MISCELLANEOUS

Study: Introduction
The world's first cellular networks1 introduced in the early 1990s, used analog2 radio
transmission technologies. Within a few years, millions of subscribers signed up for
service provided by the cellular networks, and demanded more and more airtime 3. As a
result, dropped calls and network busy signals became common in many areas.

To accommodate more calls within the limited amount of radio spectrum4 available, the
industry developed a digital5 wireless technology called GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communication). Today, most of the cellular phones in the world, outside the U.S., use
GSM technology. GSM, one of the oldest technologies used by the cellular industry, is
considered to be very dependable technology. By the beginning of the 21st century, one
billion cellular phones used this technology. GSM has always grown and adapted to the
changing needs of customers. The number of GSM subscribers has increased over the
years, with around 160 million new customers added in 2002 alone.

From 1997 to 2003, the number of GSM customers increased 10 times. GSM, which is
continuously evolving at a rapid pace, provides several voice and data enabled services.

But just as GSM was being standardized, an even better solution for mobile
communication6 was found in another technology called CDMA (Code Division Multiple
Access). CDMA, a digital wireless technology, was pioneered and commercially developed
by Qualcomm.7 In CDMA there is no division of the frequency band.8 The same frequency
band is used repeatedly, and hence it is also called Spread spectrum. CDMA was
commercially introduced in 1995. In 2003, CDMA became one of the fastest evolving
technologies. In 1999, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU)9 selected
CDMA as the industry standard for new "third-generation" 3G; (Refer Exhibit-I for 3G)
wireless systems. CDMA provides clear, reliable voice communication and good data
services. Many leading wireless companies are using or are switching over to CDMA to
make use of its high speed services.

During the early 1980s, there was rapid growth in the number of analog cellular
telephone systems10 in most European countries, particularly in the United Kingdom,
France, Germany and the Scandinavian countries. Unfortunately, every country in
Europe had its own system, which was incompatible with the equipment and operations
of the other systems. This was an undesirable situation since it limited mobile equipment
to national boundaries. Consequently, there was a very limited market for each type of
equipment.

To address this problem, in 1982, the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs
(CEPT) formed a group called the Groupe Special Mobile (GSM) to study a public land
mobile system. The group developed a land mobile system which provided several
features such as good speech quality, ability to support handheld services, support for a
range of new services and facilities, spectral efficiency and ISDN 11 capability. This
system also had a low service cost.
In 1989, the responsibility for the further growth of GSM was taken up by the European
Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI),12 and the first GSM specifications were
published in 1990. The commercial service of GSM started in mid-1991. By 1993 there
were 36 GSM networks13 in 22 countries. Though GSM was standardized in Europe, it
was not restricted to Europe alone. At the beginning of 1994, GSM had 1.3 million
subscribers worldwide; this number increased to more than 55 million by October 1997.
By the end of 2002, there were more than 200 GSM networks operating in 110 countries
around the world. The acronym GSM now aptly stands for Global System for Mobile
communications.

The developers of GSM believed that advancements in compression algorithms 14 and

digital signal processors15 would support the use of the GSM digital system and bring
about a continuous improvement in quality and reduction in cost. By 2002, ETSI had
brought out more than 8000 pages of GSM recommendations, which provided functional
and interface descriptions of all the components used in the system. The
recommendations provide standards that ensure the proper working of the different
components in the system.

A GSM based PLMN 16 (Public Land Mobile Network) can be broadly divided into 3 parts:
• The Mobile Station
• The Base Station Subsystem, and
• The Network Subsystem

The Mobile Station

The Mobile Station (MS) refers to the user end of the network. It consists of the GSM
device (cellphone) and the SIM (Subscriber Identity Module). Each mobile device has a
globally unique IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity) and each SIM has an
IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity), which is used to identify and allow the
subscriber to use various services. The SIM card may be protected against unauthorized
use by using a PIN (Personal Identity Number).

