HEAT TRANSFER

Conduction 1
 HEAT TRANSFER
 WHAT IS HEAT TRANSFER?
 HOW IS HEAT TRANSFERRED?
 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO STUDY IT?
 HOW IS HEAT TRANSFER DIFFERENT FROM
THERMODYNAMICS
 WHAT IS HEAT TRANSFER
 HEAT TRANSFER IS ENERGY IN TRANSIT DUE TO
A TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

 CONDUCTION
 CONVECTION
 RADIATION
 CONDUCTION

 Conduction through a solid or a stationary

fluid

T1 T2

q”
 CONVECTION
• CONVECTION FROM A SURFACE TO
A MOVING FLUID

MOVING FLUID, Tf Ts > Tf

q”
Ts
 RADIATION

 NET RADIATION HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN TWO

SURFACES

q1”
T1 q2”

T2
CONDUCTION – ATOMIC OR MOLECULAR ACTIVITY

 A GAS WITH TEMPERATURE GRADIENT

 NO BULK MOTION T1 > T2

T T1

xo
q”

x T2
 FOURIER’S LAW OF CONDUCTION
 1-D Conduction
dT
qcxc k
dx
dT T2  T1
dx L T1
T(x)
T2  T1
qcxc k
L T2
T1  T2
qcxc k
L L
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15 m thick fire
clay brick having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/m.k. Measurements
made during steady state operation reveal temperatures of 1400 K and
1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate
of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 m by 3 m on a side

KNOWN: Steady state conditions with prescribed wall thickness, area,

thermal conductivity and surface temperatures
FIND: Wall Heat Loss
SCHEMATIC

0.15 m 0.5 m
T1 = 1150 K
T1 = 1400 K
qx”
3m
x
ASSUMPTIONS
Steady state conditions
One dimensional heat conduction through the wall
Constant thermal conductivity

'T 250 2
qcxc k 1.7 u 2833 W / m
L 0.15

qx H W qccx 0.5 u 3.0 u 2833 4250 W

 CONVECTION
Energy transfer due to
Random Molecular Motion (Diffusion)
Motion Of Fluid (Advection)
Diffusion + Advection - Convection
Diffusion - Within The Velocity Boundary Layer
Advection - Outside The Boundary Layer
FLUID MECHANICS IS INDISPENSABLE FOR CONVECTION
Boundary Layer Development
uf Tf
y FLUID

q Ts
u(y) T(y)
 TYPES OF CONVECTION
20°C
FORCED CONVECTION 5 m/s

AIR .
Q 20°C

AIR Warmer air

.
NATURAL CONVECTION Q rising

BOILING AND CONDENSATION – involve phase change

80°C
Boiling
Water
100°C

Droplets
Heating
 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

qcc hTf  Ts 
• q” – positive – heat is transferred from the surface
TS > Tf
• q” – negative – heat is transferred to the surface
TS < Tf
• h - f (surface geometry, fluid, etc)
 TYPICAL VALUES OF h
Process h (W/m2.K)
Free convection
Gases 2-25
Liquids 50-1000
Forced Convection
Gases 25-250
Liquids 50-20000
Boiling and condensation 2500-1,00,000
 RADIATION
 Energy emitted by matter that is at a finite temperature
 Radiation – solid, liquid , gas
 Energy of radiation – transported – E.M.Waves
 No medium is required (vacuum is perfect medium)
EMISSIVE POWER - Rate at which energy is released per unit area

STEFAN-BOLTZMAN LAW
4
Eb V Ts
Ts – Absolute temperature of the surface
V - Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4)
Eb – Emissive Power
BLACK SURFACE – Stefan Boltzman Law
REAL SURFACE – Less Than Black Surface
4
Eb HV Ts
H - Emissivity 0 d H d 1
Gas, Tf h qconv
G E

