EEC, it is necessary to use the
motherboard which supports it. Since it's mentioned before too, one
cannot put all type of memories in a single motherboard module.


 RAM configurations
 Single Channel vs. Dual Channel vs. Triple Channel

 Some people argue that using one RAM instead of two doesn't make
sense. Like one can use 2 RAMS of 4 GB each to make it become 8 GB
or they can use single RAM. But the latest experiment of the MSI has
indicated that there isn't so much difference in performance in the single
channel and the dual channel. Triple channel is used in the i7 core. Where
there are three of the RAMS and it is said to be good since the higher core
might require higher RAM to coordinate with.


 Single Sided vs. Double Sided

 The double sided RAM contains the two chips which are at the both sides
of the RAM. They can be there present in the any form the manufacturer
desires. Normally, one group is at the one surface of the RAM. But it's not
always necessary as well. Hence, the computer may get connected to
these two groups of the chip, but would get data only from one side. If the
computer wants to use the other group, it must leave the first one and then
go to another hence it would keep rotating back and forth. One also
should know the single sided chip is different only because it has only one
 chip group. Since the computer doesn't have to move back and forth,
hence the speed becomes amazingly fast and the data can be written only
at one side without wasting time. So for high performance and some
gaming, one should be having the single sided RAM.


 Knowing the RAM speed and Compatibility:

 Knowing the RAM speed is the important thing. One must understand that
if RAM is of latest model and the space is high, then it would have good
speed. Also, not all RAMS can be fit into each slot of motherboard. So,
one should be sure to read about the motherboard and specification
before buying a RAM for it.

 Memory features: speed; size; word size; volatility.

 Storage devices: capacity, access speed, access method, portability.
 Security: surge protectors, voltage regulators,
 Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS).
 Types of computers: supercomputer, mainframe,
2. microcomputer, Laptop, PDA.
3. describe the basic building blocks of a computer;
Com p u t e r Ar c h i t e c t u r e
computer architecture is a set of rules and methods that
describe the functionality, organization, and implementation
of computer systems.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qA_XIrY_ISw
 http://ecomputernotes.com/fundamental/introduction-to-computer
 Truth tables (refer to symbols on page 36).
Logic gates –
A logic gate is an idealized or physical electronic device implementing a Boolean
function, a logical operation performed on one or more binary inputs that produces a
single binary output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to an ideal logic
gate, one that has for instance zero rise time (rise time is the time taken by
a signal to change from a specified low value to a specified high value) and
unlimited fan-out, (The fan-out is the number of gate inputs that the output of a logic
gate drives.) or it may refer to a non-ideal physical device

A functionally complete logic system may be composed of relays, valves (vacuum

tubes), or transistors. The simplest family of logic gates uses bipolar transistors, and
is called resistor–transistor logic (RTL). Unlike simple diode logic gates (which do not
have a gain element), RTL gates can be cascaded indefinitely to produce more
complex logic functions. RTL gates were used in early integrated circuits. For higher
speed and better density, the resistors used in RTL were replaced by diodes
resulting in diode–transistor logic (DTL). Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) then
supplanted DTL. As integrated circuits became more complex, bipolar transistors
were replaced with smaller field-effect transistors (MOSFETs);
see PMOS and NMOS. To reduce power consumption still further, most
contemporary chip implementations of digital systems now use CMOS logic. CMOS
 uses complementary (both n-channel and p-channel) MOSFET devices to achieve a
high speed with low power dissipation