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Mobile networks consist of many BTS (Base Transceiver Stations), each of which covers
a certain geographical area. This area is called a 'cell.' The BTSs are responsible for
directly communicating with the mobile devices. Several BTSs are controlled together by
a BSC (Base Station Controller). The BSC provides connectivity to the network
subsystem.

The Network Subsystem

The MSC (Mobile services Switching Center) is the central component of the network
subsystem. It communicates with all the BSCs and is responsible for providing all the
functionalities to mobile devices like registration, authentication, call routing etc. Usually,
a network also has a GMSC (Gateway MSC) to communicate with external (landline)
networks like ISDN and PSTN 17(public switched telephone network).

The network subsystem also maintains many registers which contain information
necessary for the smooth functioning of the network. The HLR (Home Location Register)
stores information about the current location of all subscribers of the network. This
information is necessary for routing calls or messages to their intended destinations. A
VLR (Visitor Location Register) covers one or more cells and stores information about the
subscribers currently under its area of influence. The EIR (Equipment Identity Register)
authenticates and stores equipment data. The AUC or AC (Authentication Center) stores
and validates each user's PIN. The MSC communicates with these registers whenever it
needs information.

When a mobile unit is switched on, it tries to contact a BTS that is within range to log
onto the network. The BTS also transmits the frequencies of neighbouring BTSs to the
mobile unit so that the unit can determine which BTS it is getting better reception from.
The mobile unit transmits the measurements of the different frequencies back to the
BTS, which in turn passes this information to the BSC. The BSC has a better view of
what is happening in the network. The BSC then lets the phone switch BTSs. For an
incoming call, the HLR finds out which VLR knows where the phone is, and the VLR then
sends a signal to that particular phone. The mobile unit responds, and the call is set up.

The GSM Family

The GSM family of wireless communication provides several voice and data enabling
services. It also provides several enriching features to meet the ever-growing needs of
customers world-wide.

The GSM family of wireless communication platforms, apart from today's GSM,18 consists
of GPRS, EDGE and 3GSM. These three basic platforms put together form GSM. (Refer
Table I)
Table I
The GSM Family
Basic Platforms Features offered
• offer 'always-on', higher capacity,
Internet-based content and packet-based
data services.
General Packet Radio
• enables services such as colour Internet
Service (GPRS)
browsing, e-mail on the move, powerful
visual communications, multimedia
messages and location-based services.
• enhancements in data capability over
the core GSM network
• delivery of advanced mobile services
Enhanced Data rates for
such as the downloading of video and
GSM Evolution (EDGE)
music clips, full multimedia messaging,
high-speed colour Internet access and e-
mail on the move.
• makes available third generation mobile
3GSM
multimedia services globally.

GSM technology allows users to send and receive data at rates up to 9600 bytes per
second (bps). Since GSM is a digital network, a modem is not required between the user
and the network. But an audio modem is required inside the GSM network to inter-work
with POTS19 (Plain Old Telephone Service) since the latter is an analog service. Although
GSM currently has a low data transfer rate, new developments like HSCSD 20 (high-speed
circuit switched data) and GPRS (general packet-switched radio) will improve this rate
considerably in future.

GSM is useful for offering roaming services. Phones using the roaming facility can be
switched from one network of cells to another, thus allowing subscribers to use the
phone virtually around the world. GSM systems also offer Short Message Service (SMS).
SMS is a bidirectional service for short alphanumeric messages (up to 160 bytes). Using
this service, a subscriber can send a message to another subscriber of the service and
also receive an acknowledgment of the message. SMS can also be used in a cell-
broadcast mode21 to send messages such as traffic updates and news updates. Messages
can also be stored in a SIM card so that they can be retrieved later.