Surface of H, D and Ts
G - IRRADIATION – Rate at which radiation is incident
on a unit area of the surface
Gabs – ABSORPTION – A portion of the irradiation may
be absorbed by the surface
Gabs = D G
0dDd1
D< 1 – Opaque
 RELATIONSHIP TO THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS
• equilibrium states of matter (no temp gradient)
 amount of energy required in the form of heat for a
system to pass from one equilibrium state to another
HEAT TRANSFER
 thermodynamic non-equilibrium process
 rate at which heat transfer occurs
 SUMMARY
Mode Mechanism Rate equation

Conduction diffusion of energy due to

random molecular motion qx” = -k dT/dx

Convection diffusion of energy due to

random molecular motion
+ energy transfer due to
bulk motion qx” = h(Ts - Tf )

Radiation energy transfer by

electromagnetic waves q” = V H Ts4
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY FOR A CONTROL
VOLUME AT ANY TIME ‘t’

AMOUNT OF THERMAL AMOUNT OF THERMAL

& MECHANICAL ENERGY GENERATED
ENERGY ENTERING THE + WITHIN THE CONTROL
CONTROL VOLUME VOLUME

AMOUNT OF INCREASE IN THE

THERMAL & AMOUNT OF
MECHANICAL ENERGY STORED IN
+ ENERGY LEAVING = THE CONTROL
THE CONTROL VOLUME
VOLUME
 E in
E g& E st E out
INFLOW AND OUTFLOW TERMS – SURFACE PHENOMENA
Ex: heat transfer by conduction, convection, radiation; may also
involve work interactions at the boundaries
ENERGY GENERATION TERM – VOLUMETRIC PHENOMENA
EX: chemical, electrical, and nuclear
ENERGY STORAGE TERM – VOLUMETRIC PHENOMENA
Thermal component (sensible component) + latent component
EX: internal energy, potential, and nuclear
 APPLICATIONS OF CONSERVATION LAWS

1. Appropriate control volume must be defined

2. Appropriate time basis must be chosen
3. Relevant energy processes must be identified
4. Conservation equation

  
E in  E out  E g 
E st
 Heat transfer is definitely a relevant subject.
Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering systems and
other aspects of life and we can see that many ordinary household
appliances are designed, in whole or in part, by using the principles of
heat transfer

Examples:
Air-conditioning system, the refrigerator, the water heater, the iron and
also the computer, the TV, and the DVD.
Heat transfer plays an important role in the design of devices such as car
radiators, various components of power plants, solar collectors, and
even spacecraft.
The thickness of insulation in the walls and roof of the houses, on hot
water or steam pipes, or on water heaters is also determined on the
basis of heat transfer analysis with economic consideration.
A 2 m long, 0.3 cm diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 150 C as given in
schematic. Heat is generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating, and the
surface temperature of the wire is measured to be 1520 C in steady operation. Also,
the voltage drop and electric current through the wire are measured to be 60 V and
1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation, determine the
convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface of the
wire and the air in the room.
Known: wire dimensions, room temperature, surface temperature of the wire,
voltage drop and electric current through the wire.
Find: convection heat transfer coefficient between the outer surface of the wire and
the air in the room.
152°C
Tf = 15°C
1.5A

60V
Assumptions:
•Steady operating conditions exist since the temperature readings do not change
with time
•Radiation heat transfer is negligible.
 Analysis
When steady operating conditions are reached, the rate of heat loss from the wire will
equal the rate of heat generation in the wire as a result of resistance heating.
Q E generated VI 60 (1.5) 90 W
That is , the surface area of the wire is
A = S D L = S (0.003) (2) = 0.01885 m2
Newton’s law of cooling for convection heat transfer is expressed as
Q hATs  Tf 
Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation and thus assuming all the heat loss from
the wire to occur by convection, the convection heat transfer coefficient is to be
determined to be
Q 90
h 34.9 W / m 2 .C
A Ts - Tf  (0.01885) (152  15)
Comments:
Note that the simple setup described above can be used to determine the average
heat transfer coefficients from a variety of surfaces in air. Also, heat transfer by
radiation can be eliminated by keeping the surrounding surfaces at the temperature of
the wire.
The hot combustion gases of a furnace are separated from the ambient air and its
surroundings, which are at 250 C, by a brick wall 0.15 m thick. The brick has a thermal
conductivity of 1.2 W/m.K. Under steady state conditions an outer surface
temperature of 1000 C is measured. Free convection heat transfer to the air adjoining
the surface is characterized by a convection coefficient of h = 20 W/m2.K. What is the
brick inner surface temperature. Neglect any heat transfer by radiation.
Known: outer surface temperature of a furnace wall of prescribed thickness, thermal
conductivity, ambient conditions
Find: Wall inner surface temperature