Flip flops –
In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store
state information – a bistable multivibrator. The circuit can be made to change state
by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the basic
storage element in sequential logic. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of digital
electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.
Flip-flops and latches are used as data storage elements. A flip-flop is a device which stores a
single bit (binary digit) of data; one of its two states represents a "one" and the other represents a
"zero". Such data storage can be used for storage of state, and such a circuit is described
as sequential logic in electronics. When used in a finite-state machine, the output and next state
depend not only on its current input, but also on its current state (and hence, previous inputs). It can
also be used for counting of pulses, and for synchronizing variably-timed input signals to some
reference timing signal.
Flip-flops can be either level-triggered (asynchronous, transparent or opaque) or edge-triggered
(synchronous, or clocked). The term flip-flop has historically referred generically to both level-
triggered and edge-triggered circuits that store a single bit of data using gates. Recently, some
authors reserve the term flip-flop exclusively for discussing clocked circuits; the simple ones are
commonly called transparent latches.[1][2] Using this terminology, a level-sensitive flip-flop is called a
transparent latch, whereas an edge-triggered flip-flop is simply called a flip-flop. Using either
terminology, the term "flip-flop" refers to a device that stores a single bit of data, but the term "latch"
may also refer to a device that stores any number of bits of data using a single trigger. The terms
"edge-triggered", and "level-triggered" may be used to avoid ambiguity.
  ; registers; counters; multiplexors; encoders, decoders
4. explain how data is represented in a computer system
 Da t a R e p r e s e n t a t i o n
 Bits; bytes; fixed (signed magnitude, ones and twos complement) and floating point (sign, mantissa
and exponent) numbers and character representation; number bases.
5. describe the main characteristics of a processor
 Co m p u t e r O r g a n i s a t i o n
 CPU components (ALU, CU, Registers), instruction format (addresses per instruction, fixed length vs
variable length), types (data manipulation control and input/output) and sets; instruction fetch,
decode and execute.
 Clock speed, cache memory.
RESOURCES
 Bradley, R. Understanding Computer Science for Advanced Level, London: Stanley
 Thornes, 2005.
 Heathcote, P. A Level Computing, London: Letts, 2005.
 Parsons, J. and Oja, D. Computer Concepts, Albany, New York: International Thomson
 Publishing Company, 2004. Shelly, G., Cashman, T. and Vermaat, M.
 Discovering Computers 2008, Boston: Thomson Course Technology, 2008.
 Unit 2
PROBLEM-SOLVING WITH COMPUTERS
1. Explain the concept of problem-solving;
Definition of problem-solving:

2. Describe the stages in the problem-solving process;

Problem definition; problem analysis; identify and evaluate possible solutions; select and justify the
optimal solutions; implementation and review.

3. Explain the concept of an algorithm:

Algorithm as a problem-solving strategy; its role and importance in the problem-solving process.
4. Identify the necessary properties of algorithms that are well designed
 A general solution to the problem,
 clearly defined and
 unambiguous steps,
 finite number of steps,
 and flow of control from one process to another
5. Ways of representing algorithms
 Inclusion of narrative
 flow charts
 pseudocode
6. Constructs used in structured programming;
 Input and output statements.
 Control Structures:
 Sequencing; Selection; Iteration or repetition (bounded, for
 example, fixed number of iterations and unbounded, for
 example, sentinel control); Assignment statement
7. Interpret algorithms from case problems
 Determination of output and correctness of a given
 algorithm (the algorithm may be expressed in narrative,
 flow charts or pseudocode).
8. Correct algorithms from case problems
 Determination of whether an algorithm achieves its stated
 objective and if not provision of the correct algorithm.
9. Develop algorithms from case problems
10. Explain the need for developing the logic of a computer program
 Algorithms as logically sequenced instructions

RESOURCES
Bradley, R. Understanding Computer Science for Advanced Level,
London: Stanley Thornes, 2005. Heathcote, P. A Level Computing,
London: Letts, 2005. Kendall, K. and Kendall, J. Systems Analysis and Design,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2007. Parsons, J. and Oja, D. Computer Concepts,
Albany, New York: International Thomson Publishing Company, 2004. Shelly, G., Ashman, T. and Vermaat,
M. Discovering Computers 2008, Boston: Thomson Course Technology,
2008.
MODULE 3: PROGRAMMING https://www.programiz.com/c-programming
Identify the characteristics of different programming paradigms

Programming paradigms are a way to classify programming languages based on their features.

Languages can be classified into multiple paradigms

Common programming paradigms include:

 imperative in which the programmer instructs the machine how to change its state,
o procedural which groups instructions into procedures,
o object-oriented which groups instructions together with the part of the state they operate on,
 declarative in which the programmer merely declares properties of the desired result, but not
how to compute it
o functional in which the desired result is declared as the value of a series of function
applications,
o logic in which the desired result is declared as the answer to a question about a system of
facts and rules,
o mathematical in which the desired result is declared as the solution of an optimization
problem
Symbolic techniques such as reflection, which allow the program to refer to itself, might also be
considered as a programming paradigm. However, this is compatible with the major paradigms and
thus is not a real paradigm in its own right.

Explain the need for different programming languages

A programming language is a formal language, which comprises a set of instructions that produce
various kinds of output. Programming languages are used in computer programming to
implement algorithms.