Several additional services are provided apart from the basic telecom services. The first
phase of GSM specifications (released in 1990) provided facilities such as call forward
(forwarding the call when the mobile subscriber cannot be reached by the network) and
call barring of outgoing or incoming calls, for example when roaming in another country
(restricting incoming calls and thus keeping a complete control of the mobile
communications expense). Many more services were added in the second phase of GSM
specifications (released around 1991) such as caller identification (displaying the number
or name of the person calling), call waiting (holding on to a call while answering another
call so that no call goes unanswered) and multi-party conversations (communicating with
more than 2 people at a time).

Working of GSM
GSM uses a technique called Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). Using this technique,
it divides the frequency band or a part of the electromagnetic spectrum available with a
particular phone company into tiny slots and allots each slot to a particular caller. The
operators have to confine all their activities to these bands and tune their frequencies to
it. This technology was adopted by many global players in 1995.

GSM divides its users by frequency channels and time slots. The available spectrum
(900MHz22 – 1800MHz in India) is split into 200KHz frequency channels, which are then
further divided into time slots. The users of a channel take turns in their allotted time
slots. At a particular instant of time, only one person uses the channel, and that too for
very short bursts of time (about 577 micro seconds).

In order to optimise the frequency of use and cover large areas, the total available
channels are split into 7 reusable groups. The adjacent cells in GSM use different
frequency channels and hence there is no interference at the boundaries of the cells.

CDMA became commercially available only in the mid-1990s. However, the origin of
CDMA can be traced back to 1940. In that year, Hollywood actress turned inventor, Hedy
Lamarr, and co-inventor George Antheil, co-patented a way to control torpedoes by
sending signals over multiple radio frequencies using random patterns. They tried their
best to get this technology from the experimentation phase to the implementation
phase. But the U.S. Navy considered the technology to be unfeasible. The technology
(initially known as frequency-hopping and later as frequency-hopping spread-spectrum
technology23) remained dormant until 1957, when engineers at the Sylvania Electronic
Systems Division, in Buffalo, New York, took up the idea. After the Lamarr-Antheil patent
expired, they used it to secure communications for the U.S. during the 1962 Cuban
Missile Crisis.24 It remained an integral part of government security technology till the
mid -1980s, after which it was declassified. The technology then came to be known as
CDMA technology.

CDMA works by converting multiple conversations into digital signals, attaching a code to
the sender and receiver, dividing the signals into bits, and then reassembling them at
the receiver's end. The military loved CDMA technology because coded signals with
millions of possible combinations resulted in extremely secure transmissions. Qualcomm,
which patented CDMA, and other telecommunications companies were attracted to the
technology because it enabled many simultaneous conversations on the same frequency,
unlike analog technology and the earlier digital option-GSM technology. CDMA was not
tested for commercial use until 1991, and was launched commercially in Hong Kong in
1995.

Commercial Development
Qualcomm realized that CDMA technology could be used for commercial cellular
communications more efficiently than other technologies as it could make use of the
available radio spectrum better than the older analog and digital technologies. They
therefore applied CDMA technology to cellular phones, demonstrated a working
prototype, and began to license the technology to telecom equipment manufacturers.

The first CDMA networks were commercially launched in 1995. They provided roughly
about 10 times more capacity than analog networks and much more than GSM. Since its
launch, CDMA has become the fastest-growing technology of all wireless technologies,
with over 100 million subscribers worldwide. In addition to supporting more traffic,
CDMA brings many other benefits to carriers and consumers, including better voice
quality, broader coverage and better security.

CDMA works by converting speech signals into digital signals, which are then transmitted
over a wireless network and then decoded at the receiver's end. The receiver's
equipment, is tuned to identify the particular code. A unique code is used by the
equipment to distinguish every call from others. CDMA allows many users to share the
airwaves without any cross-talk or interference. Hence, several calls can be made at any
given time on the same frequency.

GSM Vs CDMA
CDMA uses a technology called Wireless in Local Loop (WLL) (Refer Exhibit-II). The
limited mobility25 offered by CDMA is best suited for users who want cheaper services.
Users who generally travel a lot tend to prefer GSM phones. Since GSM has been around
for a long time, it has struck more than 60 roaming agreements worldwide. GSM service
providers thus give complete freedom to their users to use their phones in any country
of the world across the globe.