K
 Assumptions:
1. Steady state conditions
2. One dimensional heat transfer by conduction across the wall
3. Radiation heat transfer is neglected
Analysis:
The inside surface temperature may be obtained by performing an energy balance at
the outer surface.

E in  E out 0
it follows that, on a unit area basis,
T1  T2
cc  qconv
qcond cc 0Ÿ k h T2  Tf 
L
T1  100
1.2 20 100  25  Ÿ T1 = 287.5 o C
0.15
Comments
Brick surface temperature is high
 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION
 Lecture 3: Objectives
 The aim of this lecture is to understand the Fourier's law of
conduction (both physically and mathematically) and introduce
various thermal properties like thermal conductivity and thermal
diffusivity

 INTRODUCTION
 Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude.
 The rate of heat conduction in a specified direction is proportional
to the temperature gradient.
 Heat conduction in a medium is three dimensional and time
dependent
 T = f ( x,y,z,t )
 Heat conduction in a medium is said to be
– STEADY - temperature does not vary with time.
– UNSTEADY (transient) - temperature varies with time
– One dimensional

T=f(x) or T=f(y) or T=f(z)

– Two dimensional

T=f( x,y) or T=f(y,z) or T=f(x,z)

– Three dimensional
T = f(x,y,z)
 CONDUCTION RATE EQUATION

A cylindrical rod of known material is insulated on its lateral surface.

Its end faces are maintained at different temperatures with T1 > T2
The heat transfer rate qx depends upon,

• The temperature difference, ǻT

• The rod length, ǻx
• The cross sectional area, A

The heat transfer rate varies as,

'T
q"x D A (2.1)
'x
the proportionality may be converted to an equality by introducing a
coefficient that is a measure of the material behavior.
Therefore,

'T
q"x kA (2.2)
'x
where k is the thermal conductivity (W/m.K)

Applying limits,
'T
lim q"x lim k A (2.2a)
'x o 0 'x o 0 'x

Therefore,
dT
q"x k A (2.3)
dx

and the heat flux

qx dT
q"x k (2.4)
A dx

The minus sign is necessary because heat is always transferred in the

direction of decreasing temperature.
 Fourier's law, as written in Equation 2.4, it follows that is normal to the
cross sectional area A called an isothermal surface as illustrated in
Figure 2.2. T(x)

T1

q"x
T2

x
L

Figure 2.2 Relation between co-ordinate system, heat flow direction

and temperature gradient in one dimension.
Generalizing the conduction rate equation for three dimension gives,
§ wT ˆ wT ˆ wT ·
q"  k ’T  k ¨ iˆ j k ¸ (2.4)
© w x w y wz ¹
• In Cartesian coordinates, the general expression for q" is

ˆ "  ˆjq"  kq
q" iq ˆ " (2.5)
x y z

• and from Equation 2.4a, it follows that,

wT " wT " wT
q"x k ;q k ;q k (2.6)
wx y wy z wz

NOTE: Here we have assumed that,

• The medium in which conduction occurs is isotropic.
• The thermal conductivity is independent of the coordinate direction in an
isotropic medium.
 THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
• Thermal conductivity of a material is defined as the rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature
difference.
• The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of how fast heat will
flow in that material.
• A large value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good
heat conductor,
• A low value indicates that the material is a poor heat conductor or
insulator.