This is indeed the unique selling proposition of GSM phones. But since the majority of
the world's population does not travel great distances, this feature might not make a
huge difference to them.

GSM users can access several value added services like SMS and web browsing through
their phones. In CDMA, in India, the legality of SMSing is still an issue. Some CDMA
providers offer SMS services from CDMA to CDMA, but not from CDMA to GSM. In India
WLL providers are not allowed to offer such services.

By April 2003, 70.4% of the world's mobile users went for GSM while only 13.1% chose
CDMA (Refer Exhibit III). So GSM is still the more popular technology. CDMA is a
relatively new and developing technology and hence a solution to the technical problems
of CDMA might be attained very soon. CDMA companies are of the opinion that their
technology will dominate in the market in the years to come. But the supporters of GSM
argue that since GSM is strongly rooted in the mobile market, replacing it would be
difficult.

Comparison of Handsets
CDMA poses a threat to GSM. It makes full use of the limited bandwidth by squeezing in
several calls. So handsets that use CDMA technology are smaller and slicker, have better
voice and data quality.

There are two main reasons for the difference in handsets. GSM operates on 900 MHz
and 1800MHz bands and CDMA works on 800MHz band. Besides this, the cell size for
CDMA has a radius of around 50kms while GSM uses a cell size of 30 kms. CDMA
requires fewer cells than GSM to cover a certain area, thus eliminating the need to have
bigger handsets.

But CDMA handsets also have certain drawbacks. The CDMA user is stuck with one WLL
service provider because his handset is programmed to work with that particular service
provider who sells it to him. A CDMA handset does not have a SIM card. If the user's
handset is stolen, lost or damaged, he has to procure a new handset and then
reprogram it. This is an expensive and time-consuming procedure. The same process
has to be carried out if he wants to upgrade or change his handset. If the user wants to
change networks he has to get the entire handset reset or reprogrammed. So a CDMA
handset is said to be locked to the network it is initiated on. This is why CDMA operators
generally provide a handset along with the service. A GSM phone does not have these
disadvantages as it uses a SIM card. So if a user likes a different handset, he can buy it
and reprogram it all in a matter of minutes.

Advantages of CDMA26

Higher capacity: CDMA allows a greater number of calls to be transmitted at a given

point in time over the frequency spectrum than GSM. It thus provides higher traffic
capacity. But this increase in capacity is accompanied by a reduction in voice quality.
CDMA is therefore said to have "soft capacity." GSM's capacity, however, is fixed.
CDMA’s capacity is 2 to 3 times more than that of GSM and 10 to 20 times more than
that of analog equipment.

Soft handoff reduces call drop rates: A handoff27 occurs in any cellular system when a
user's phone switches from one cell site to another as he travels. Generally this handoff
occurs when the network informs the phone of the cell site to which it must switch. The
phone then stops receiving and transmitting on the old channel and commences
transmitting and receiving on a new channel. This is called a ‘hard handoff.’

In CDMA, when a call is in progress, the network choses two or more cell sites which it
considers favorable for a handoff. It then broadcasts a copy of the call to each of these
sites. The phone can then choose between these sites and move to one of them. This
facility ensures that the phone is in complete control of the handover process and that
there is always a site ready to take over a call at short notice. This technique is called
‘soft handoff.’ A soft handoff ensures that CDMA users experience very few dropped
calls.
In GSM, the network informs the phone of the timing of the handoff and the system it
must switch to. This leads to abrupt handovers and disconnection during transition. This
disadvantage is particularly evident when the subscriber is mobile or is in an area with
closely spaced cells.

Outstanding voice and call quality: CDMA filters out background noise, cross-talk and
interference so that greater privacy, improved call quality and clear voice quality is
obtained. It translates voice signals into digital transmissions at a high translation rate of
8kbps or 13kbps, and hence improves system capacity.