Figure 2.3 shows the range of thermal conductivity for various states of
matter at normal temperature and pressure.
 Thermal Conductivity K (W/mK)

Figure 2.3 Range Of Thermal Conductivity For Various States Of Matter

At Normal Temperature And Pressure
• Note that the thermal conductivity of a solid may be more than four orders
of magnitude larger than that of a gas.
• This trend is largely due to differences in intermolecular spacing for the
two states.
 THE SOLID STATE
A solid may be comprised of free electrons and of atoms bound in a
periodic arrangement called the lattice. Accordingly, transport of thermal
energy is due to two effects:
• the migration of free electrons and
• lattice vibrational waves.
• These effects are additive, such that the thermal conductivity k is the
sum of the electronic component ke and the lattice component kl

K Ke  Kl (2.6)

where, ke is inversely proportional to the electrical resistivity ȡe .

• For pure metals, which are of low ȡe, ke is much larger than kl .
• For alloys, which are of substantially larger ȡe, the contribution of kl to k
is no longer negligible.
• For non-metallic solids, k is determined primarily by kl , which depends
on the frequency of interactions between the atoms of the lattice.
• The regularity of the lattice arrangement has an important effect on kl ,
with crystalline (well-ordered) materials like quartz having a higher
thermal conductivity than amorphous materials like glass.

• In fact, for crystalline, non-metallic solids such as diamond and beryllium

oxide, kl can be quite large, exceeding values of k associated with good
conductors, such as aluminium.

INSULATION SYSTEMS
Thermal insulation systems are comprised of low thermal conductivity
materials combined to achieve an even lower system thermal
conductivity.
In fiber-, powder-, flake-type insulations, the solid material is finely
dispersed throughout an air space to achieve effective thermal
conductivity.

Effective thermal conductivity of such systems depends on

• the thermal conductivity
• surface radiative properties of the solid material,
• the nature and volumetric fraction of the air or void space.
• A special parameter of the system is its bulk density (solid mass/total
volume), which depends strongly on the manner in which the solid
material is interconnected
 THE FLUID STATE
• Since the intermolecular spacing is much larger and the motion of the
molecules is more random for the fluid state than for the solid state,
thermal energy transport is less effective.

• Therefore, the thermal conductivity of gases and liquids is smaller than

that of solids.
THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
• In the analysis of heat transfer problems, it will be necessary to use many
properties of matter.
• These properties are generally referred to as thermophysical properties
and consists of two distinct categories,
– transport properties – include the diffusion rate coefficients such as k,
(for heat transfer), and, the kinematic viscosity (for momentum
transfer)
– thermodynamic properties - pertain to the equilibrium state of a
system. Such as Density (ȡ) and specific heat (Cp)
• The product ȡCp commonly termed volumetric heat capacity, measures
the ability of a material to store thermal energy.
 The ratio of thermal conductivity to heat capacity is an important property
termed the thermal diffusivity , which has units of m2/s.

k
D (2.8)
U Cp

• It measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to

its ability to store thermal energy.

NOTE:
• Materials of large Į will respond quickly to changes in their thermal
environment
• Materials of small Į will respond more sluggishly to reach new equilibrium
condition.
Objectives

• Three dimensional heat diffusion equation in Cartesian co-ordinates is

derived from first principle and various boundary and initial conditions are
stated.

THE HEAT DIFFUSION EQUATION

ƒ A major objective in a conduction analysis is to determine the temperature

field in a medium resulting from conditions imposed on its boundaries.
ƒ We now consider the manner in which the temperature distribution can be
determined.
ƒ We define a differential control volume, identify the relevant energy transfer
processes, and introduce the appropriate rate equations.
ƒ The result is a differential equation whose solution, for prescribed
boundary conditions, provides the temperature distribution in the medium.
To determine the differential equation whose solution, for prescribed
boundary conditions, provides the temperature distribution in the medium.
Consider,
• a homogenous medium
• with no bulk motion and
• temperature distribution T(x,y,z)
Consider a infinitesimally small control volume dx.dy.dz , as shown in Figure
2.4
y+dy

Figure 2.4 Differential Control Volume For Conduction Analysis In

Cartesian Coordinates
 The conduction heat rates perpendicular to each of the control
surfaces at the x, y and z coordinate locations are indicated by the
terms qx, qy , and qz , respectively. The conduction heat rates at the
opposite surfaces can then be expressed as a Taylor series
expansion where, neglecting higher order terms,

wq x
q x  dx q x  dx
wx (2.9a)
wq y
q y  dy q y  dy (2.9b)
wy
wq z
qz  dz qz  dz (2.9c)
wz
• Equation 2.9a simply states that the x component of the heat
transfer rate at x+dx is equal to the value of this component at x plus
the amount by which it changes with respect x times dx.

• Within the medium there may also be an energy source term. This
term is represented as

E st q dx dy dz (2.10)
 q
where is the rate at which energy is generated per unit volume of the
medium (W/m3).

There may occur changes in the amount of the internal thermal energy
stored by the material in the control volume. The energy storage term
may be expressed as

wT
E st U Cp dx dy dz (2.11)
wt

wT
where U C p wt is the time rate of change of the thermal (sensible) energy of
the medium per unit volume.

The general form of the conservation of energy is

E in  E g  E out E st (2.12)

E in q x  q y  qz (2.13)
 E out q x  dx  q y  dy  qz  dz (2.14)

substituting Equations 2.9, 2.13 and 2.14 in Equation 2.12, we obtain

wT
qx  q y  qz  q dx dy dz  qx  dx  q y  dy  qz  dz U Cp dx dy dz (2.15)
wt

substituting from Equation 2.9, it follows that

wqx wq y wq wT
 dx  dy  z dz  q dx dy dz U Cp dx dy dz (2.16)
wx wy wz wt

The conduction heat rates is evaluated from Fourier's law

wT (2.17a)
q x  k dydz
wx

wT
q y  k dxdz (2.17b)
wy

wT (2.17c)
qz  k dxdy
wz
where each heat flux component has been multiplied by an appropriate
control surface area to obtain the heat transfer rate.
Substituting Equations 2.17 into 2.16 and dividing out the dimensions of
the control volume ( dx dy dz) , we obtain

w § wT · w § wT · w § wT · wT
k
wx ©¨ wx ¸  wy ¨ k wy ¸  wz ¨ k wz ¸  q U Cp
wt
(2.18)
¹ © ¹ © ¹

Equation 2.18 is the general form of the heat diffusion equation in

Cartesian coordinates.
From the solution of this heat equation, we can obtain the temperature
distribution T(x,y,z) as a function of time.

If the thermal conductivity is a constant, the heat equation is

w 2T w 2T w 2T q 1 wT
   (2.19)
wx 2 wy 2 wz 2 k D wt
k
Where D is the thermal diffusivity.
U Cp
Under steady-state conditions , there can be no change in the amount of
energy storage; hence equation 2.18 reduces to
 w § wT · w § wT · w § wT ·
k
wx ©¨ wx ¸  wy ¨ k wy ¸  wz ¨ k wz ¸  q 0 (2.20)
¹ © ¹ © ¹

If the heat transfer is one dimensional (e.g., in the x direction) and there is
no energy generation , Equation 2.20 reduces to

d § dT ·
k 0
dx ¨© dx ¸¹
(2.20a)

The most important implication of this result is that under steady state,
one dimensional conditions with no energy generation, the heat flux is a
constant in the direction of heat transfer
PROBLEM 2.1:
The temperature distribution across a wall of 1 m thick at a certain instant
of time is given as T(x) = a+bx+cx2 where T is in degrees Celsuis and x
is in meters, while a = 800 oC, b = -350 oC/m, and c = -60 oC/m2 . A
uniform heat generation, = 1000 W/m3, is present in the wall of area 10
m2 having the properties = 1600 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m.K, and Cp = 4
kJ/kg.K.
• Determine the rate of heat transfer entering the wall ( x = 0) and leaving
the wall ( x = 1m)
• Determine the rate of change of energy storage in the wall
• Determine the time rate of temperature change at x = 0.25 and 0.5 m

Diag:
A=10 m 2 q=1000W/m2
k=40W/mK
T(x)=a+bx+cx 2 U =1600kg/m3
.
Eg cp=4kJ/K
& qout
q .
in Est

L=1 m
x
Known: Temperature distribution T(x) at an instant of time t in a one
dimensional wall with uniform heat generation.