Reduced background noise: Electrical background noise (computer noise) and acoustic
background noise (background conversations) are filtered out using a narrow bandwidth
which corresponds to the frequency of the human voice.

Rapid deployment: CDMA systems can be deployed and expanded faster and more cost
effectively than GSM systems. This is because they require fewer cell sites than other
wireless networks as their cell sizes are large.

Low power requirements: CDMA handsets transmit at the lowest power levels in the
industry. So their batteries have a longer life and can provide longer talk time and
standby time. Since CDMA handsets use smaller batteries than GSM handsets, they are
smaller and lighter. This makes them easy to carry and use.

Improved security and privacy: CDMA is designed with about 4.4 trillion codes. This
makes CDMA a more secure system than GSM. Wide product selection: Qualcomm has
licensed CDMA technology to over 65 leading communications manufacturers’ worldwide,
enabling service providers and customers to choose from a wide range of highly
advanced, cost-competitive, CDMA-based products.

Disadvantages of CDMA

Restricted roaming: CDMA cannot offer international roaming in all parts of the world.
Qualcomm has been working on technology-neutral handsets, but these are not yet
ready to be commercialised.28

High equipment cost, but offset by higher erlangs29 capacity: CDMA's hardware for its
cell sites and stations is more expensive and complex than GSM's hardware. But on a
per erlang (of traffic density) basis, CDMA's capital cost is quite competitive vis-a- vis
that of GSM.30

Lack of smart cards: Since CDMA systems do not work on Subscriber Identity Modules
(SIM) cards, reprogramming of the handset is necessary when a subscriber wishes to
switch to a new handset or a different operator. This has a negative effect on the
flexibility, convenience and delivery of the services offered. The Reusable Identity
Modules (RUIM) launched recently under CDMA could overcome this shortcoming in the
near future. 31

Phone heating up: These problems are interrelated. All cellular networks work through a
connection between a cell phone and base station antennas. If all the antennas are not
activated, the existing activated antennas try to cater to the needs of more subscribers
than they should. When a CDMA handset realizes that a signal is weak, it tries to
increase its power to reach the nearest tower signal. This leads to overheating of the
phone. Moreover the attempt to meet the handset's demand for increased power drains
the batteries.32

Locked out: Sometimes, if two people with similar handsets stand close together, one
handset may receive a stronger signal than the other. When on the move, a CDMA
handset is connected to two towers for a short time-one from the tower of the cell where
it exits and the other from the tower of the cell where it is enters. At times a user may
find himself between two towers, one whose power is very strong and the other whose
power is relatively weaker. To improve its contact with the stronger tower, the phone
increases its power. But because it is under the influence of the tower with the weaker
signal strength, it is forced to link up with the weaker tower. The phone's software is not
able to make a transition and gets locked out. The only way out of this situation is to
switch off the phone and restart it.33

Advantages of GSM
Roaming Facility: GSM is used around the world by over 450 million subscribers. It
provides an international roaming facility which permits users to use their phones all
over the globe. Unlike GSM, a CDMA phone used in India will not work in France,
Germany or any other European country. Since GSM phones use SIM cards, customers
have access to data encryption facilities.34

Less channel pollution: In most densely populated urban areas, cell sites are placed in
close proximity. The user's phone receives signals from several base stations at once
and none of these signals are dominant. This leads to a deterioration in CDMA voice
quality. CDMA's coverage in sparsely populated areas is superior to that of GSM. In GSM,
the adjacent cells use different frequencies. Hence deterioration in voice quality does not
occur.35

Conclusion
The wireless world is divided into two camps, GSM (used in a large part of Western
Europe) and CDMA (used in North America and parts of Asia). Just two years before
CDMA was introduced in Hong Kong in1995, European manufacturers chose to support
the earlier technology, GSM's TDMA. Since most cellular users are in Europe and Asia,
GSM is the more widely used technology. As of June, 2003, GSM had 793 million users
worldwide while CDMA had 159 million users.