Find:
• Heat rates entering, qin( x = 0), and leaving, qout( x = 1), the wall
• Rate of change of energy storage in the wall,
• Time rate of temperature change at x = 0.25 and 0.5 m.

Assumptions:
• One dimensional conduction in the x -direction.
• Homogenous medium with constant properties.
• Uniform heat generation.

Analysis:
1. Recall that once the temperature distribution is known for a medium, it
is a simple matter to determine the conduction heat transfer rate at
any point in the medium, or at its surfaces, by Fourier's law. Hence
the desired heat rates may be determined by using the prescribed
temperature distribution with Equation 2.3. Accordingly,
 wT
qin qx ( 0 )  k A kA  b  2cx 
wx x 0
x 0

qin  bkA 350 u 40 u10 120 kW

Similarly,
wT
qout qx  L   kA  kA  b  2cx 
wx x L
x L

qout  kA  b  2cL    40 u 10   350  2  60   u 1 188 kW

2. The rate of change of energy storage E st in the wall may be

determined by applying an overall energy balance to the wall. Using
Equation 1.7 for a control volume about the wall

Ein  E g  E out E st

where E g qAL
 ,it follows that,

E st Ein  E g  E out   qout

qin  qAL

E st 120 , 000  1000 u 10 u 1  188, 000

E st 58 kW
3. The time rate of change of change of the temperature at any point in the
medium may be determined from the heat equation, Equation 2.19,
rewritten as wT k w 2T q

wt U C p wx 2 U Cp

From the prescribed temperature distribution, it follows that

w 2T w § wT · w
¨ ¸  b  2cx  2c 2  60  120q C m 2
wx 2 wx © wx ¹ wx

Note that this derivative is independent of position in the medium. Hence

the time rate of temperature change is also independent of position and is
given by
wT 40 1000
u  120   5.94 u104 q C s
wt 1600 u 4000 1600 u 4000

Comments:
• From the above result it is evident that the temperature at every point within
the wall is decreasing with time.
• Fourier's law can always be used to compute the conduction heat rate from
knowledge of the temperature distribution, even for unsteady conditions
with internal heat generation
 BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS
• To determine the temperature distribution in a medium, it is necessary to
solve the appropriate form of the heat equation.

• However, such a solution depends on the physical conditions existing at

the boundaries of the medium and, if the situation is time dependent, on
conditions existing in the medium at some initial time.

• Because the heat equation is second order in the spatial coordinates,

two boundary conditions must be expressed for each coordinate to
describe the system.

• Because the equation is first order in time, however, only one condition,
termed the initial condition, must be specified.

The three kinds of boundary conditions commonly encountered in heat

transfer are summarized in Table 2.1.
TABLE 2.1 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE HEAT DIFFUSION
EQUATION AT THE SURFACE(x=0)
• The conditions are specified at the surface x =0 for a one-dimensional
system.

• Heat transfer is in the positive x direction with the temperature

distribution, which may be time dependent, designated as T( x, t ) .

• The first condition corresponds to a situation for which the surface is

maintained at a fixed temperature Ts. It is commonly termed a Dirichlet
condition, or a boundary condition of the first kind.

• Example: when the surface is in contact with a melting solid or a boiling

liquid. In both cases there is heat transfer at the surface, while the surface
remains at the temperature of the phase change process.

• The second condition corresponds to the existence of a fixed or constant

heat flux q"s at the surface. This heat flux is related to the temperature
gradient at the surface by Fourier's Law, which may be expressed as

wT
q"x  k (2.21)
wx x 0
•The second condition is termed as Neumann condition, or a boundary
condition of the second kind, and may be realized by bonding a thin film or
patch electric heater to the surface.

• A special case of this condition corresponds to the perfectly insulated, or

adiabatic, surface for which wT
k 0
wx x 0

• The boundary condition of the third kind corresponds to the existence of

convection heating (or cooling) at the surface and is obtained from the
surface energy balance.